A similar phenomenon is to be observed in the blind crab (Cambaras pellucidus), which is also found in the Mammoth Cave, for in this being, according to Professor Von Leydig, the little warts on the interior feelers, which constitute the organ of smell, have also received an abnormal development.



Better known than the blind fish and the blind crab of Kentucky is the Proteus anguineus, a kind of salamander, of a pale rose color, endowed with gills and found in the Adelsberg grotto in Austria. (Fig. 1.)

This amphibium has an eye which lies very deep in the body and is almost overgrown by the skin. But this eye is by no means as developed as the organ of vision, for instance, of the water salamander (the triton) or of the so-called axolotl, for it exists only in a kind of embryonic development, and contains neither a vitreous humor nor a lens for the refraction of the rays of light. As, however, the nerve of vision exists, it is possible that this salamander may be able to discern in some manner between light and darkness.

The thinking student, when discovering such imperfect organs of sight, will naturally ask how the eye of this salamander, which is so useless for its real purpose, has come into existence, and he will weigh the comparative value of the two following explanations. It may be assumed that there existed once in the Adelsberg grotto a salamander which was absolutely blind, and in which, in consequence of an innate power of evolution, an organ of vision of the lowest kind was gradually formed. But to this assumption the objection may be raised at once, why nature should have produced an organ of vision in an animal living in a grotto, where such an organ is absolutely useless, and where such a development would be quite as paradoxical and improbable as, for instance, the development of fins instead of legs in an animal living on dry land.

On the other hand, one may suppose, and this is the more probable explanation, that the Proteus anguineus is descended from a kind of salamander, which possessed perfectly developed eyes in the beginning, and that the imperfect organ of vision in the descendants living in the dark caves is the result of gradual degeneration. This is the more likely to be true as in many other cases, also, we find that organs which become useless and cannot be employed have gradually degenerated.

Our common mole furnishes an example. Its eyes also have become small and are deeply hidden in the muscles, although they are by no means as much degenerated as in the Proteus anguineus, and are still possessed of a lens and a retina. Their nerve of vision, however, has become very imperfect, and its connection with the brain is interrupted, so that the animal for this reason can have no perception of light. Notwithstanding the above, however, it is doubtful whether the degeneration and gradual disappearance of the visual organ is in all cases the result of their being no longer employed, since there exists in dark caves a kind of beetle, the Machaerites, in which species the female only is blind, while the male has a well developed organ of sight. In this case it cannot be maintained that the absence of light has been the cause of the blindness of the female beetle, because it would have acted equally upon the male. Nevertheless, no other explanation can be found for the blindness. The problem, therefore, is hitherto unsolved.

Of late the investigations of naturalists have been extended to the animal life existing not only in grottoes and caves, but also in mines and pits created by the action of man, and this has led to many interesting discoveries and remarkable results. A naturalist who has especially enlarged our knowledge with regard to the subterraneous fauna and flora is Dr. Robert Schneider, of Berlin, who made his studies in the coal mines near Waldenburg and Altwasser, in Silesia, the salt mines of Stassfurt and the metal mines of Klausthal, in the Upper Harz Mountains.



As regards the subterraneous flora, Dr. Schneider's investigations resulted in showing that the plants which thrive in the dark regions under ground are those which possess no chlorophyl and are sensitive to light. Those which vegetate most luxuriantly there are the fungi, and among them especially the pyrenomycetes, which are frequent in the waters of mines. Their general aspect is shown in a 480 times magnified form in Fig. 2. They resemble fine threads of delicate structure, and where found are always discovered in great abundance. Most conspicuous by their shape and considerable size are the rhizomorph, Fig. 3a, and they are remarkable, not only for their brilliant phosphorescence, but also for the peculiar fact that they are only found in places where light does not enter. These rhizomorph, though this is not easily recognizable from their external appearance, also belong to the fungi and are often seen in strings of the length of over a meter and the thickness of a quill, spreading out in peculiar branches and hanging down from moist beams in dark places. Sometimes they grow like seaweed in the water of the mines, and in this case they give much embarrassment to the miners, because they are apt to obstruct the channels constructed for leading off the superfluous water. In the mines of Freiberg these rhizomorph exist in great abundance, and Humboldt already mentions specimens of the length of 4 feet. Miners in Germany call them zwirn (thread). The student of natural sciences, when encountering these peculiar forms of vegetation, will ask in how far they are the product of their surrounding circumstances (i.e., of the absence of light or the presence of moisture), and in order to find a reply to this question experiments have been made to grow these rhizomorph under different conditions of existence. These experiments have shown that from several species of rhizomorph other ordinary fungi can be developed, and that the subterraneous specimens therefore may be considered a degeneration and variation of the fungi found above the surface of the ground.



In Fig. 4b the Himantia villosa is represented, a rhizomorpha found in the mines of the Upper Harz Mountains, thus showing another form of this vegetable growth. Though it is difficult, as above stated, to recognize by their shape the rhizormorph as fungi, the origin of the peculiar Agaricus myurus of Hoffmann (Fig. 4a) will be much easier discovered, though a retrograde development and degeneration has taken place also in this fungus. It still shows, however, the elements of a regular toadstool, only that the stem is much elongated and looks like a thread or a tube, while the cap is small, and this explains how, by gradual degeneration, the cap may disappear entirely, leaving nothing but a stem, as, for instance, in the case of the Clavaria deflexa, the club fungus, shown in Fig. 3b.

In connection with the above it may be well to speak of the fungi constituting the mould which often covers the roof and the doors in the brown-coal mines of Halle, specimens of which are shown in Fig. 5.



We now come to the animal life in mines and pits. This is mostly represented, of course, by lower organisms, as infusoria and worms. Thus, in the slime on the bottom of the waters in mines, several species of amoeb are found, which consist of microscopically small animated bodies, continually floating about, nourishing themselves by absorbing organic matter, possessing sensation, propagating, etc., and, in fact, having actually the qualities of real animal nature. Further, we find in those subterraneous waters a species of the sun infusorium (Actinophrys), which is especially frequent in the mines of Klausthal. Fig. 6 shows one of these peculiar little beings. Also the Stylonychia (Fig. 7) is a characteristic inhabitant of those places, and always present there.



It moves with great rapidity in the water by means of the numerous hairs covering its body, can turn quickly in any direction, and thus is enabled to catch suddenly the little beings on which it lives and which it hunts; for which reason the stylonychia is called the "rapacious infusorium."

The above are organisms which can be seen only through the microscope, but the fauna of mines contains also larger organisms, though they are not found as regularly and are not as characteristic for those places as the forms mentioned hitherto. Among these organisms there are several species of worms, spiders, gnats, and, above all, crustaceans of the lower class. The most interesting of the latter is perhaps a variety of the sand flea (Fig. 8—Gammarus pulex). The crustacean found in the pits of mines, which is related to the sand flea, shows, according to Dr. R. Schneider, a slight degeneration of the organ of sight, which has taken place in consequence of its adaptation to the dark places, in which this variety of the Gammarus pulex is found, which can make no use of eyes, while the sand flea possesses them fully developed. Otherwise, however, the two varieties are almost absolutely alike, differing only in some details.



From the above the reader will see that "breathing in the rosy light," as Schiller calls it, is not an absolutely necessary condition for the existence of organic beings, but that life exists everywhere, where there is air and moisture, and a temperature which is not always below freezing point, though even eternal frost does not exclude life entirely, as is proved by the existence of the glacier flea, showing that even in the icy coverings of the Alps life still is possible. Mephistopheles may therefore well say:

"From water, earth, and air unfolding, A thousand germs break forth and grow In dry and wet, and warm and chilly; And had I not the Flame reserved, why really, There's nothing special of my own to show!"

—Leipziger Illustrirte Zeitung.

* * * * *

[NATURE.]



TIMBER, AND SOME OF ITS DISEASES.[1]

[Footnote 1: Continued from Supplement, No. 661, page 10558.]

By H. MARSHALL WARD.

IX.

In the months of April and May, the younger needle-like leaves of the Scotch pine are occasionally seen to have assumed a yellow tinge, and on closer examination this change in color, from green to yellow, is seen to be due to the development of what look like small orange colored vesicles standing off from the surface of the epidermis, and which have in fact burst through from the interior of the leaf (Fig. 31). Between these larger orange yellow vesicles the lens shows certain smaller brownish or almost black specks. Each of the vesicular swellings is a form of fungus fructification known as an cidium, and each of the smaller specks is a fungus structure called a Spermogonium, and both of these bodies are developed from a mycelium in the tissues of the leaf. I must employ these technical terms, but will explain them more in detail shortly: the point to be attended to for the moment is that this fungus in the leaf has long been known under the name of Peridermium Pini (var. acicola, i.e., the variety which lives upon the needle-like leaves).



On the younger branches of the Scotch pine, the Weymouth pine, the Austrian pine, and some others, there may also be seen in May and June similar but larger bladder-like orange vesicles (cidia) bursting through the cortex (Fig. 31); and here, again, careful examination shows the darker smaller Spermogonia in patches between the cidia. These also arise from a fungus mycelium in the tissues of the cortex, whence the fungus was named Peridermium Pini (var. corticola). It is thus seen that the fungus Peridermium Pini was regarded as a parasite of pines, and that it possessed two varieties, one inhabiting the leaves and the other the cortex: the "varieties" were so considered, because certain trivial differences were found in the minute structure of the cidia and Spermogonia.



If we cut thin vertical sections through a leaf and one of the smallest cidia, and examine the latter with the microscope, it will be found to consist of a mass of spores arranged in vertical rows, each row springing from a branch of the mycelium: the outermost of these spores—i.e., those which form a compact layer close beneath the epidermis—remain barren, and serve as a kind of membrane covering the rest (Fig. 33, p). It is this membrane which protrudes like a blister from the tissues. The hyph of the fungus are seen running in all directions between the cells of the leaf tissue, and as they rise up and form the vertical chains of spores, the pressure gradually forces up the epidermis of the leaf, bursts it, and the mass of orange yellow powdery spores protrude to the exterior enveloped in the aforesaid membrane of contiguous barren spores. If we examine older cidia, it will be found that this membrane bursts also at length, and the spores escape.

Similar sections across a Spermogonium exhibit a structure which differs slightly from the above. Here also the hyph in the leaf turn upward, and send delicate branches in a converging crowd beneath the epidermis; the latter gives way beneath the pressure, and the free tips of the hyph constrict off very minute spore-like bodies. These minute bodies are termed Spermatia, and I shall say no more about them after remarking that they are quite barren, and that similar sterile bodies are known to occur in very many of the fungi belonging to this and other groups.

Sections through the cidia and Spermogonia on the cortex present structures so similar, except in minute details which could only be explained by lengthy descriptions and many illustrations, that I shall not dwell upon them; simply reminding the reader that the resemblances are so striking that systematic mycologists have long referred them to a mere variety of the same fungus.

Now as to the kind and amount of damage caused by the ravages of these two forms of fungus.

In the leaves, the mycelium is found running between the cells (Fig. 33, h), and absorbing or destroying their contents: since the leaves do not fail the first season, and the mycelium remains living in their tissues well into the second year, it is generally accepted that it does very little harm. At the same time, it is evident that, if very many leaves are being thus taxed by the fungus, they cannot be supplying the tree with food materials in such quantities as if the leaves were intact. However, the fungus is remarkable in this respect—that it lives and grows for a year or two in the leaves, and does not (as so many of its allies do) kill them after a few weeks. It is also stated that only young pines are badly attacked by this form: it is rare to find cidia on trees more than twenty years or so old.



Much more disastrous results can be traced directly to the action of the mycelium in the cortex. The hyph grow and branch between the green cells of the true cortex, as well as in the vast tissues beneath, and even make their way into the medullary rays and resin canals in the wood, though not very deep. Short branches of the hyph pierce the cells, and consume their starch and other contents, causing a large outflow of resin, which soaks into the wood or exudes from the bark. It is probable that this effusion of turpentine into the tissues of the wood, cambium, and cortex has much to do with the drying up of the parts above the attacked portion of the stem: the tissues shrivel up and die, the turpentine in the canals slowly sinking down into the injured region. The drying up would of course occur if the conducting portions are steeped in turpentine, preventing the conduction of water from below.

The mycelium lives for years in the cortex, and may be found killing the young tissues just formed from the cambium during the early summer: of course the annual ring of wood, etc., is here impoverished. If the mycelium is confined to one side of the stem, a flat or depressed spreading wound arises; if this extends all round, the parts above must die.

When fairly thick stems or branches have the mycelium on one side only, the cambium is injured locally, and the thickening is of course partial. The annual rings are formed as usual on the opposite side of the stem, where the cambium is still intact, or they are even thicker than usual, because the cambium there diverts to itself more than the usual share of food substances; where the mycelium exists, however, the cambium is destroyed, and no thickening layer is formed. From this cause arise cancerous malformations which are very common in pine woods (Fig. 34).

[Illustration: FIG. 34.—Section across an old pine stem in the cancerous region injured by Peridermium Pini (var. corticola). As shown by the figures, the stem was fifteen years old when the ravages of the fungus began to affect the cambium near a. The mycelium, spreading in the cortex and cambium on all sides, gradually restricted the action of the latter more and more; at thirty years old, the still sound cambium only extended half way round the stem—no wood being developed on the opposite side. By the time the tree was eighty years old, only the small area of cambium indicated by the thin line marked 80 was still alive; and soon afterward the stem was completely "ringed," and dead, all the tissues being suffused with resin. (After Hartig.)]

Putting everything together, it is not difficult to explain the symptoms of the disease. The struggle between the mycelium on the one hand, which tries to extend all round in the cortex, and the tree itself, on the other, as it tries to repair the mischief, will end in the triumph of the fungus as soon as its ravages extend so far as to cut off the water supply to the parts above: this will occur as soon as the mycelium extends all round the cortex, or even sooner if the effusion of turpentine hastens the blocking up of the channels. This may take many years to accomplish.

So far, and taking into account the enormous spread of this disastrous disease, the obvious remedial measures seem to be, to cut down the diseased trees—of course this should be done in the winter, or at least before the spores come—and use the timber as best may be; but we must first see whether such a suggestion needs modifying, after learning more about the fungus and its habits. It appears clear, at any rate, however, that every diseased tree removed means a source of cidiospores the less. Probably every one knows the common groundsel, which abounds all over Britain and the Continent, and no doubt many of my readers are acquainted with other species of the same genus (Senecio) to which the groundsel belongs, and especially with the ragwort (Senecio Jacoba). It has long been known that the leaves of these plants, and of several allied species, are attacked by a fungus, the mycelium of which spreads in the leaf passages, and gives rise to powdery masses of orange yellow spores, arranged in vertical rows beneath the stomata: these powdery masses of spores burst forth through the epidermis, but are not clothed by any covering, such as the cidia of Peridermium Pini, for instance. These groups of yellow spores burst forth in irregular powdery patches, scattered over the under sides of the leaves in July and August: toward the end of the summer a slightly different form of spore, but similarly arranged, springs from the same mycelium on the same patches. From the differences in their form, time of appearance, and (as we shall see) functions, these two kinds of spores have received different names. Those first produced have numerous papill on them, and were called Uredospores, from their analogies with the uredospore of the rust of wheat; the second kind of spore is smooth, and is called the Teleutospore, also from analogies with the spores produced in the late summer by the wheat rust. The fungus which produces these uredospores and teleutospores was named and has been long distinguished as Coleosporium Senecionis (Pers.) We are not immediately interested in the damage done by this parasite to the weeds which it infests, and at any rate we might well be tempted to rejoice in its destructive action on these garden pests. It is sufficient to point out that the influence of the mycelium is to shorten the lives of the leaves, and to rob the plant of food material in the way referred to generally in my last article.

What we are here more directly interested in is the following. A few years ago Wolff showed that if the spores from the cidia Peridermium Pini (var. acicola) are sown on the leaf of Senecio, the germinal hyph which grow out from the spores enter the stomata of the Senecio leaf, and there develop into the fungus called Coleosporium Senecionis. In other words, the fungus growing in the cortex of the pine, and that parasitic on the leaves of the groundsel and its allies, are one and the same: it spends part of its life on the tree and the other part on the herb.



If I left the matter stated only in this bald manner, it is probable that few of my readers would believe the wonder. But, as a matter of fact, this phenomenon, on the one hand, is by no means a solitary instance, for we know many of these fungi which require two host plants in order to complete their life history; and, on the other hand, several observers of the highest rank have repeated Wolff's experiment and found his results correct. Hartig, for instance, to whose indefatigable and ingenious researches we owe most that is known of the disease caused by the Peridermium, has confirmed Wolff's results.

It was to the brilliant researches of the late Prof. De Bary that we owe the first recognition of this remarkable phenomenon of heteroecism—i.e., the inhabiting more than one host—of the fungi. De Bary proved that the old idea of the farmer, that the rust is very apt to appear on wheat growing in the neighborhood of berberry bushes, was no fable; but on the contrary, that the yellow cidium on the berberry is a phase in the life history of the fungus causing the wheat rust. Many other cases are now known, e.g.., the cidium abietinum, on the spruce firs in the Alps, passes the other part of its life on the rhododendrons of the same region. Another well known example is that of the fungus Gymnosporangium, which injures the wood of junipers. Oersted first proved that the other part of its life is spent on the leaves of certain Rosace, and his discovery has been repeatedly confirmed. I have myself observed the following confirmation of this. The stems of the junipers so common in the neighborhood of Silverdale (near Morecambe Bay) used to be distorted with Gymnosporangium, and covered with the teleutospores of this fungus every spring: in July all the hawthorn hedges in the neighborhood had their leaves covered with the cidium form (formerly called Roestelia), and it was quite easy to show that the fungus on the hawthorn leaves was produced by sowing the Gymnosporangium spores on them. Many other well established cases of similar heteroecism could be quoted.

But we must return to the Peridermium Pini. It will be remembered that I expressed myself somewhat cautiously regarding the Peridermium on the leaves (var. acicola). It appears that there is need for further investigations into the life history of this form, for it has been thought more than probable that it is not a mere variety of the other, but a totally different species.

Only so lately as 1883, however, Wolff succeeded in infecting the leaves of Senecio with the spores of Peridermium Pini (acicola), and developing the Coleosporium, thus showing that both the varieties belong to the same fungus.

It will be seen from the foregoing that in the study of the biological relationships between any one plant which we happen to value because it produces timber and any other which grows in the neighborhood there may be (and there usually is) a series of problems fraught with interest so deep scientifically, and so important economically, that one would suppose no efforts would be spared to investigate them: no doubt it will be seen as time progresses that what occasionally looks like apathy with regard to these matters is in reality only apparent indifference due to want of information.

Returning once more to the particular case in question, it is obvious that our new knowledge points to the desirability of keeping the seed beds and nurseries especially clean from groundsel and weeds of that description: on the one hand, such weeds are noxious in themselves, and on the other they harbor the Coleosporium form of the fungus Peridermium under the best conditions for infection. It may be added that it is known that the fungus can go on being reproduced by the uredospores on the groundsel plants which live through the winter.

* * * * *

In St. Genevieve and Cape Girardeau Counties, Mo., in the Niagara limestone is found a handsome marble of a variegated liver color. Near Sheppard Landing it is 80 feet thick, and at Janis Mill, in St. Genevieve County, Dr. Shumard speaks of beds of fine texture and various shades of flesh, yellow, green, pink, purple, and chocolate, all handsomely blended.

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Transcriber's Note

In the original publication the author of 'Coal Tar as Fuel for Steam Boilers' is described as John McCrae in the Contents and John M'Crae in the article header. The second was considered an error and corrected.

THE END