The dynamo and motor are connected to the main cable by switches of the type shown in Fig. 5. These are specially designed to destroy the extra current on breaking circuit by the formation of an arc which gradually increases the resistance till the break occurs, rendering it less sudden. One wire passes through the handle and makes contact with the springs, and the other is attached to the clamp in which the carbon rod is held. The current is made to enter at the carbon rod, so that the arcs formed cause consumption of the carbon. A magnetic cut-out—Fig. 6—is also provided to each machine; this consists of an electro-magnet, through which the main current passes, provided with side pole pieces. A flat soft iron plate armature is hinged so as to come up against the pole pieces when attracted. When the current is not sufficiently strong to cause the plate to be attracted, a hole in the center of the latter engages over a small projection in the top of a weighted arm hinged in the center of the board, and keeps it upright. If now the current exceeds the limits of safety to the machine, due to a too heavy load being thrown on, the armature is attracted and releases the vertical arm, which falls over and enters with considerable force between the two spring contacts below. These contacts are connected to the field terminals, which are, therefore, short-circuited, and prevent the dynamo generating any current. A retractile spring can be adjusted to cause cut-off at any required current. These details are indicated in our illustrations mounted on their respective switch boards.

Since the erection of plant by these works at Solothurn for transmitting 50 horse power five miles distant, which attracted so much interest some time ago, several important works have been carried out. Among these we may mention a 280 horse power transmission at 11/2 kilom. distance to a cotton mill at Derendingen in Switzerland, a 250 horse power transmission at 1/2 kilom. distance, carried out for Gaetano Rossi at Piovene in Italy, and a 300 horse transmission at 6 kilom. distance installed for Giovanni Rossi, in which the power is given off at two different stations.—The Engineer.

* * * * *



THE ADER FLOURISH OF TRUMPETS.

Although telephonic novelties are not numerous at the Universal Exposition, telephony—that quite young branch of electric science—is daily the object of curious and interesting experiments which we must make known to our readers, a large number of whom were not yet born to scientific life when the experiments were made for the first time at Paris in 1881; and it is proper to congratulate the Societe Generale des Telephones on having repeated them in 1889 to the great satisfaction of the rising generation.

We allude to the Ader system of telephonic transmissions of sounds in such a way that they can be heard by an audience.

The essential parts of this mode of transmission consist of two distinct systems—transmitters and receivers.



The transmitters are four in number, and are actuated by the same number of musicians, each humming into them his part of the quartet (Fig. 1). This transmitter, represented apart in elevation and section in Fig. 2, is identical with the one used in the curious experiment with the singing condenser. At A is a mouthpiece before which the musician hums his part as upon a reed pipe. He causes the plate, B, to vibrate in unison with the sound that he emits, and this produces periodical interruptions of varying rapidity between the disk, B, and the point, C. The button, D, serves to regulate the distance in such a way that the breakings of the circuit shall be very complete and produce sounds in the receivers as pure as allowed by this special mode of transmission, in which all the harmonics are systematically suppressed in order to re-enforce the fundamental.



This transmitter interrupter is interposed in the circuit of a battery of accumulators, with the five receivers that it actuates, in such a way that the four transmitters and five receivers form in reality four groups of distinct autonomous transmission, the accordance of which is absolutely dependent upon that of the artists who make them vibrate.

The five receivers are arranged over the front door of the telephone pavilion, near the Eiffel tower (Fig. 3). Each consists of a horseshoe magnet provided, between its branches, with two small iron cores having a space of a few millimeters between them (Fig. 4). Each of these soft iron cores carries a copper wire bobbin, N, the number of spirals of which is properly calculated for the effect to be produced. Opposite the vacant space left by the two cores, there is a small piece, t, of rectangular form, and also of soft iron, fixed to a vibrating strip of firwood, L, of about 4 inches section. The periodical breaking of the circuit produced by the transmitter causes a variation in the magnetization of the iron cores of the five receivers and makes the firwood strips vibrate energetically. These vibrations are received and poured forth as it were in front of the telephone pavilion, by large brass trumpets arranged in front of each receiver, as shown in Fig. 3.



It would be difficult for us to pass any judgment whatever upon the musical and artistic value of these transmissions of trumpet music to a distance; we prefer to confess our incompetency in the matter. But it is none the less certain that these experiments are having the same success that they had at their inception in 1881 at the Universal Exposition of Electricity, and they allow us to foresee that there is a time coming in which it will be possible to transmit speech to a distance with the same intensity that the present trumpet flourishes have. Although all the tentatives hitherto made in this direction have not given very brilliant results, we must not despair of attaining the end some day or other. Less than fifteen years ago the telephone did not exist; now it covers the world with its lines.—La Nature.



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NOTES ON DYEWOOD EXTRACTS AND SIMILAR PREPARATIONS.

By LOUIS SIEBOLD, F.I.C., F.C.S.

During the last ten years there has been an enormous increase in the production of these preparations, and the time will come when their application in dyeing and calico printing will become so general as to completely supersede the employment of the raw materials. The manufacture of these extracts, to be thoroughly successful, requires to be so conducted as to secure the perfect exhaustion of the dyewoods without the slightest destruction or deterioration of the coloring matters contained in them; and though nothing like perfection has been reached in the attainment of these objects, it is certain that the processes of extraction and evaporation now employed by the best makers are a very great improvement on the older methods. Indeed, there is no difficulty nowadays in procuring dyewood extracts of high excellence if the consumer is willing to pay a price for them corresponding to their quality, and knows how to avail himself of the aid of chemical skill to control his purchases. Unfortunately, however, there is so much hankering after cheap articles, and so little care is taken to ascertain their real quality, that every scope is afforded to the malpractices of the adulterer. There are many dye and print works in which large quantities of these extracts are used without being subjected to trustworthy tests. Moreover, much of the testing is done by fallacious methods and often by biased hands. So fallacious, indeed, are some of these tests, that grossly adulterated extracts are often declared superior to the purer ones, the cause of this being the application of an insufficient proportion of mordant in the dyeing or printing trials, and the consequent waste of the excess of coloring matter in the case of the purer preparation.

Professional analytical chemists have hitherto given but little attention to these preparations, and the employment of experienced chemists in works is as yet far from general. The testing of dyewood extracts in such a manner as to throw full light on their purity, the quality of raw material from which they are prepared, their exact commercial value their suitability for special purposes, and the proportion and nature of any adulterants they may contain, is of course a difficult and tedious task, and must be left to the expert who is in possession of authentic specimens prepared by himself of all the different extracts made from every variety and quality of raw materials, and who combines a thorough knowledge of experimental dyeing and printing with a large experience in the chemical investigation of these preparations. But when the object of the testing is merely careful comparison of the sample in question with an original sample or previous deliveries, the case is much simplified, and comes within the scope of the general chemist or the laboratory attached to works. A few years ago I recommended carefully conducted dyeing trials on woolen cloth mordanted with bichromate of potash as the best and simplest mode adapted to such cases, and my subsequent experience enables me to confirm that observation to the fullest extent. Most of these extracts contain the coloring matter in two states, the developed and the undeveloped, and an oxidizing mordant such as bichromate of potash causes the latter as well as the former to enter completely into combination with a metallic base; whereas many of the other mordants, such as alumina or tin compounds, merely take up the developed portion of the coloring matter together with such small and variable proportions of the undeveloped as might undergo oxidation during the process of dyeing. I would therefore suggest dyeing trials with alumina, tin, iron, etc., only as subsidiary tests indicating the suitability of an extract for certain special purposes, while recommending the trial with bichromate of potash as the one giving the best information respecting the actual strength of the extract in relation to the raw material from which it was obtained, and as giving a fair idea of the money value of the sample. Cotton dyeing does not, as a general rule, afford a good means of assaying extracts, as it is generally done under conditions which do not admit of complete exhaustion of the dye bath, but it might often with advantage be resorted to as an additional trial throwing further light on the degree of oxidation or development of the coloring matter. Printing trials are apt to give fallacious results unless the proportion of mordant is carefully adjusted to the amount of coloring matter present, and several trials with different proportions would be necessary to prevent erroneous conclusions. For the trials with bichromate of potash on wool I would recommend pieces of cloth weighing about 150 grains, and the most suitable proportion of bichromate of potash is 3 per cent. of the weight of the cloth. The requisite number of pieces (equal to the number of samples to be tested) should be thoroughly scoured and then heated in the bichromate solution at or near the boiling point for not less than 11/2 hours, after which they should be well washed and then dyed separately in the solutions of equal weights of the extracts at the same temperature and for the same length of time; 15 grains of extract is a suitable quantity for a first trial under these conditions. These trials can then be repeated with different relative proportions of extract in order to ascertain what weight of a sample would give the same depth of color as 15 grains of the standard example. Many precautions are required both in the mordanting and dyeing processes in order to obtain trustworthy results; and though the trials with bichromate of potash give the most reliable information of any single test, they should be supplemented by the subsidiary tests already alluded to, and also by a chemical examination, in order to obtain a knowledge, not merely of the wood strength, but also of the general nature of the extract. An adulteration with molasses or glucose can be best determined by fermentation in comparison with a pure sample. Mineral adulterants may, of course, be detected by an estimation and analysis of the ash, after making due allowances for variations due to differences in different kinds of the same dyewoods. The estimation of the individual coloring matters in these extracts by means of a chemical analysis is under all circumstances a task requiring much experience, especially as the coloring principles are associated in different qualities of each class of dyewood with different proportions of other constituents which often give much trouble to the unpracticed experimenter. Extracts made from logwood roots are now largely manufactured and often substituted or mixed with the extracts of real logwood, and have in some instances been palmed of as logwood extracts of high quality. The correct determination of such admixtures, like the fixing of anything like the exact commercial value of dyewood extracts, requires nothing less than a complete chemical investigation coupled with numerous dyeing trials in comparison with standard preparations, and should be left to an expert.

The presence in dyewood extracts of coloring matters in various stages of development has hitherto militated against their use in place of the raw materials by many dyers and printers who are still employing inherited and antiquated processes in which the whole of the coloring matter is not rendered available. It is often asserted by these that even the best of extracts fail to give anything like the results attained by the use of well-prepared woods, and that, indeed, their application proves a complete failure. Such failure, however, is simply due to the want of chemical knowledge on the part of the dyers, for there is no real difficulty in making any good and pure extract serve all the purposes for which the woods were used. It is to be hoped that in this branch of industry, as well as in many others, the employment of chemists will become more general than at present, and not be restricted, as is often the case, to young men without experience and without the trained intellect so essential to success in chemical investigations. High class chemical skill is of course available to the manufacturer, but the man of science who brings matured knowledge and valuable brain work into the business required social as well as pecuniary recognition, and the sooner and more fuller this fact is appreciated the better it will be for the maintenance and progress of our industries.

With regard to the astringent extracts, such as sumac, myrabolam, divi, valonia, quebracho, oak, etc., it is the aim of the manufacturer, whenever such extracts are intended for the purposes of dyeing and printing, to obtain the tannin in a form in which it is best calculated to fix itself upon the fiber. The case is somewhat different when the same extracts are required for tanning. For this purpose it is necessary that the extract shall have considerable permeating power, and that the tannin contained in it shall readily yield leather of the desired texture, color, and permanency. Extracts specially suited for this purpose are by no means always the most suitable for the dyer, and vice versa.

A brief description of the processes by which the astringent extracts may be tested with particular reference to their fitness for definite purposes concluded the paper.

With regard to the question as to whether experimental dyeing with bichromate of potash should be employed as a test even in works where all the dyeing was done with other mordants, he was decidedly of opinion that it should always be resorted to as one of the tests, inasmuch as it was the only simple and expeditious method giving a fair idea of the actual wood strength and money value of the extract. The test should, in such cases, be supplemented by dyeing trials with the mordants used at the works, and, if necessary, also by a chemical analysis. Printing trials were not necessarily bad tests, since oxidizing was usually added in these where it was necessary, and any undeveloped coloring matter would thus be oxidized during the steaming process: but, as he had stated before, it was essentially necessary in such cases to have a fair idea of the amount of actual coloring matter in the extract and to adjust the proportion of mordant accordingly. Such trials should therefore be preceded by carefully conducted dyeing trials with bichromate of potash. Mr. Thomson had raised the question whether it would not be well for the manufacturer to prepare these extracts in such a manner that they would contain all the coloring matter in one condition only, in order to insure greater uniformity in their quality and mode of application. This would, no doubt, be a desirable step to take if the owners of dye and print works were more in the habit of availing themselves of the service of competent chemists experienced in this branch, for then they would be able to make any extract do its full work irrespective of the state of development of the coloring matter. Such, however, was not the case, and it was a very common thing for the consumer of dyewood extracts to require the manufacturer to prepare them specially for him so as to suit his own dyeing recipes, or in other words to give exactly the same shades, weight for weight, by his own method of dyeing as the article he was in the habit of using. The manufacturer was thus often compelled to make many different qualities of the same extract to suit different customers. For the same reason adulterated articles were often preferred to the pure ones. There was, perhaps, no branch of industry in which chemical skill of a high order could be applied with greater advantage than in dyeing, and nowhere was this fact less recognized. Some of the processes of dyeing were exceedingly wasteful and stood in much need of improvement. He (Mr. Siebold) knew a large works in which a ton of logwood extract was used daily for black dyeing only, and he might safely assert that of this enormous quantity only a very small proportion would be fixed on the fiber, while by far the greater proportion was utterly wasted. Such a waste could only be prevented by a searching investigation of its causes by trained skill. Mr. Thomson had further alluded to the color obtained with logwood or logwood extract and wool mordanted with bichromate of potash, and seemed to be under the impression that the color thus obtained was not black, but blue. This was undoubtedly the case in dyeing trials performed as tests, as these were conducted purposely with a very small proportion of coloring matter in order to admit of a better comparison of the resulting depth of shades. But with larger proportions of logwood the color obtained was a fine bluish-black, and with the addition of a small proportion of fustic or quercitron bark to the logwood a jet black was readily produced. With regard to Mr. Watson Smith's observation as to fractional dyeing, he (Mr. Siebold) did not regard this method as a suitable trial for ascertaining the strength of an extract, but he admitted it was occasionally very valuable for detecting an admixture of extracts of other dyewoods, such as quercitron bark extract in logwood extract. It was also a good method of ascertaining the speed of dyeing and hence the relative proportion of fully developed coloring matter of an extract.—Jour. Soc. Chem. Industry.

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ORTHOCHROMATIC PHOTOGRAPHY.[1]

[Footnote 1: Read before the Photographic Association of Brooklyn.]

By OSCAR O. LITZKOW.

What I want to show is the manner in which the process has been tested. My employer, Mr. Bierstadt, has given me permission to show you some samples, and also his chart containing the spectrum colors: violet, indigo blue, green, yellow, orange, red, and black. This chart has been photographed in the orthochromatic and also in the ordinary way.

There are many ways of producing an orthochromatic effect; one is the use of a glass tank placed behind or in front of the lens, in which a coloring matter from either a vegetable or mineral product is placed; this tank or cell is, however, only for use in the studio, as for outdoor photography we have a colored glass screen, so as not to be bothered with carrying colored solution.

The tank is constructed as follows: Procure two pieces of best white plate glass, about 6 inches square; between these place a piece of rubber of the same size square, and about 3/8 of an inch thick. In the center of this rubber cut out a circle about 4 inches diameter, and from one of the corners to the center of the circle cut out a narrow strip 1/4 inch wide; this serves as the mouth of the tank. The two pieces of glass and the rubber are cemented together with rubber cement; then, to hold it firmly together, two brass flanges are used as a clamp, with four screws at an equal distance apart; a thin sheet of rubber is on the glass side of the flanges to prevent direct contact with the glass, the center remaining clear for the rays of light to pass through solution and glass.

One of the best orthochromatic effects made through this tank is with a three-grains-to-the-ounce solution of bichromatic of ammonia or bichromate of potassium. In this method there is no preparation used on the plate. A common rapid dry plate is exposed through this solution; the exposure, however, is about twenty times longer than it would be if you removed the tank with the yellow solution, or, in other words, if a dry-plate is exposed one minute without the yellow solution it would have to be exposed twenty minutes through a three-grain solution of bichromate of potassium or ammonia. It produces wonderful results on an oil painting or any highly colored object.

Another method, and the one best adapted for landscapes, is to bathe the plate in erythrosine and then expose it through a yellow glass screen.

As an illustration, suppose we have before us a beautiful landscape. In the foreground beautiful foliage, in the center a lake, in the distance hills, with a bluish haze appearing pleasing to the eye, also a nice sky with light clouds. Now make a plain negative, and see what has become of your clouds, hills, and the distance—not visible! Some photographers have been led to think that by underexposing they retain the distance, but they sacrifice the foreground; besides, it does not produce an orthochromatic effect.

But it is a good idea to expose longer on the foreground than you do on the distance. This can be done by raising the cap of the lens skyward and gradually shut off, giving the foreground more exposure.

Plates are prepared for orthochromatic work as follows: Take any ordinary rapid dry plate, place it in a bath containing

Distilled water 200 c.c. Strong liquid ammonia 2 c.c.

Rock it for two minutes, work as dark as you possibly can. Now take it out, and place it in the second bath for one and one-fourth minutes and keep it rocking. Have on hand for use a stock solution of

Distilled water 1,000 parts. Erythrosine "Y" brand 1 part.

Prepare second bath as follows:

Erythrosine stock solution 25 c.c. Distilled water 175 c.c. Strong water ammonia 4 c.c.

After removing the plate, dip it again face down to rinse off any particles of scum, etc., that may get in the bath accidentally. This bath may be used for one dozen 8 by 10, when it should be thrown away and fresh bath used.

After the plates come out of the last bath, they should be stood on clean blotting paper to absorb the excess of solution. I would also advise to use clean fingers. Pyro. or hypo. on the fingers is a drawback to success.

After plates have been drained, place them in a cleaned rack in an absolutely light-tight closet, with air holes so constructed as to admit air but no light; the plates will dry in from eight to twelve hours. They are best prepared in the evening, and, if the closet is good, will be dry in the morning.

After the plates are dry they may be packed face to face with nothing between them, in a double-cover paper box, and put in a dark closet free from sulphureted hydrogen gas, until ready for use. I have kept plates for three months in this way, and they were in good condition. Great care should be used in developing these plates, as they are sensitive to the red; get used to developing in a dark part of the dark room; occasionally you may look at the process of development in a little stronger light.

The exposure through the yellow screen with an erythrosine plate is about the same as if you had no orthochromatic plate—a plain plate instead—provided you are not using too dark a yellow on your screen. This can only be determined by experience. I will give to a common plate about four seconds, an orthochromatic plate under the same conditions five seconds.

The yellow glass screen is prepared as follows: Take a piece of best plate glass—common cannot be used—clean it nicely; take another large plate glass, or anything that is level and true, level it with a small spirit-level. Now take the cleaned piece of glass and coat it with

AURENTIA COLLODION.

Ether 5 oz. Alcohol 5 oz. Cotton 60 grs.

The aurentia to be added to suit your judgment; it takes a very small quantity to make an intense yellowish-red collodion. Pour it on the center of the glass, flow it to the edges, and before it sets place it on the level glass and allow it to set; when set put it in a rack to dry.

Should it dry in ridges, the collodion may be too thick, and it must be thinned down with equal parts of alcohol and ether. A single piece of plate glass, about one-eighth inch thick, coated with aurentia collodion, is all that is required with an erythrosine plate. Or, after a piece has been successfully coated, another piece of the same plate glass, and the same size, may be cemented together with balsam, having the coated aurentia side between the two glasses; the edges may then be bound with paper.

In using different colored solutions, collodion, etc., I have found that one will change the focus and the other not. With some screens you must focus with them in their positions; take away the screen, and the picture appears out of focus. I cannot fully explain why it is, and for this reason will not make the attempt; experience alone can teach it.

Another thing that has been tried lately is to do away with the yellow screen by substituting a yellow coating direct on the plate. No doubt the focus on an object that requires absolute sharpness is somewhat affected by the use of a glass. We have been successful, on a small scale, to coat the plate with the following yellow solution:

Place in a tray enough of a saturated solution of tropaeolin in wood alcohol to cover the plate; allow it to remain ten seconds. It is necessary that the plate should be bathed previously in erythrosine and dried. Before applying the tropaeolin, which, being in alcohol, dries in a few minutes, have some blotting paper on hand, as the solution gathers in a pool and leaves bad marks on the end of the plate.

The plate can be developed in the usual way. Try it and see the results.—Reported in the Beacon.

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PLATINOTYPE PRINTING.[1]

[Footnote 1: A communication to the North London Photographic Society.]

Platinotype, which may be considered to be the most artistic of photographic printing processes, may be separated into its three modifications—the hot bath and cold bath, in which a faintly visible image is developed, and the Pizzighelli printing-out paper. The hot bath process, again, may be divided into the black and white and sepia papers. I intend to give you a rough outline of the preparation of the paper and working of these modifications, concluding by demonstrating the hot bath method, and handing around prints by it.

Platinotype may almost be styled an iron printing process, for, while no trace of iron or its salts is found in the finished print, certain salts of iron are mixed with the platinum salt, which is platinum combined with two atoms of chlorine (PtCl2), as a means for readily reducing it; this, however, cannot be effected without the presence of neutral oxalate of potash, hence the use of the oxalate bath. There is no platinum in the paper for the cold bath process, it being coated with ferric oxalate mixed with a very small quantity of chloride of mercury—somewhere about one grain to an ounce of ferric oxalate solution. When dry it is ready for exposure, which is about three times less than with silver printing.

It is absolutely necessary to store all papers for platinum printing in an air-tight tin containing chloride of calcium, which must be dried by heating from time to time. For the cold bath, however, it is important to have moisture present during printing, or it may be after printing and before development. If the paper is left in a dampish room for fifteen minutes, it should be sufficient. Prints made by exposing damp paper, or damping dry paper just before development, must be developed within one hour if the maximum of vigor is desired; by delaying the development some hours, the prints in the meantime being stored in a drawer so that they may retain their moisture, an increase of half tone and warmth of color will be obtained. If it should be necessary to delay development for a day or two, the prints must be dried before a fire soon after being removed from the frames, and then stored in a calcium tube until wanted for development.

While printing, the lemon color of the paper receives a grayish colored image, which, although faint, can, with practice, be judged as easily as silver printing.

The developer consists of oxalate of potash and potassic chloro-platinite—about thirty grains of the platinum salt to half an ounce of oxalate forming about six ounces of solution; a great many variations, however, may be made in the proportions of platinum salt and oxalate, and different effects secured. Development is effected by sliding the print face downward on to the developer, which must be rocked after the development of each print to avoid scum marks. To clear the prints they are washed in three or four baths of a weak solution of hydrochloric acid after leaving the developer, to remove all traces of the iron salts, and finally washed for a quarter of an hour in three changes of water; they are then finished, and may be dried between clean blotting paper.

Pizzighelli's process differs from the above in being one that prints fully out in the frame without development; the paper contains the platinum and iron salts as well as the developer, and so prints and develops at the same time. Although excellent prints can be produced with it, for general work the results of the paper, as at present made, will not compare with the hot and cold bath processes. It is, however, excellent for printing from very dense negatives, and occasional negatives that seem extremely suitable for it. The paper should be breathed on before printing, as if it is quite dry the printing will be very slow and irregular. The best conditions for the preparation of the paper have scarcely been decided upon yet, and it is not quite fair to judge the process. The prints are cleared in the acid baths and washed for about a quarter of an hour.

The sepia and black hot bath processes are much alike in the general treatment. There are, however, some special precautions to be observed with the sepia paper, the chief being to protect it from any but the faintest rays of light; the prints, unlike the black ones, may be affected by light when in the acid bath. A special solution must be added to the developer to keep the lights pure. Over-exposure cannot be corrected by using a cooler bath, as is the case with the black prints, and the paper does not remain good so long.

The paper for the black prints by the hot bath process is washed with a mixture of potassic platinous chloride and ferric oxalate, the proportion being about sixty grains of the platinum salt to one ounce of the iron solution. It will not keep good longer than twenty minutes or so, and must be applied to the paper directly after mixing. The ferric oxalate in the paper is reduced by the action of light to ferrous oxalate, which forms the faint visible image; this, when the paper is floated on the oxalate of potash bath, is capable of reducing the platinum salt in contact with it into metallic platinum; but the ferric salt, which remains unaltered, has no action on the platinum salt, leaving these parts, which represent the high lights of the print, untouched. The ferric oxalate is removed by the acid baths which follow the development. A good temperature for development is 150 deg. Fahr., and when using this so much detail should not be apparent as when printing for the cold bath process, in which all the detail desired should be very faintly visible. There are, however, many methods of exposing the paper and developing it, and no fixed rule can be made, but the development must in every case be suited to the exposure or the result will be a failure. For instance, the paper may be printed until all detail is visible, but a very much cooler development must be used, say 80 deg. or 90 deg.; on the other hand, a slightly short exposure may be given, and a temperature of 180 deg. to 200 deg. used. 150 deg. should be taken as the normal temperature, and kept to until some experience has been gained, as employing all temperatures will lead to confusion, and nothing will be learned. Some negatives require a special treatment, and both printing and development must be altered, while for a very dense negative the paper may be left out in a dampish room for some time. It will then print with less contrast and more half tone. A thin negative is better printed by the cold bath process, but negatives should be good and brilliant for platinotype printing. Any one taking up platinotype and getting only weak prints would do well to look to his negatives instead of blaming the paper, as the high lights should be fairly dense, and the deep shadows nearly clear glass.

Time for complete development should always be allowed; with a hot bath fifteen seconds will be sufficient, but if a cooler development is used, or the prints are solarized in the shadows, more time should be allowed. When the deep shadows are solarized, or appear lighter than surrounding parts, a hot and prolonged development is required to obtain sufficient blackness, as they have a tendency to look like brown paper. I have found breathing on solarized shadows useful, as in the presence of slight moisture they begin to print out and become dark before development, getting black almost directly the print is floated on the oxalate. Three or four acid baths of about ten minutes each are used, and the prints are washed as before. The process throughout takes much less time than silver printing, and can be kept on all the winter, when it is nearly impossible to print in silver. Prints can be developed in weak daylight or gaslight, and prolonged washing is dispensed with.—N.P. Fox, reported in Br. Jour. of Photo.

* * * * *

[Continued from Supplement, No. 706, page 11283.]



ON ALLOTROPIC FORMS OF SILVER.

By M. CAREY LEA.

In the first part of this paper were described certain forms of silver; among them a lilac blue substance, very soluble in water, with a deep red color. After undergoing purification, it was shown to be nearly pure silver. During the purification by washing it seemed to change somewhat, and, consequently, some uncertainty existed as to whether or not the purified substance was essentially the same as the first product; it seemed possible that the extreme solubility of the product in its first condition might be due to a combination in some way with citric acid, the acid separating during the washing. Many attempts were made to get a decisive indication, and two series of analyses, one a long one, to determine the ratio between the silver and the citric acid present, without obtaining a wholly satisfactory result, inasmuch as even these determinations of mere ratio involved a certain degree of previous purification which might have caused a separation.

This question has since been settled in an extremely simple way, and the fact established that the soluble blue substance contains not a trace of combined citric acid.

The precipitated lilac blue substance (obtained by reducing silver citrate by ferrous citrate) was thrown on a filter and cleared of mother water as far as possible with a filter pump. Pure water was then poured on in successive portions until more than half the substance was dissolved. The residue, evidently quite unchanged, was, of course, tolerably free from mother water. It was found that by evaporating it to dryness over a water bath, most of the silver separated out as bright white normal silver; by adding water and evaporating a second time, the separation was complete, and water added dissolved no silver. The solution thus obtained was neutral. It must have been acid had any citric acid been combined originally with the silver. This experiment, repeated with every precaution, seems conclusive. The ferrous solution, used for reducing the silver citrate, had been brought to exact neutrality with sodium hydroxide. After the reduction had been effected, the mother water over the lilac blue precipitate was neutral or faintly acid.

A corroborating indication is the following: The portions of the lilac blue substance which were dissolved on the filter (see above) were received into a dilute solution of magnesium sulphate, which throws down insoluble allotropic silver of the form I have called B (see previous paper). This form has already been shown to be nearly pure silver. The magnesia solution, neutral before use, was also neutral after it had effected the precipitation, indicating that no citric acid had been set free in the precipitation of the silver.

It seems, therefore, clear that the lilac blue substance contains no combined citric acid. Had the solubility of the silver been due to combination with either acid or alkali, the liquid from which it was separated by digestion at or below 100 deg. C. must have been acid or alkaline; it could not have been neutral.

We have, therefore, this alternative: In the lilac blue substance we have either pure silver in a soluble form or else a compound of silver, with a perfectly neutral substance generated from citric acid in the reaction which leads to the formation of the lilac blue substance. If this last should prove the true explanation, then we have to do with a combination of silver of a quite different nature from any silver compounds hitherto known. A neutral substance generated from citric acid must have one or more atoms of hydrogen replaced by silver. This possibility recalls the recent observations of Ballo, who, by acting with a ferrous salt on tartaric acid, obtained a neutral colloid substance having the constitution of arabin, C6 H10 O6.

To appreciate the difficulty of arriving at a correct conclusion, it must be remembered that the silver precipitate is obtained saturated with strong solutions of ferric and ferrous citrate, sodium citrate, sulphate, etc. These cannot be removed by washing with pure water, in which the substance itself is very soluble, but must be got rid of by washing with saline solutions, under the influence of which the substance itself slowly but continually changes. Next, the saline solution used for washing must be removed by alcohol. During this treatment, the substance, at first very soluble, gradually loses its solubility, and, when ready for analysis, has become wholly insoluble. It is impossible at present to say whether it may not have undergone other change; this is a matter as to which I hope to speak more positively later. It is to be remarked, however, that these allotropic forms of silver acquire and lose solubility from very slight causes, as an instance of which may be mentioned the ease with which the insoluble form B recovers its solubility under the influence of sodium sulphate and borate, and other salts, as described in the previous part of this paper.

The two insoluble forms of allotropic silver which I have described as B and C—B, bluish green; C, rich golden color—show the following curious reaction. A film of B, spread on glass and heated in a water stove to 100 deg. C. for a few minutes becomes superficially bright yellow. A similar film of the gold colored substance, C, treated in the same way, acquires a blue bloom. In both cases it is the surface only that changes.

Sensitiveness to Light.—All these forms of silver are acted upon by light. A and B acquire a brownish tinge by some hours' exposure to sunlight. With C the case is quite different, the color changes from that of red gold to that of pure yellow gold. The experiment is an interesting one. The exposed portion retains its full metallic brilliancy, giving an additional proof that the color depends upon molecular arrangement, and this with the allotropic forms of silver is subject to change from almost any influence.

Stability.—These substances vary greatly in stability under influences difficult to appreciate. I have two specimens of the gold yellow substance, C, both made in December, 1886, with the same proportions, under the same conditions. One has passed to dazzling white, normal silver, without falling to powder, or undergoing disaggregation of any sort; the fragments have retained their shape, simply changing to a pure frosted white, remaining apparently as solid as before; the other is unchanged, and still shows its deep yellow color and golden luster. Another specimen made within a few months and supposed to be permanent has changed to brown. Complete exclusion of air and light is certainly favorable to permanence.

Physical Condition.—The brittleness of the substances B and C, the facility with which they can be reduced to the finest powder, makes a striking point of difference between allotropic and normal silver. It is probable that normal silver, precipitated in fine powder and set aside moist to dry gradually, may cohere into brittle lumps, but these would be mere aggregations of discontinuous material. With allotropic silver the case is very different, the particles dry in optical contact with each other, the surfaces are brilliant, and the material evidently continuous. That this should be brittle indicates a totally different state of molecular constitution from that of normal silver.

Specific Gravities.—The allotropic forms of silver show a lower specific gravity than that of normal silver.

In determining the specific gravities it was found essential to keep the sp. gr. bottle after placing the material in it for some hours under the bell of an air pump. Films of air attach themselves obstinately to the surfaces, and escape but slowly even in vacuo.

Taken with this precaution, the blue substance, B, gave specific gravity 9.58, and the yellow substance, C, specific gravity 8.51. The specific gravity of normal silver, after melting, was found by G. Rose to be 10.5. That of finely divided silver obtained by precipitation is stated to be 10.62.[1]

[Footnote 1: Watts' Dict., orig. ed., v. 277.]

I believe these determinations to be exact for the specimens employed. But the condition of aggregation may not improbably vary somewhat in different specimens. It seems, however, clear that these forms of silver have a lower specific gravity than the normal, and this is what would be expected.

Chestnut Hill, Philadelphia, May, 1889.

—Amer. Jour. of Science.

* * * * *



TURPENTINE AND ITS PRODUCTS.[1]

[Footnote 1: Read at a meeting of the Liverpool Chemists' Association.]

By EDWARD DAVIES, F.C.S., F.I.C.

In treating this subject it is necessary to limit it within comparatively narrow bounds, for bodies of the turpentine class are exceedingly numerous and not well understood. In this definite class turpentine means the exudation from various trees of the natural order Coniferae, consisting of a hydrocarbon, C10 H16, and a resin. The constitution of the hydrocarbons in turpentine from different sources, though identical chemically, varies physically, the boiling point ranging from 156 deg. C. to 163 deg. C., the density from 0.855 to 0.880, and the action on polarized light from -40.3 to +21.5. They are very unstable bodies in their molecular constitution, heat, sulphuric acid, and other reagents modifying their properties. The resins are also very variable bodies formed probably by oxidation of the hydrocarbons, and as this oxidation is more or less complete, mixtures are formed very difficult to separate and study.

Turpentine as met with in commerce is mainly derived from Pinus maritima, yielding French turpentine, and Pinus australis, furnishing most of the American turpentine. The latter is obtained from North and South Carolina, Georgia and Alabama. In Hanbury and Fluckiger's Pharmacographia there is a full description of the manner in which the trees are wounded to obtain the turpentine. Besides these there are Venice turpentine from the larch, Pinus Larix, Strassburg turpentine from Abies pectinata, and Canada balsam from Pinus balsamea.

The crude American turpentine is a viscid liquid of about the consistence of honey, but varying to a soft solid, known as gum, thus, according to the amount of exposure which it has undergone, it contains about 10 to 25 per cent. of "spirits," to which the name of turpentine is commonly given, the rest being resin, or as it is usually called, rosin.

In Liverpool almost all the spirits of turpentine comes from America, so that it is almost impossible to get a sample of French.

The terpene from American turpentine is called austraterebenthene. It possesses dextro-rotatory polarization of +21.5. Its density is 0.864. Boiling point 156 deg. C.

In taking the boiling point of a commercial sample of spirits it is necessary to wait until the thermometer becomes steady. Not more than 5 per cent. should pass over before this takes place, and then there is not more than two or three degrees of rise until almost all is distilled over.

The liquids of lower boiling point do not appear to have been much studied. In French spirits they seem to be of the same composition as the main product, but with more action on polarized light.

French spirits of turpentine is mainly composed of terebenthene. The boiling point and sp. gr. are the same as those of the austraterebenthene, but the polarization is left handed and amounts to -40.5.

Isomeric modifications. Heated to 300 deg. C. in a sealed tube for two hours, it becomes an isomeric compound, boiling at 175 deg. C., while the density is lowered, being only 0.8586 at 0 deg. C. The rotatory power is only -9 deg.. It oxidizes much more rapidly. It is called isoterebenthene and has a smell of essential oil of lemons.

By the action of a small quantity of sulphuric acid, among other products terebene is formed. It has the same boiling point and sp. gr. as terebenthene, but is without action on polarized light. Austraterebenthene forms similar if not identical bodies.

Polymers. One part of boron fluoride BF3 instantly converts 160 parts of terebenthene into polymers boiling above 300 deg. C., and optically inactive. H2 SO4 does the same on heating and forms diterebene C20 H32.

Terchloride of antimony does the same, and also produces tetraterebene C40H64, a solid brittle compound formed by the union of four molecules of C10 H16. It does not boil below 350 deg. C. and decomposes on heating.

Compound with H2O. Terpin C10 H18 2HO is formed when 1 volume of spirits of turpentine is mixed with 6 of nitric acid and 1 of alcohol, and exposed to air for some weeks. Crystals are formed which are pressed, decolorized by animal charcoal, and recrystallized from boiling water.

Compounds with HCl. When a slow current of HCl is passed through cooled spirits of turpentine, two isomeric compounds are formed, one solid, and one liquid. The lower the temperature is kept, the more of the solid body is produced. To obtain the solid body pure it is pressed and recrystallized from ether or alcohol. It is volatile and has the odor of camphor. It is called artificial camphor, and has the composition C10 H16 HCl. There is also a compound with 2HCl.

Oxidation products. By passing air into spirits of turpentine oxygen is absorbed. It was thought at one time that ozone was produced, but Kingzett's view is that camphoric peroxide is formed C10 H14 O4, and that in presence of water it decomposes into camphoric acid and H2 O2. This liquid constitutes the disinfectant known as "sanitas," which possesses the advantages of a pleasant smell and non-poisonous properties. C10 H18 O2 may be obtained by exposing spirits of turpentine in a flask full of oxygen with a little water.

Camphor C16 H16 O has been made in small quantity by oxidizing spirits of turpentine. Terebenthene belongs to the benzene or aromatic series, which can be shown from its connection with cymene. Cymene is methylpropyl-benzene, and can be made from terpenes by removing two atoms of H. It has not yet been converted again into terpene, but the connection is sufficiently proved. The presence of CH3 in terpenes is shown by their yielding chloroform when distilled with bleaching powder and water. The resin is imperfectly known. It was supposed to consist of picric and sylvic acids. It is also stated to contain abietic anhydride C44 H62 O4, but it is difficult to understand how a compound containing C44 can be produced from C10 H16. The most probable view is that it is the anhydride of sylvic acid, which is probably C20 H30 O2.

The dark colored resin which is obtained when the turpentine is distilled without water can be converted into a transparent slightly yellow body by distillation with superheated steam. A small portion is decomposed, but the greater part distills unchanged. It is used in making soap which will lather with sea water.

When distilled alone, various hydrocarbons, resin oil and resin pitch, are obtained.

I find that commercial spirits of turpentine varies in sp. gr. from 0.865 to 0.869 at 15 deg. C. The higher sp. gr. appears to be connected with the presence of resinous bodies, the result of oxidation. The boiling point is very uniform, ranging from 155 deg. C. to 157 deg. C. at 760 mm. Taking these two points together, it is hardly possible to adulterate spirits of turpentine without detection. I give the figures for a few imitations or adulterations:

Sp. gr. B.P. No. 1 0.821 137 deg. C. No. 2 0.884 165 deg. C. No. 3 0.815 150 deg. C. No. 4 0.895 156 deg. C.

There is a considerable difference in the flashing point, no doubt due to the longer or shorter exposure of the crude turpentine, by which more or less of the volatile portion escapes.

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ON THE OCCURRENCE OF PARAFFINE IN CRUDE PETROLEUM.[1]

[Footnote 1: An abstract of thesis by E.A. Partridge, class of '89, Univ. of Pa. Read before the Chemical Section of the Franklin Institute by Prof. S.P. Sadtler.]

It is well known that the paraffine obtained by the distillation of petroleum residues is crystalline, while that obtained directly (as in the filtration of residuum) is amorphous. Ozokerite or ceresine differs but slightly from paraffine, the principal distinction being want of crystalline structure in it as found. Other characteristics, such as the melting point, specific gravity, etc., vary in both, and so are not of importance in a comparison. Hence it has been asked, Is the paraffine occurring in petroleum and ozokerite identical with that which is produced by their distillation? As crystalline paraffine could be obtained from ozokerite by distillation alone, many persons have supposed that it was engendered in the process. Recently, however, crystalline paraffine has been obtained from ozokerite by dissolving the latter in warm amyl alcohol; on cooling the greater part separates out in crystals having the luster of mother-of-pearl. By repetition of this process, a substance is obtained that is scarcely to be distinguished from the paraffine obtained by distillation. Apparently there exists then in ozokerite, together with paraffine, other substances not capable of crystallization which keep the paraffine from crystallizing. These colloids appear to be separated by amyl alcohol in virtue of their greater solubility in that menstruum. It is also reasonable to suppose that they undergo change or decomposition by distillation.

So as petroleum residues are amorphous, and the crystalline paraffine is first produced by distillation, it has been argued that the paraffine present in crude petroleum is approximately the same thing as ozokerite.

This, however, is not sufficient to establish the pyrogenic origin of all crystallized paraffine, as crystals can be obtained from the amorphous residues by distillation at normal or reduced pressure or in a current of steam. To explain these facts two assumptions are possible. Either the chemical and physical properties of all or some of the solid constituents are changed by the distillation, and the paraffine is changed from the amorphous into the crystalline variety, or the change produced by the distillation takes place in the medium (i.e., the mother liquid) in which the paraffine exists. The change effected in ozokerite and in petroleum residues when crystalline paraffine is obtained by distillation is to be regarded as a purification, and can be effected partially by treatment with amyl alcohol. In the same way, by repeated treatment of petroleum residuum with amyl alcohol, a substance of melting point 59 deg. C. can be obtained, which cannot be distinguished from ordinary paraffine.

The treatment with amyl alcohol has therefore accomplished the same results as was obtained by distillation, and the action is probably the same, i.e., a partial separation of colloid substance. These facts point to the conclusion that crystallizable paraffine exists ready formed in both petroleum and in ozokerite, but in both cases other colloidal substances prevent its crystallization. By distillation, these colloids appear to be destroyed or changed so as to allow the paraffine to crystallize.

It is a generally known fact that liquids always appear among the products of the distillation of paraffine, no matter in what way the distillation be conducted. This shows that some paraffine is decomposed in the operation.

The name proto-paraffine has been given to ozokerite and to the paraffine of petroleum in contradistinction to pyro-paraffine, the name that has been applied to the paraffine obtained by distillation from any source.

According to Reichenbach, paraffine may crystallize in three forms: needles, angular grains, and leaflets having the luster of mother-of-pearl. Hofstadter, in an article on the identity of paraffine from different sources, confirmed this statement, and added further that at first needles, then the angular forms, and then the leaflets are formed. Fritsche found, by means of the microscope, in the ethereal solution of ozokerite, very fine and thin crystal leaflets concentrically grouped, and in the alcoholic solution fine irregular leaflets. Zaloziecki has recently developed these microscopic investigations to a much greater extent. According to this observer, the principal part of paraffine, as seen under the microscope, consists of shining stratified leaflets with a darker edge. The most characteristic and well developed crystals are formed by dissolving paraffine in a mixture of ethyl and amyl alcohols and chilling. The crystals are rhombic or hexagonal tablets or leaves, and are quite regularly formed. They are unequally developed in different varieties of paraffine. The best developed are those obtained from ceresine. Their relative size and appearance give an indication as to the purity of the paraffine, and, as they are always present, they are to be counted among the characteristic tests for paraffine. Reichenbach observed that mere traces of empyreumatic oil prevented their formation.

The old method of determining the amount of paraffine in petroleum was to carry out the refining process on a small scale; that is, to distill the residue from the kerosene oils to coking, chill out the paraffine, press it thoroughly between filter paper, and weigh the residue. The sources of error in this procedure are manifold; the principal one is the solubility of paraffine in oils, which depends upon the character of both the paraffine and the oil, and also upon the temperature. The next greatest source of error is variation in the process of distillation and the difference between working on the small scale and on the large scale.

In most cases, where a paraffine determination is to be carried out, one has to deal with a mixture of paraffine with liquid oils. Now, paraffine is not a substance defined by characteristic physical properties which distinguish it from the liquid portions of petroleum. It consists of a mixture of homologous hydrocarbons, which form a solid under ordinary conditions. The hydrocarbons of this mixture show a gradation in their properties, and gradually approximate to those which are liquid at ordinary temperatures. It is a well known fact that a separation of these homologues is entirely impossible by distillation. It has also been ascertained that the liquid constituents of petroleum do not always possess boiling points that are lower than those of the solid constituents. This shows that we have to deal not merely with hydrocarbons of one, but of several series.

When determinations of the amount of paraffine are to be made, then it becomes necessary to specify with exactness what is to be called paraffine. The most definite property that can be made use of for this purpose is the melting point. For several reasons it is convenient to include under this name hydrocarbons of melting point as low as 35 deg.-40 deg. C.

The method proposed by Zaloziecki for the determination of paraffine is the following: The most volatile portions of the petroleum are separated by distillation, until the thermometer shows 200 deg. C. These portions are separated, as they exert great solvent action upon paraffine. At the same time he finds that no pyro-paraffine is formed under this temperature. A weighed portion of the residue is taken and mixed with ten parts by weight of amyl alcohol and ten parts of seventy-five per cent. ethyl alcohol: the mixture is then chilled for twelve hours to 0 deg. C. It is then filtered cold, washed first with a mixture of amyl and ethyl alcohols, and then with ethyl alcohol alone. The paraffine is transferred to a small porcelain evaporating dish and dried at 110 deg. C. It is then heated with concentrated sulphuric acid to 150 deg.-160 deg. C. for fifteen to thirty minutes with constant stirring. The acid is then neutralized and the paraffine extracted by petroleum ether. On evaporation of the solvent, the paraffine is dried at 100 deg. C. and weighed. Zaloziecki found, according to this method, in three samples of Galician petroleums, 4.6, 5.8 and 6.5 per cent., respectively, of proto-paraffine. The method was carried out as above with four samples of American petroleums, Colorado oil from Florence, Col.; Warren County oil from Wing Well, Warren, Pa.; Washington oil from Washington County, Pa.; Middle District oil from Butler County, Pa., all furnished by Professor Sadtler.

They were very different in physical properties and in appearance, the Colorado oil being a much heavier oil than the others and the Washington oil being an amber oil, while the other two were of the ordinary dark green color and consistence. The losses on distillation to 200 deg. C. were very different, being about one-tenth in the case of the Colorado oil and nearly one-half in the case of the others. The percentages of partially refined proto-paraffine in the four reduced oils (all below 200 deg. C. off) were as follows: for the Colorado oil, 23.9 per cent.; for the Warren oil, 26.5 per cent.; for the Washington oil, 26.6 per cent.; and for the Middle District oil, 28.2 per cent.

The question now arises, What value has this determination of the proto-paraffine which may exist in an oil? As before said, a portion of the paraffine is always decomposed in distillation at temperatures sufficiently high to drive over the paraffine oils, so the yield of pyro-paraffine is always less than the proto-paraffine shown to be present originally. Zaloziecki found this in the case of the several Galician oils he examined. Corresponding to the 4.6, 5.8 and 6.5 per cent. of proto-paraffine in the several oils he obtained 2.18, 2.65 and 2.35 per cent., respectively, of pyro-paraffine.

For the present, however, the extraction of proto-paraffine on a large scale by means of such solvents as amyl and ethyl alcohols is out of the question on account of their cost. A distillation, under reduced pressure and with superheated steam, would, however, prevent much of the decomposition of the original proto-paraffine and increase the yield of pyro-paraffine.

This study of Zaloziecki's method and the examination of American oils was suggested by Professor Sadtler and carried out in his laboratory.

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TRANSMISSION OF PRESSURE IN FLUIDS.

By ALBERT B. PORTER.

The young student of physics occasionally has difficulty in grasping the laws of pressure in fluids. His every day experience has taught him that a push against a solid body causes it to push in the same direction, and he often receives with some doubt the statement that pressure applied to a fluid is transmitted equally in every direction. The experiments ordinarily shown in illustration of this principle prove that pressure is transmitted in all directions, but do not prove the equality of transmission, and in spite of all the text books may tell him, the student is apt to cling to the idea that a downward pressure applied to a liquid is more apt to burst the bottom than the side of the containing vessel.



The little piece of apparatus shown in Fig. 1 was designed to furnish a clear demonstration of the principle under consideration. It is essentially an arrangement by which a downward pressure is applied to a confined mass of air or water, and the resultant pressures measured in the three directions, down, up, and sideways. By means of a broken rat tail file kept wet with turpentine three holes are bored through a bottle, one through the bottom, one through the side, and one through the shoulder, as near the neck as may be convenient. The operation is quick and easy, the only precaution to be observed being to work very slowly and use but a slight pressure when the glass is nearly perforated. The holes may be enlarged to any size required by careful filing with the wet file. From each of the holes a rubber tube leads to one of the glass manometer tubes at the right in the figure, the joints being made air tight by slipping into each rubber tube a piece of glass tubing about half an inch long in order to swell it to the size of the hole it is to fit. The ends of these glass tubes must be well rounded by partial fusion in a gas flame, that there may be no sharp edges to cut the rubber. The bottle rests in a depression in the turned wood base, the lower rubber tube passing out through a hole in the wood. Fig. 2 shows the shape of the manometer tubes. They are made of quarter inch glass tubing bent to shape in a flame and left open at both ends. They are mounted on a scale board which has several equidistant horizontal lines running across it. The two bent wires which support the scale board fit loosely in holes in it and in the base. This method of mounting is very handy, since it permits the scale board to be swung to right or left as may be convenient, or turned round so as to show the fittings on its back, without moving the bottle. The three manometers are filled to the same level with mercury, the quantity being adjusted by means of a pipette. A perforated rubber stopper, fitted with a glass tube on which is slipped a rubber syringe bulb, completes the apparatus.

When the bulb is pinched between the fingers, the mercury is forced up to the same height in each of the manometers, thus proving that the pressure is exerted equally in the three directions, up, down, and sideways. With the bottle filled with water the same effect follows, the law being the same for liquids and gases. When using water in the apparatus it is essential that the rubber tubes, as well as the bottle, be filled, and when used in the class room it is better to show the experiment with water first, it being easier and quicker to empty the bottle and tubes than to fill them.

* * * * *



PEAR DUCHESSE D'ANGOULEME.

Although well known to fruit growers and generally represented in all parts of Britain, this noble French pear has not become a universal favorite. If the quality of the fruit, independently of its fine, handsome appearance, was bad, or even indifferent, it might be exterminated from our lists, but this we know is not the case, as any one who has tasted good samples grown in France, the Channel Islands, and upon favorable soils in this country will bear out the statement that the flavor is superb. Some fruits, we know, are quite incapable of being good, as they have no quality in them; but here we have one of the hardiest of trees, capable of giving us quantity as well as quality, provided we cultivate properly. Pears, no doubt, are capricious, like our seasons, but given a good average year, soils and stocks which suit them, a light, warm, airy aspect, and good culture, a great number of varieties formerly only good enough for stewing are now elevated, and most deservedly so, to the dessert table. But, assuming that some sorts known to be good do not reach their highest standard of excellence every year, they are infinitely superior to many of the old stewers, as they carry their own sugar, a quality which fits them for consumption by the most delicate invalids. Indeed, so prominently have choice dessert pears, and apples too for that matter, come to the front for cooking purposes, that a new demand is now established, and although Duchesse d'Angouleme, always juicy and sweet, from bad situations does not always come up to the fine quality met within Covent Garden in November, it is worthy of our skill, as we know it has all the good points of a first rate pear when properly ripened.

The original tree of this pear was observed by M. Anne Pierre Andusson, a nurseryman at Angers, growing in a farm garden near Champigne, in Anjou, and having procured grafts of it, he sold the trees, in 1812, under the name of Poire des Eparannais. In 1820, he sent a basket of the fruit to the Duchesse d'Angouleme, with a request to be permitted to name the pear in honor of her. The request was granted, and the pear has since borne its present name.

That such a fine pear, which does so well in France, would soon find its way to England there exists little doubt, as we find that within a few years it became established and well known throughout the United Kingdom. All the earliest trees would be worked upon the pear or free stock, and as root pruning until recently was but little practiced, we may reasonably suppose that the majority of them are deeply anchored in clay, marl, and other subsoils calculated to force a crude, gross growth from which high flavored fruit could not be expected. These defects under modern culture upon the quince and double grafting are giving way, as we find, on reference to the report of the committee of the pear conference, held at Chiswick in 1885, that twenty counties in England, also Scotland, Ireland, and Wales, contributed no less than 121 dishes to the tables, and thirty-eight growers voted in favor of the Duchesse being recognized as one of our standard dessert varieties. This step looks like progress, as it is a record of facts which cannot be gainsaid, and it now remains to be seen whether the English grower, whose indomitable will has brought him to the front in the subjugation of other fruits, will be successful with the fine Duchesse d'Angouleme. Although this remarkable pear cannot easily be mistaken, for the benefit of those who do not know it, the following description may not be out of place. Fruit large, often very large, 31/2 inches wide and 3 inches to 4 inches high, roundish obovate, uneven, and bossed in its outline. Skin greenish yellow, changing to pale dull yellow, covered with veins and freckles of pale brown russet, and when grown against a south wall it acquires a brown cheek. Eye open, with erect dry segments, set in a deep irregular basin. Stalk 1 inch long, inserted in a deep irregular cavity. Flesh white, buttery, and melting, with a rich flavor when well ripened; otherwise rather coarse grained and gritty.

As to culture, experienced fruitists say the tree grows vigorously and well. It bears abundantly, and succeeds either on the pear or quince stock, forming handsome pyramids, but is better on the quince. Here, then, we have the key to the secret of success: The cordon on the quince; roots near the surface; loam, sound, sandy, and good; and good feeding. Aspect, a good wall facing south or west—the latter, perhaps, the best. Those who have not already done so, should try trees on the quince as pyramids and bushes, as this, like some other capricious pears, although the fruit be smaller, may put in better flavor than is met with in fruit from hot walls.—The Garden.

* * * * *



SUCCESSION OF FOREST GROWTHS.

The following is from an address delivered by Mr. Robert Douglas before the Association of American Nurserymen at the meeting in Chicago recently.

It is the prevailing and almost universal belief that when native forests are destroyed they will be replaced by other kinds, for the simple reason that the soil has been impoverished of the constituents required for the growth of that particular tree or trees. This I believe to be one of the fallacies handed down from past ages, taken for granted, and never questioned. Nowhere does the English oak grow better than where it grew when William the Conqueror found it at the time he invaded Britain. Where do you find white pines growing better than in parts of New England where this tree has grown from time immemorial? Where can you find young redwoods growing more thriftily than among their giant ancestors, nearly or quite as old as the Christian era?

The question why the original growth is not reproduced can best be answered by some illustrations. When a pine forest is burned over, both trees and seeds are destroyed, and as the burned trees cannot sprout from the stump like oaks and many other trees, the land is left in a condition well suited for the germination of tree seeds, but there are no seeds to germinate. It is an open field for pioneers to enter, and the seeds which arrive there first have the right of possession. The aspen poplar (Populus tremuloides) has the advantage over all other trees. It is a native of all our northern forests, from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Even fires cannot eradicate it, as it grows in moist as well as dry places, and sprouts from any part of the root. It is a short-lived tree, consequently it seeds when quite young and seeds abundantly; the seeds are light, almost infinitesimal, and are carried on wings of down. Its seeds ripen in spring, and are carried to great distances at the very time when the ground is in the best condition for them. Even on the dry mountain sides in Colorado, the snows are just melting and the ground is moist where they fall.

To grow this tree from seed would require the greatest skill of the nurseryman, but the burnt land is its paradise. Wherever you see it on high, dry land you may rest assured that a fire has been there. On land slides you will not find its seeds germinating, although they have been deposited there as abundantly as on the burned land.

Next to the aspen and poplars comes the canoe birch, and further north the yellow birch, and such other trees as have provision for scattering their seeds. I have seen acorns and nuts germinating in clusters on burned lands in a few instances. They had evidently been buried there by animals and had escaped the fires. I have seen the red cherry (Prunus Pennsylvanica) coming up in great quantities where they might never have germinated had not the fires destroyed the debris which covered the seed too deeply.

A careful examination around the margin of a burned forest will show the trees of surrounding kinds working in again. Thus by the time the short-lived aspens (and they are very short-lived on high land) have made a covering on the burned land, the surrounding kinds will be found re-established in the new forest, the seeds of the conifers, carried in by the winds, the berries by the birds, the nuts and acorns by the squirrels, the mixture varying more or less from the kinds which grew there before the fire.

It is wonderful how far the seeds of berries are carried by birds. The waxwings and cedar birds carry seeds of our tartarean honeysuckles, purple barberries and many other kinds four miles distant, where we see them spring up on the lake shore, where these birds fly in flocks to feed on the juniper berries. It seems to be the same everywhere. I found European mountain ash trees last summer in a forest in New Hampshire; the seed must have been carried over two miles as the crow flies.

While this alternation is going on in the East, and may have been going on for thousands of years, the Rocky Mountain district is not so fortunate. When a forest is burned down in that dry region, it is doubtful if coniferous trees will ever grow again, except in some localities specially favored. I have seen localities where short-lived trees were dying out and no others taking their places. Such spots will hereafter take their places above the timber line, which seems to me to be a line governed by circumstances more than by altitude or quality of soil.

There are a few exceptions where pines will succeed pines in a burned-down forest. Pinus Murrayana grows up near the timber line in the Rocky Mountains. This tree has persistent cones which adhere to the trees for many years. I have counted the cones of sixteen years on one of these trees, and examined burned forests of this species, where many of the cones had apparently been bedded in the earth as the trees fell. The heat had opened the cones and the seedlings were growing up in myriads; but not a conifer of any other kind could be seen as far as the fire had reached.

In the Michigan Peninsula, northern Wisconsin and Minnesota, P. Banksiana, a comparatively worthless tree, is replacing the valuable red pine (P. resinosa), and in the Sierras P. Murrayana and P. tuberculata are replacing the more valuable species by the same process.

In this case, also, the worthless trees are the shortest lived. So we see that nature is doing all that she can to remedy the evil. Man only is reckless, and especially the American man. The Mexican will cut large limbs off his trees for fuel, but will spare the tree. Even the poor Indian, when at the starvation point, stripping the bark from the yellow pine (P. ponderosa), for the mucilaginous matter being formed into sap wood, will never take a strip wider than one third the circumference of the tree, so that its growth may not be injured.

We often read that oaks are springing up in destroyed forests where oaks had never grown before. The writers are no doubt sincere, but they are careless. The only pine forests where oaks are not intermixed are either in land so sandy that oaks cannot be made to grow on them at all, or so far north that they are beyond their northern limit. In the Green Mountains and in the New England forests, in the pine forests in Pennsylvania, in the Adirondacks, in Wisconsin and Michigan—except in sand—I have found oaks mixed with the pines and spruces. In northwestern Minnesota and in northern Dakota the oaks are near their northern limit, but even there the burr oak drags on a bare existence among the pines and spruces. In the Black Hills, in Dakota, poor, forlorn, scrubby burr oaks are scattered through the hills among the yellow pines. In Colorado we find them as shrubs among the pines and Douglas spruces. In New Mexico we find them scattered among the pinons. In Arizona they grow like hazel bushes among the yellow pines. On the Sierra Nevada the oak region crosses the pine region, and scattering oaks reach far up into the mountains. Yet oaks will not flourish between the one hundredth meridian and the eastern base of the Sierras, owing to the aridity of the climate. I recently found oaks scattered among the redwoods on both sides of the Coast Range Mountains.

Darwin has truly said, "The oaks are driving the pines to the sands." Wherever the oak is established—and we have seen that it is already established whereever it can endure the soil and climate—there it will remain and keep on advancing. The oak produces comparatively few seeds. Where it produces a hundred, the ash and maple will yield a thousand, the elm ten thousand, and many other trees a hundred thousand. The acorn has no provision for protection and transportation like many tree seeds. Many kinds are furnished with wings to float them on the water and carry them in the air. Nearly every tree seed, except the acorn, has a case to protect it while growing, either opening and casting the seeds off to a distance when ripe or falling with them to protect them till they begin to germinate. Even the equally large seeds of other kinds are protected in some way. The hickory nut has a hard shell, which shell itself is protected by a strong covering until ripe. The black walnut has both a hard shell and a fleshy covering. The acorn is the only seed I can think of which is left by nature to take care of itself. It matures without protection, falls heavily and helplessly to the ground, to be eaten and trodden on by animals, yet the few which escape and those which are trodden under are well able to compete in the race for life. While the elm and maple seeds are drying up on the surface, the hickories and the walnuts waiting to be cracked, the acorn is at work with its coat off. It drives its tap root into the earth in spite of grass, and brush, and litter. No matter if it is shaded by forest trees so that the sun cannot penetrate, it will manage to make a short stem and a few leaves the first season, enough to keep life in the root, which will drill in deeper and deeper. When age or accident removes the tree which has overshadowed it, then it will assert itself. Fires may run over the land, destroying almost everything else, the oak will be killed to the ground, but it will throw up a new shoot the next spring, the root will keep enlarging, and when the opportunity arrives it will make a vigorous growth, in proportion to the strength of the root, and throw out strong side roots, and after that care no more for its tap root, which has been its only support, than the frog cares for the tail of the tadpole after it has got on its own legs.

There is no mystery about the succession of forest growths, nothing in nature is more plain and simple. We cannot but admire her wisdom, economy, and justness, compensating in another direction for any disadvantage a species may have to labor under. Every kind of tree has an interesting history in itself. Seeds with a hard shell, or with a pulpy or resinous covering which retards their germination, are often saved from becoming extinct by these means.

The red cedar (Juniperus Virginiana) reaches from Florida to and beyond Cape Cod; it is among the hills of Tennessee, through the Middle States and New England. It is scattered through the Western States and Territories, at long distances apart, creeping up the Platte River, in Nebraska. (I found only three in the Black Hills, in Dakota, in an extended search for the different trees which grow there. Found only one in a long ramble in the hills at Las Vegas, New Mexico.) Yet this tree has crept across the continent, and is found here and there in a northwesterly direction between the Platte and the Pacific Coast. It is owing to the resinous coating which protects its seeds that this tree is found to-day scattered over that immense region.

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[NATURE.]



THE "HATCHERY" OF THE SUN-FISH.

I have thought that an example of the intelligence (instinct?) of a class of fish which has come under my observation during my excursions into the Adirondack region of New York State might possibly be of interest to your readers, especially as I am not aware that any one except myself has noticed it, or, at least, has given it publicity.

The female sun-fish (called, I believe, in England, the roach or bream) makes a "hatchery" for her eggs in this wise. Selecting a spot near the banks of the numerous lakes in which this region abounds, and where the water is about 4 inches deep, and still, she builds, with her tail and snout, a circular embankment 3 inches in height and 2 thick. The circle, which is as perfect a one as could be formed with mathematical instruments, is usually a foot and a half in diameter; and at one side of this circular wall an opening is left by the fish of just sufficient width to admit her body, thus:



The mother sun-fish, having now built or provided her "hatchery," deposits her spawn within the circular inclosure, and mounts guard at the entrance until the fry are hatched out and are sufficiently large to take charge of themselves. As the embankment, moreover, is built up to the surface of the water, no enemy can very easily obtain an entrance within the inclosure from the top; while there being only one entrance, the fish is able, with comparative ease, to keep out all intruders.

I have, as I say, noticed this beautiful instinct of the sun-fish for the perpetuity of her species more particularly in the lakes of this region; but doubtless the same habit is common to these fish in other waters.

William L. Stone.

Jersey City Heights, N.J.

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ANCIENT LAKE DWELLINGS.

Among the many traces which man has left of his existence in long past ages on the face of the earth, says a correspondent of the Scotsman, none are more interesting and instructive than the lake dwellings of Switzerland and other countries, which have been discovered within the last fifty years or so. Although these relics of the past are far more modern than those which we referred to in a late article on "Primeval Man," and are probably included within the range of Egyptian and other chronologies, yet they stretch far beyond the historic period, so far as Europe is concerned, and throw a flood of light on the habits of our ancestors, or at any rate predecessors, in these regions. We are tolerably well acquainted with the history of the Jews when David worked his way up from the shepherd's staff to the royal scepter, or when Joshua drove out the Canaanites and took possession of their land, but of what was going on in Europe in these times we have hitherto had no knowledge whatever. These lake dwellings, however, were in all probability inhabited by human beings somewhere about the time when the events we have referred to took place, and may have been inhabited before the earlier of them.

The first hint we had of the existence of these remarkable dwellings was obtained in 1829, when an excavation was being made on the shore of a Swiss lake. Some wooden piles, apparently very old, and other antiquities were found by the workmen. Not much attention, however, was paid to this discovery till 1854, when a Mr. Aeppli drew attention to some remains of human handiwork found near his house, in part of the bed of a lake which had been left dry during a season of great drought. The workmen employed in recovering some land from the lake found the heads of a great many wooden piles protruding through the mud, and also a number of stags' horns, and implements of various descriptions. Stimulated by this discovery, search was made in various lakes, and the result was truly astonishing. In every direction remains of the habitations of prehistoric man were discovered, and relics were found in such abundance that the history of this unknown past could be traced through long ages, and the habits of the people ascertained with a very considerable amount of probability. The details are so numerous that it would be impossible in the space at our disposal to go into them all.

Of course, during the long time that has elapsed since these structures were erected, their remains have been reduced to mere ruins, and it is only by comparing one with another that we are able to picture to ourselves what they were originally like and what sort of life was led by the men who inhabited them. The oldest of these dwellings belong to the stone age, when man had not acquired any knowledge of the use of metal; when all his instruments were merely sharpened stones, fixed in wooden handles, or pieces of bone, horn, or other natural material. They are therefore somewhat roughly finished, but at the same time exhibit considerable ingenuity and skill. The method of construction seems to have been somewhat as follows: A suitable situation, not far from the shore, where the water was not very deep, having been fixed upon, these prehistoric builders drove into the muddy bottom of the lake a number of piles or long stakes, arranged generally pretty close together, and in some sort of regular order. These piles were formed generally from stems of trees, with the bark on, but occasionally from split wood. The ends were sharpened to a point by the aid of fire or by cutting with stone axes. On a sufficient number being driven in, and their upper ends brought to a level above the surface of the water, platform beams were laid across, fastened by wooden pegs, or in some cases fixed into notches cut in the heads of the vertical piles. The platform was generally very roughly made, just a series of unbarked stems placed side by side and covered with layers of earth or clay, with numerous openings through which refuse of all kinds fell into the water beneath. In many cases connection with the shore was made by means of a narrow bridge or gangway, constructed in the same manner. On this rude platform huts were erected by driving small piles or stakes which projected above the floor, and to these were fastened boards standing edgeways like the skirting of our ordinary rooms, and marking out the size of each building. The walls of the huts were formed of small branches of twigs interwoven and plastered over with clay. The roof was made of straw or reeds like a thatched cottage. In size these huts were probably eighteen to twenty feet long, eight or ten feet broad, and about six feet high. They may have been divided into rooms, but there is no evidence of this. Each was provided with a hearth formed of three or four slabs of stone. The number of huts in each settlement must have been considerable, in fact, they must have formed villages of no mean extent, for as many as forty, fifty, or even a hundred thousand piles have been found spread over a large extent of ground, forming the foundation of one such settlement. It is probable, however, that these were not so numerous when first erected, but were gradually added to as the population increased. This fact, along with many others, shows that these dwellings were inhabited for long periods of time, during which the population pursued their ordinary life in comparative peace and quietness in their island homes.

Such is, in brief, a general account of these remarkable structures. Of course there were several variations in the methods of fixing these piles, one of which may be mentioned as showing the ingenuity of the builders. Where the piles did not get a firm hold of the lake bottom, they carried out in boats or rafts loads of stones, which they threw down between the piles, thus firmly fixing them, just as modern engineers sometimes do for a similar purpose. As to the habits of the people who dwelt in these lake dwellings, we get a considerable amount of information from the various implements, refuse, etc., which fell through the imperfectly closed platforms into the lake, and which have been preserved in the mud at the bottom. They were fishers, hunters, shepherds, and agriculturists. Skeletons of fish are found in large abundance, and in some settlements even the fishing nets, and hooks made of boar's tusks, have been discovered. Then again there is an abundance of remains of the hunter's feast; bones of the stag, wild boar, bear, wolf, otter, squirrel, and many other wild animals are found in rich profusion, and often these are split and the marrow extracted. These ancient men, however, did not entirely rely on such precarious provision for their wants, but were so far advanced in civilization that they kept cattle and domestic animals of various kinds. They possessed dogs in great numbers, as well as cows, sheep, goats, and pigs, and in winter time had these housed on their settlements, as among the remains found are litters of straw, etc., which had evidently served as bedding for these animals. This, of course, necessitated the gathering of grass or other material for their food. They also cultivated wheat, barley, flax, and a number of other vegetable products. Their methods of cultivation were no doubt very rude, consisting of a mere scratching of the ground with crooked branches of trees or with simple instruments made of stags' horn; but, nevertheless, they succeeded in getting very good results. Among the relics which they have left are found stones for crushing corn, the grain which they used, and even the very cakes or bread which they made. There are also fruits, such as the apple, pear, nut, etc.; so that the bill of fare of prehistoric man was by no means contemptible. He had fish, game, beef, mutton, pork, bread, and fruit, besides a plentiful supply of water from the lake at his door. He was acquainted with the potter's art, and manufactured earthen vessels of various kinds. He seems to have produced two kinds—a coarser and a finer; the former made from clay mixed with a quantity of grains of stone, and the latter of washed loam. These he ornamented in an elementary fashion with certain lines and marks. Some of the vessels he used have been found with a burnt crust of the porridge which he had been making adhering. As to his clothes, these were probably formed in great part from the skins of wild or domestic animals, but he also used fabrics made from flax, which he had learned to weave, as remains of cloth, twine, rope, etc., are not infrequently found in his dwellings.

One prominent feature in the history of these lake dwellers is their gradual advance in the arts of civilization. While the main features of their settlements remain very much the same during the whole period of their residence, there is a gradual improvement in the details; the settlements become larger, and the implements, etc., better finished. And this is especially observable in the change of material which the dweller uses. In the earlier stages of his existence stone is the predominant feature, all his knives, saws, chisels, axes, etc., are made from this substance; but as time rolls on, one or two implements are found made of bronze, which is a mixture of tin and copper, and requires for its production a certain amount of knowledge and mechanical skill. Gradually the number of bronze implements increases until eventually stone is superseded altogether, and improved forms of weapons of war make their appearance, and his work has a more finished look, arising from his improved implements. Whether the manufacture of bronze was an original discovery of his own, or whether it was an importation from some more advanced race, is not certainly known; but as he undoubtedly had intercourse with the East, it is probable that the first bronze was imported, and that afterward he discovered the way to manufacture it himself. However this may be, it seems evident that the introduction of this material greatly aided his development. As stone gave place to bronze, so in the course of time this latter gave place to iron, probably introduced in the same manner some considerable time before the dawn of history; and this metal held its place until these habitations were finally abandoned.

With regard to the religion of these lake dwellers, if they had any, nothing is known. From some curious objects formed somewhat like the crescent of the moon, which are found in considerable numbers, it has been supposed that they worshiped that body; but there seems to be really no evidence for this supposition, and these objects may only have been ornaments, or perhaps charms, fixed above the doors of their huts something after the manner of the horse shoe nailed over the door in modern times to keep away evil spirits. So far as can be inferred from the remains that have been examined, the same race seems to have inhabited these dwellings from their commencement to their end. There is no appearance of invasion from without; all seems continuous. Probably his race came in early time from the East, and were a pastoral people, with flocks, herds, and domestic animals, and built their peculiar habitations to protect themselves from human enemies. Certainly the arrangements were well fitted for the purpose in those days, when the club and the spear were almost the only weapons of offense. Dr. Keller, who has investigated this subject with great care, is of the opinion that these lake dwellers were a branch of the great Celtic race.

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[New England Farmer.]



HOW TO RAISE TURKEYS.

The best feed for young turkeys and ducks is yelks of hard-boiled eggs, and after they are several days old the white may be added. Continue this for two or three weeks, occasionally chopping onions fine and sometimes sprinkling the boiled eggs with black pepper; then give rice, a teacupful with enough milk to just cover it, and boil slowly until the milk is evaporated. Put in enough more to cover the rice again, so that when boiled down the second time it will be soft if pressed between the fingers. Milk must not be used too freely, as it will get too soft and the grains will adhere together. Stir frequently when boiling. Do not use water with the rice, as it forms a paste and the chicks cannot swallow it. In cold, damp weather, a half teaspoonful of Cayenne pepper in a pint of flour, with lard enough to make it stick together, will protect them from diarrhea. This amount of food is sufficient for two meals for seventy-five chicks. Give all food in shallow tin pans. Water and boiled milk, with a little lime water in each occasionally, is the best drink until the chicks are two or three months old, when loppered and buttermilk may take the place of the boiled milk. Turkeys like best to roost on trees, and in their place artificial roots may be made by planting long forked locust poles and laying others across the forks.—American Agriculturist.