There is, undoubtedly, a strong prejudice in the minds of most photographers, both amateur and professional, against a negative in which paper is used as a permanent support, on account of the inseparable "grain" and lack of brilliancy in the resulting prints; and the idea of the paper being used only as a temporary support does not seem to convey to their mind a correct impression of the true position of the matter.

It may be as well before entering into the technical details of the manipulation to consider briefly the advantages to be derived—which will be better appreciated after an actual trial.

My experience (which is at present limited) is that they are far superior to glass for all purposes except portraiture of the human form or instantaneous pictures where extreme rapidity is necessary, but for all ordinary cases of rapid exposure they are sufficiently quick. The first advantage, which I soon discovered, is their entire freedom from halation. This, with glass plates, is inseparable, and even when much labor has been bestowed on backing them, the halation is painfully apparent.

These films never frill, being made of emulsion which has been made insoluble. Compare the respective weights of the two substances—one plate weighing more than a dozen films of the same size.

Again, on comparing a stripping film negative with one on glass of the same exposure and subject, it will be found there is a greater sharpness or clearness in the detail, owing, I am of opinion, to the paper absorbing the light immediately it has penetrated the emulsion, the result being a brilliant negative. Landscapes on stripped films can be retouched or printed from on either side, and the advantage in this respect for carbon or mechanical printing is enormous. Now, imagine the tourist working with glass, and compare him to another working with films. The one works in harness, tugging, probably, a half hundredweight of glass with him from place to place, paying extra carriage, extra tips, and in a continual state of anxiety as to possible breakage, difficulty of packing, and having to be continually on the lookout for a dark place to change the plates, and, perhaps, on his return finds numbers of his plates damaged owing to friction on the surface; while the disciple of films, lightly burdened with only camera and slide, and his (say two hundred) films in his pockets, for they lie so compact together. Then the advantages to the tourists abroad, their name is "legion," not the least being the ease of guarding your exposed pictures from the custom house officials, who almost always seek to make matters disagreeable in this respect, and lastly, though not least, the ease with which the negatives can be stowed away in envelopes or albums, etc., when reference to them is easy in the extreme.

Now, having come (rightly, I think, you will admit) to the conclusion that films have these advantages, you naturally ask, What are their disadvantages? Remembering, then, that I am only advocating stripping films, I consider they have but two disadvantages: First, they entail some additional outlay in the way of apparatus, etc. Second, they are a little more trouble to finish than the glass negatives, which sink into insignificance when the manifold advantages are considered.

In order to deal effectively with the second objection I mentioned, viz., the extra trouble and perseverance, I propose, with your permission, to carry a negative through the different stages from exposure to completion, and in so doing I shall endeavor to make the process clear to you, and hope to enlist your attention.

The developer I use is slightly different to that of the Eastman company, and is as follows:

A. Sulphite of soda. 4 ounces.

To be dissolved in 8 ounces of hot distilled water, then rendered slightly acid with citric acid, then add—

Pyrogallic acid. 1 ounce. Water to make up to 10 ounces.

B. Pure carbonate of soda. 1 ounce. Water to make up in all to 10 ounces.

C. Pure carbonate of potash. 1 ounce. Water to make up to 10 ounces.

D. Bromide of potassium. 1 ounce. Water to make up to 10 ounces.

I have here two half-plate films exposed at 8:30 A.M. to-day, one with five and one with six seconds' exposure, subject chiefly middle distance. I take 90 minims A, 10 minims D, and 90 minims B, and make up to 2 ounces water. I do not soak the films in water. There is no need for it. In fact, it is prejudicial to do so. I place the films face uppermost in the dish, and pour on the developer on the center of the films. You will observe they lie perfectly flat, and are free from air bubbles. Rock the dish continually during development, and when the high lights are out add from 10 to 90 minims C, and finish development and fix. The negatives being complete, I ask you to observe that both are of equal quality, proving the latitude of exposure permissible.

I now coat a piece of glass half an inch larger all round than the negative with India rubber solution (see Eastman formula), and squeegee the negative face downward upon the rubber, interposing a sheet of blotting paper and oilskin between the negative and squeegee to prevent injury to the exposed rubber surface, and then place the negative under pressure with blotting paper interposed until moderately dry only.

I then pour hot water upon it, and, gently rocking the dish, you see the paper floats from the film without the necessity for pulling it with a pin, leaving the film negative on the glass. Now, the instructions say remove the remaining soluble gelatine with camel's hair brush, but, unless it requires intensifying, which no properly developed negative should require, you need not do so, but simply pour on the gelatine solution (see Eastman formula), well covering the edges of the film, and put on a level shelf to dry.

I will now take up a negative in this state on the glass, but dry, and carefully cut round the edges of the film, and you see I can readily pull off the film with its gelatine support. Having now passed through the whole of the process, it behooves us to consider for a few minutes the causes of failure in the hands of beginners and their remedies: 1. The rubber will not flow over glass? Solution too thick, glass greasy. 2. Rubber peels off on drying? Dirty glass. 3. Negative not dense enough? Use more bromide and longer development. 4. Gelatine cracks on being pulled off? Add more glycerine. 5. Gelatine not thick enough? Gelatine varnish too thin, not strong enough. 6. Does not dry sufficiently hard? Too much glycerine.—E.H. Jaques, Reported in Br. Jour. of Photography.

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HOW DIFFERENT TONES IN GELATINO-CHLORIDE PRINTS MAY BE VARIED BY DEVELOPERS.

The following formulae are for use with gelatino-chloride paper or plates. The quantities are in each case calculated for one ounce, three parts of each of the following solutions being employed and added to one part of solution of protosulphate of iron. Strength, 140 grains to the ounce.

Slaty Blue.

1.—One part of the above solution to three parts of a solution of citrate of ammonia.

Greenish Brown. 2.—Citric acid. 180 grains Carbonate of ammonia. 50 "

3.—Citrate of ammonia. 250 grains. Chloride of sodium. 2 "

4.—Citrate of ammonia. 250 grains. Chloride of sodium. 4 "

Sepia Brown. 5.—Citrate of ammonia. 250 grains. Chloride of sodium. 8 "

Clear Red Brown. 6.—Citric acid. 120 grains. Carbonate of magnesia. 76 "

Warm Gray Brown. 7.—Citric acid. 120 grains. Carbonate of soda. 205 "

Deep Red Brown. 8.—Citric acid. 120 grains. Carbonate of potash. 117 "

Green Blue. 9.—Citric acid. 90 grains. Carbonate of soda. 154 " Citrate of potash. 24 " Oxalate of potash. 6 "

Sepia Red. 10.—Citric acid. 80 grains. Carbonate of soda. 135 " Citrate of potash. 12 " Oxalate of potash. 3 "

11.—Citric acid. 108 grains. Carbonate of magnesia. 68 " Carbonate of potash. 12 " Oxalate of potash. 3 "

Sepia Yellow. 12.—Citric acid. 40 grains. Carbonate of magnesia. 25 " Citrate of ammonia. 166 "

13.—Citric acid. 120 grains. Carbonate of magnesia. 72 " Carbonate of ammonia. 72 " Chloride of sodium. 8 "

Blue Black. 14.—Citric acid. 120 grains. Carbonate of ammonia. 70 " Carbonate of magnesia. 15 "

15.—Citric acid. 120 grains. Carbonate of magnesia. 38 " Carbonate of ammonia. 44 "

16.—Citric acid. 90 grains. Carbonate of magnesia. 57 " Citrate of potash. 54 " Oxlate of potash. 18 "

17.—Citric acid. 72 grains. Carbonate of magnesia. 45 " Citrate of potash. 54 " Oxalate of potash. 18 "

18.—Citric acid. 60 grains. Carbonate of magnesia. 38 " Citrate of potash. 68 " Oxalate of potash. 22 "

A more Intense Blue Black. 19.—Citric acid. 30 grains. Carbonate of magnesia. 18 " Citrate of potash. 100 " Oxalate of potash. 33 "

A Clearer Blue. 20.—Citrate of potash. 136 grains. Oxalate of potash. 44 "

In the photographic exhibition at Florence, the firm of Corvan[1] places on view a frame containing twenty proofs produced by the foregoing twenty formulae, in such a way that the observer can compare the value of each tone and select that which pleases him best.—Le Moniteur de la Photographie, translated by British Jour. of Photo.

[Footnote 1: Does this mean Mr. A. Cowan?—Translator.]

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NOTE ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF A DISTILLERY CHIMNEY.

At a recent meeting of the Industrial Society of Amiens, Mr. Schmidt, engineer of the Steam Users' Association, read a paper in which he described the process employed in the construction of a large chimney of peculiar character for the Rocourt distillery, at St. Quentin.



This chimney, which is cylindrical in form, is 140 feet in height, and has an internal diameter of 81/2 feet from base to summit. The coal consumed for the nine generators varies between 860 and 1,200 pounds per hour and per 10 square feet of section.

The ground that was to support this chimney consisted of very aquiferous, cracked beds of marl, disintegrated by infiltrations of water from the distillery, and alternating with strata of clay. It became necessary, therefore, to build as light a chimney as possible. The problem was solved as follows, by Mr. Guendt, who was then superintendent of the Rocourt establishment.

Upon a wide concrete foundation a pedestal was built, in which were united the various smoke conduits, and upon this pedestal were erected four lattice girders, C, connected with each other by St. Andrew's crosses. The internal surface of these girders is vertical and the external is inclined. Within the framework there was built a five-inch thick masonry wall of bricks, made especially for the purpose. The masonry was then strengthened and its contact with the girders assured by numerous hoops, especially at the lower part; some of them internal, others external, to the surface of the girders, and others of angle irons, all in four parts.



The anchors rest upon a cast iron foundation plate connected, through strong bolts embedded in the pedestal, with a second plate resting upon the concrete.

As the metallic framework was calculated for resisting the wind, the brick lining does not rest against it permanently above. The weight of the chimney is 1,112,200 pounds, and the foundation is about 515 square feet in area; and, consequently, the pressure upon the ground is about 900 pounds to the square inch. The cost was $3,840.



The chimney was built six years ago, and has withstood the most violent hurricanes.

The mounting of the iron framework was effected by means of a motor and two men, and took a month. The brick lining was built up in eight days by a mason and his assistant.

A chimney of the same size, all of brick, erected on the same foundation, would have weighed 2,459,600 pounds (say a load of 3,070 pounds to the square inch), and would have cost about $2,860.

The chimney of the Rocourt distillery is, therefore, lighter by half, and cost about a third more, than one of brick; but, at the present price of metal, the difference would be slight.—Annales Industrielles.

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THE PRODUCTION OF OXYGEN BY BRIN'S PROCESS.

Considerable interest has been aroused lately in scientific and industrial circles by a report that separation of the oxygen and nitrogen of the air was being effected on a large scale in London by a process which promises to render the gases available for general application in the arts. The cheap manufacture of the compounds of nitrogen from the gas itself is still a dream of chemical enthusiasts; and though the pure gas is now available, the methods of making its compounds have yet to be devised. But the industrial processes which already depend directly or indirectly on the chemical union of bodies with atmospheric oxygen are innumerable.

In all these processes the action of the gas is impeded by the bulky presence of its fellow constituent of air, nitrogen. We may say, for instance, in homely phrase, that whenever a fire burns there are four volumes of nitrogen tending to extinguish it for every volume of oxygen supporting its combustion, and to the same degree the nitrogen interferes with all other processes of atmospheric oxidation, of which most metallurgical operations may be given as instances. If, then, it has become possible to remove this diluent gas simply and cheaply in order to give the oxygen free play in its various applications, we are doubtless on the eve of a revolution among some of the most extensive and familiar of the world's industries.

A series of chemical reactions has long been known by means of which oxygen could be separated out of air in the laboratory, and at various times processes based on these reactions have been patented for the production of oxygen on a large scale. Until recently, however, none of these methods gave sufficiently satisfactory results. The simplest and perhaps the best of them was based on the fact first noticed by Boussingault, that when baryta (BaO) is heated to low redness in a current of air, it takes up oxygen and becomes barium dioxide (BaO_{2}), and that this dioxide at a higher temperature is reconverted into free oxygen and baryta, the latter being ready for use again. For many years it was assumed, however, by chemists that this ideally simple reaction was inapplicable on a commercial scale, owing to the gradual loss of power to absorb oxygen which was always found to take place in the baryta after a certain number of operations. About eight years ago Messrs. A. & L. Brin, who had studied chemistry under Boussingault, undertook experiments with the view of determining why the baryta lost its power of absorbing oxygen.

They found that it was owing to molecular and physical changes caused in it by impurities in the air used and by the high temperature employed for decomposing the dioxide. They discovered that by heating the dioxide in a partial vacuum the temperature necessary to drive off its oxygen was much reduced. They also found that by supplying the air to the baryta under a moderate pressure, its absorption of oxygen was greatly assisted. Under these conditions, and by carefully purifying the air before use, they found that it became possible to use the baryta an indefinite number of times. Thus the process became practically, as it was theoretically, continuous.

After securing patent protection for their process, Messrs. Brin erected a small producer in Paris, and successfully worked it for nearly three years without finding a renewal of the original charge of baryta once necessary. This producer was exhibited at the Inventions Exhibition in London, in 1885. Subsequently an English company was formed, and in the autumn of last year Brin's Oxygen Company began operations in Horseferry Road, Westminster, where a large and complete demonstration plant was erected, and the work commenced of developing the production and application of oxygen in the industrial world.



We give herewith details of the plant now working at Westminster. It is exceedingly simple. On the left of the side elevation and plan are shown the retorts, on the right is an arrangement of pumps for alternately supplying air under pressure and exhausting the oxygen from the retorts. As is shown in the plan, two sets of apparatus are worked side by side at Westminster, the seventy-two retorts shown in the drawings being divided into two systems of thirty-six. Each system is fed by the two pumps on the corresponding side of the boiler. Each set of retorts consists of six rows of six retorts each, one row above the other. They are heated by a small Wilson's producer, so that the attendant can easily regulate the supply of heat and obtain complete control over the temperature of the retorts. The retorts, A, are made of wrought iron and are about 10 ft long and 8 in. diameter. Experience, however, goes to prove that there is a limit to the diameter of the retorts beyond which the results become less satisfactory. This limit is probably somewhat under 8 in. Each retort is closely packed with baryta in lumps about the size of a walnut. The baryta is a heavy grayish porous substance prepared by carefully igniting the nitrate of barium; and of this each retort having the above dimensions holds about 125 lb. The retorts so charged are closed at each end by a gun metal lid riveted on so as to be air tight. From the center of each lid a bent gun metal pipe, B, connects each retort with the next of its series, so that air introduced into the end retort of any row may pass through the whole series of six retorts. Suppose now that the operations are to commence.

The retorts are first heated to a temperature of about 600 deg. C. or faint redness, then the air pumps, C C, are started. Air is drawn by them through the purifier, D, where it is freed from carbon dioxide and moisture by the layers of quicklime and caustic soda with which the purifier is charged. The air is then forced along the pipe, E, into the small air vessel, F, which acts as a sort of cushion to prevent the baryta in the retorts being disturbed by the pulsation of the pumps. From this vessel the air passes by the pipe, G, and is distributed in the retorts as rapidly as possible at such a pressure that the nitrogen which passes out unabsorbed at the outlet registers about 15 lb. to the square inch. With the baryta so disposed in the retorts as to present as large a superficies as possible to the action of the air, it is found that in 11/2 to 2 hours—during which time about 12,000 cub. ft of air have been passed through the retorts—the gas at the outlet fails to extinguish a glowing chip, indicating that oxygen is no longer being absorbed. The pumping now ceases, and the temperature of the retorts is raised to about 800 deg. C. The workman is able to judge the temperature with sufficient accuracy by means of the small inspection holes, H, fitted with panes of mica, through which the color of the heat in the furnace can be distinguished. The pumps are now reversed and the process of exhaustion begins. At Westminster the pressure in the retorts is reduced to about 11/2 in. of mercury. In this partial vacuum the oxygen is given off rapidly, and if forced by the pumps through another pipe and away into an ordinary gas holder, where it is stored for use. With powerful pumps such as are used in the plant under notice the whole of the oxygen can be drawn off in an hour, and from one charge a yield of about 2,000 cub. ft. is obtained. With a less perfect vacuum the time is longer—even as much as four hours. The whole operation of charging and exhausting the retorts can be completed in from three to four hours. As soon as the evolution of oxygen is finished, the doors, K, and ventilators, L, may be opened and the retorts cooled for recharging.

The cost of producing oxygen at Westminster, under specially expensive conditions, is high—about 12s. per 1,000 cub. ft. When we consider, however, that the cost should only embrace attendance, fuel, wear and tear, and a little lime and soda for the purifiers, that the consumption of fuel is small, the wear and tear light, and that the raw material—air—is obtained for nothing, it ought to be possible to produce the gas for a third or fourth of this amount in most of our great manufacturing centers, where the price of fuel is but a third of that demanded in London, and where provision could be made for economizing the waste heat, which is entirely lost in the Westminster installation. Moreover, in estimating this cost all the charges are thrown on the oxygen; were there any means of utilizing the 4,000 cub. ft. of nitrogen at present blown away as waste for every thousand cubic feet of oxygen produced, the nitrogen would of course bear its share of the cost.

The question of the application of the oxygen is one which must be determined in its manifold bearings mainly by the experiments of chemists and scientific men engaged in industrial work. Having ascertained the method by which and the limit of cost within which it is possible to use oxygen in their work, it can be seen whether by Brin's process the gas can be obtained within that limit.

Mr. S.R. Ogden, the manager of the corporation gasworks at Blackburn, has already made interesting experiments on the application of oxygen in the manufacture of illuminating gas. In order to purify coal gas from compounds of sulphur, it is passed through purifiers charged with layers of oxide of iron. When the oxide of iron has absorbed as much sulphur as it can combine with, it is described as "foul." It is then discharged and spread out in the open air, when, under the influence of the atmospheric oxygen, it is rapidly decomposed, the sulphur is separated out in the free state, and oxide of iron is reformed ready for use again in the purifiers. This process is called revivification, and it is repeated until the accumulation of sulphur in the oxide is so great (45 to 55 per cent.) that it can be profitably sold to the vitriol maker. Hawkins discovered that by introducing about 3 per cent. of air into the gas before passing it through the purifiers, the oxygen of the air introduced set free the sulphur from the iron as fast as it was absorbed. Thus the process of revivification could be carried on in the purifiers themselves simultaneously with the absorption of the sulphur impurities in the gas.

A great saving of labor was thus effected, and also an economy in the use of the iron oxide, which in this way could be left in the purifiers until charged with 75 per cent. of sulphur. Unfortunately it was found that this introduction of air for the sake of its oxygen meant also the introduction of much useless nitrogen, which materially reduced the illuminating power of the gas. To restore this illuminating power the gas had to be recarbureted, and this again meant cost in labor and material. Now, Mr. Ogden has found by a series of conclusive experiments made during a period of seventy-eight days upon a quantity of about 4,000,000 cub. ft. of gas, that by introducing 1 per cent. of oxygen into the gas instead of 3 per cent. of air, not only is the revivification in situ effected more satisfactorily than with air, but at the same time the illuminating power of the gas, so far from being decreased, is actually increased by one candle unit.



So satisfied is he with his results that he has recommended the corporation to erect a plant for the production of oxygen at the Blackburn gas works, by which he estimates that the saving to the town on the year's make of gas will be something like L2,500. The practical observations of Mr. Ogden are being followed up by a series of exhaustive experiments by Mr. Valon, A.M. Inst. C.E., also a gas engineer. The make of an entire works at Westgate is being treated by him with oxygen. Mr. Valon has not yet published his report, as the experiments are not quite complete; but we understand that his results are even more satisfactory than those obtained at Blackburn.

In conclusion we may indicate a few other of the numerous possible applications of cheap oxygen which might be realized in the near future. The greatest illuminating effect from a given bulk of gas is obtained by mixing it with the requisite proportion of oxygen, and holding in the flame of the burning mixture a piece of some solid infusible and non-volatile substance, such as lime. This becomes heated to whiteness, and emits an intense light know as the Drummond light, used already for special purposes of illumination. By supplying oxygen in pipes laid by the side of the ordinary gas mains, it would be possible to fix small Drummond lights in place of the gas burners now used in houses; this would greatly reduce the consumption of gas and increase the light obtained, or even render possible the employment of cheap non-illuminating combustible gases other than coal gas for the purpose.

Two obstacles at present lie in the way of this consummation—the cost of the oxygen and the want of a convenient and completely refractory material to take the place of the lime. Messrs. Brin believe they have overcome the first obstacle, and are addressing themselves, we believe, to the removal of the second. Again, the intense heat which the combustion of carbon in cheap oxygen will place at the disposal of the metallurgist cannot fail to play an important part in his operations. There are many processes, too, of metal refining which ought to be facilitated by the use of the gas. Then the production of pure metallic oxides for the manufacture of paints, the bleaching of oils and fats, the reduction of refractory ores of the precious metals on a large scale, the conversion of iron into steel, and numberless other processes familiar to the specialists whose walk is in the byways of applied chemistry, should all profit by the employment of this energetic agent. Doubtless, too, the investigation into methods of producing the compounds of nitrogen so indispensable as plant foods, and for which we are now dependent on the supplies of the mineral world, may be stimulated by the fact that there is available by Brin's process a cheap and inexhaustible supply of pure nitrogen.—Industries.

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FRENCH DISINFECTING APPARATUS.



We represent herewith a sanitary train that was very successfully used during the prevalence of an epidemic of sudor Anglicus in Poitou this year. It consisted of a movable stove and a boiler. In reality, to save time, such agricultural locomotives as could be found were utilized; but hereafter, apparatus like those shown in the engraving, and which are specially constructed to accompany the stoves, will be employed. We shall quote from a communication made by Prof. Brouardel to the Academy of Medicine on this subject, at its session of September 13:

In the country we can never think of disinfecting houses with sulphurous acid, as the peasants often have but a single room, in which the beds of the entire family are congregated. Every one knows that the agglomerations that compose the same department are often distant from each other and the chief town by from two to three miles or more. This is usually the case in the departments of Vienne, Haute Vienne, Indre, etc. To find a disinfecting place in the chief town of the department is still difficult, and to find one in each of the hamlets is absolutely impossible. Families in which there are invalids are obliged to carry clothing and bedding to the chief town to be disinfected, and to go after them after the expiration of twenty-four hours. This is not an easy thing to do.

It is easy to understand what difficulties must be met with in many cases, and so one has to be content to prescribe merely washing, and bleaching with lime—something that is simple and everywhere accepted, but insufficient. So, then, disinfection with sulphurous acid, which is easy in large cities, as was taught by the cholera epidemics of last year, is often difficult in the country. The objection has always be made to it, too, that it is of doubtful efficacy. It is not for us to examine this question here, but there is no doubt that damp steam alone, under pressure, effects a perfect disinfection, and that if this mode of disinfection could be applied in the rural districts (as it can be easily done in cities), the public health would be better protected in case of an epidemic.

In cities one or more stationary steam stoves can always be arranged; but in the country movable ones are necessary. From instructions given by Prof. Brouardel, Messrs. Geneste & Herscher have solved the problem of constructing such stoves in a few days, and four have been put at the disposal of the mission.

Dr. Thoinot, who directed this mission, in order to make an experiment with these apparatus, selected two points in which cases of sudor were still numerous, and in which the conditions were entirely different, and permitted of studying the working of the service and apparatus under various phases. One of these points was Dorat, chief town of Haute Vienne, a locality with a crowded population and presenting every desirable resource; and the other was the commune of Mauvieres, in Indre, where the population was scattered through several hamlets.

The first stove was operated at Dorat, on the 29th of June, and the second at Mauvieres, on the 1st of July. A gendarme accompanied the stove in all its movements and remained with it during the disinfecting experiments. The Dorat stove was operated on the 29th of June and the 1st, 2d, and 3d of July. On the 30th of June it proceeded to disinfect the commune of Darnac. The Mauvieres stove, in the first place, disinfected the chief town of this commune on the 1st of July, and on the next day it was taken to Poulets, a small hamlet, and a dependent of the commune of Mauvieres. All the linen and all the clothing of the sick of this locality, which had been the seat of sudor, especially infantile, was disinfected. On the 4th of July, the stove went to Concremiers, a commune about three miles distant, and there finished up the disinfection that until then had been performed in the ordinary way.

The epidemic was almost everywhere on the wane at this epoch; but we judge that the test of the stoves was sufficient.

We are able to advance the following statement boldly: For the application of disinfection in the rural districts, the movable stove is the most practical thing that we know of. It is easily used, can be taken to the smallest hamlets, and can be transported over the roughest roads. It inspires peasants with no distrust. The first repugnance is easily overcome, and every one, upon seeing that objects come from the stove unharmed, soon hastens to bring to it all the contaminated linen, etc., that he has in the house.

Further, we may add that the disinfection is accomplished in a quarter of an hour, and that it therefore keeps the peasant but a very short time from his work—an advantage that is greatly appreciated. Finally, a day well employed suffices to disinfect a small settlement completely. Upon the whole, disinfection by the stove under consideration is the only method that can always and everywhere be carried out.

We believe that it is called upon to render the greatest services in the future.

The movable stove, regarding which Prof. Brouardel expresses himself in the above terms, consists of a cylindrical chamber, 31/2 feet in internal diameter and 5 feet in length, closed in front by a hermetically jointed door. This cylinder, which constitutes the disinfection chamber, is mounted upon wheels and is provided with shafts, so that it can easily be hauled by a horse or mule. The cylinder is of riveted iron plate, and is covered with a wooden jacket. The door is provided with a flange that enters a rubber lined groove in the cylinder, and to it are riveted wrought iron forks that receive the nuts of hinged bolts fixed upon the cylinder. The nuts are screwed up tight, and the flange of the door, compressing the rubber lining, renders the joint hermetical. The door, which is hinged, is provided with a handle, which, when the stove is closed, slides over an inclined plane fixed to the cylinder.

The steam enters a cast iron box in the stove through a rubber tube provided with a threaded coupling. The entrance of the steam is regulated by a cock. The box is provided with a safety and pressure gauge and a small pinge cock. In the interior of the stove the entrance of the steam is masked by a large tinned copper screen, which is situated at the upper part and preserves the objects under treatment from drops of water of condensation. These latter fall here and there from the screen, follow the sides of the cylinder, and collect at the bottom, from whence they are drawn off through a cock placed in the rear.

The sides are lined internally with wood, which prevents the objects to be infected from coming into contact with the metal. The objects to be treated are placed upon wire cloth shelves. The pinge cock likewise serves for drawing off the air or steam contained in the apparatus.

The stove is supported upon an axle through the intermedium of two angle irons riveted longitudinally upon the cylinder. The axle is cranked, and its wheels, which are of wood, are 41/2 feet in diameter. The shafts are fixed to the angle irons. The apparatus is, in addition, provided with a seat, a brake, and prop rods before and behind to keep it horizontal when in operation.

The boiler that supplies this stove is vertical and is mounted upon four wheels. It is jacketed with wood, and is provided with a water level, two gauge cocks, a pressure gauge, two spring safety valves, a steam cock provided with a rubber tube that connects with that of the stove, an ash pan, and a smoke stack. In the rear there are two cylindrical water reservoirs that communicate with each other, and are designed to feed the boiler through an injector. Beneath these reservoirs there is a fuel box. In front there is a seat whose box serves to hold tools and various other objects.—La Nature.

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AN ELECTRICAL GOVERNOR.

We abstract the following from a paper on electric lighting by Prof. J.A. Fleeming, read before the Iron and Steel Institute, Manchester. The illustration is from Engineering.



One of the questions which most frequently occurs in reference to mill and factory lighting is whether the factory engines can be used to run the dynamo. As a broad, general rule, there can be no question that the best results are obtained by using a separate dynamo engine, controlled by a good governor, set apart for that purpose. With an ordinary shunt dynamo, the speed ought not to vary more than 2 or 3 per cent. of its normal value on either side of that value. Hence, if a dynamo has a normal speed of 1,000, it should certainly not vary over a greater range than from 970 to 980 to 1,020 to 1,030. In many cases there may be shafting from which the necessary power can be taken, and of which the speed is variable only within these limits. There are several devices by which it has been found possible to enable a dynamo to maintain a constant electromotive force, even if the speed of rotation varies over considerable limits. One of these is that (see illustration) due to Messrs. Trotter & Ravenshaw, and applicable to shunt or series machines.

In the circuit of the field magnet is placed a variable resistance. This resistance is thrown in or out by means of a motor device actuated by an electromotive force indicator. A plunger of soft iron is suspended from a spring, and hangs within a solenoid of wire, which solenoid is in connection with the terminals of the dynamo. Any increase or diminution of the electromotive force causes this iron to move in or out of the core, and its movement is made to connect or disconnect the gearing which throws in the field magnet resistance with a shaft driven by the engine itself. The principle of the apparatus is therefore that small variations of electromotive force are made to vary inversely the strength of the magnetic field through the intervention of a relay mechanism in which the power required to effect the movement is tapped from the engine.

With the aid of such a governor it is possible to drive a dynamo from a mill shaft providing the requisite power, but of which the speed of rotation is not sufficiently uniform to secure alone efficient regulation of electromotive force. Another device, patented by Mr. Crompton, is a modification of that method of field magnet winding commonly known as compound winding. The field magnets are wound over with two wires, one of which has a high resistance and is arranged as a shunt, and the other of which has a low resistance and is arranged in series. Instead, however, of the magnetizing powers of these coils being united in the same direction as an ordinary compound winding, they are opposed to one another. That is to say, the current in the shunt wire tends to magnetize the iron of the field magnets in an opposite direction to that of the series wire. It results from this that any slight increase of speed diminishes the strength of the magnetic field, and vice versa. Accordingly, within certain limits, the electromotive force of the dynamo is independent of the speed of rotation.

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THE ELECTRIC CURRENT AS A MEANS OF INCREASING THE TRACTIVE ADHESION OF RAILWAY MOTORS AND OTHER ROLLING CONTACTS.[1]

[Footnote 1: Read before the American Association for the Advancement of Science. New York meeting, 1887.]

By ELIAS E. RIES.

The object of this paper is to lay before you the results of some recent experiments in a comparatively new field of operation, but one that, judging from the results already attained, is destined to become of great importance and value in its practical application to various branches of industry.

I say "comparatively new" because the underlying principles involved in the experiments referred to have, to a certain extent, been employed (in, however, a somewhat restricted sense) for purposes analogous to those that form the basis of this communication.

As indicated by the title, the subject that will now occupy our attention is the use of the electric current as a means of increasing and varying the frictional adhesion of rolling contacts and other rubbing surfaces, and it is proposed to show how this effect may be produced, both by means of the direct action of the current itself and by its indirect action through the agency of electro-magnetism.

Probably the first instance in which the electric current was directly employed to vary the amount of friction between two rubbing surfaces was exemplified in Edison's electro-motograph, in which the variations in the strength of a telephonic current caused corresponding variations in friction between a revolving cylinder of moistened chalk and the free end of an adjustable contact arm whose opposite extremity was attached to the diaphragm of the receiving telephone. This device was extremely sensitive to the least changes in current strength, and if it were not for the complication introduced by the revolving cylinder, it is very likely that it would to-day be more generally used.

It has also been discovered more recently that in the operation of electric railways in which the track rails form part of the circuit, a considerable increase in the tractive adhesion of the driving wheels is manifested, due to the passage of the return current from the wheels into the track. In the Baltimore and Hampden electric railway, using the Daft "third rail" system, this increased tractive adhesion enables the motors to ascend without slipping a long grade of 350 feet to the mile, drawing two heavily loaded cars, which result, it is claimed, is not attainable by steam or other self-propelling motors of similar weight. In the two instances just cited the conditions are widely different, as regards the nature of the current employed, the mechanical properties of the surfaces in contact, and the electrical resistance and the working conditions of the respective circuits. In both, however, as clearly demonstrated by the experiments hereinafter referred to, the cause of the increased friction is substantially the same.

In order to ascertain the practical value of the electric current as a means of increasing mechanical friction, and, if possible, render it commercially and practically useful wherever such additional friction might be desirable, as for example in the transmission of power, etc., a series of experiments were entered into by the author, which, though not yet fully completed, are sufficiently advanced to show that an electric current, when properly applied, is capable of very materially increasing the mechanical friction of rotating bodies, in some cases as much as from 50 to 100 per cent., with a very economical expenditure of current; this increase depending upon the nature of the substances in contact and being capable of being raised by an increased flow of current.

Before entering into a description of the means by which this result is produced, and how it is proposed to apply this method practically to railway and other purposes, it may be well to give a general outline of what has so far been determined. These experiments have shown that the coefficient of friction between two conducting surfaces is very much increased by the passage therethrough of an electric current of low electromotive force and large volume, and this is especially noticeable between two rolling surfaces in peripheral contact with each other, or between a rolling and a stationary surface, as in the case of a driving wheel running upon a railway rail. This effect increases with the number of amperes of current flowing through the circuit, of which the two surfaces form part, and is not materially affected by the electromotive force, so long as the latter is sufficient to overcome the electrical resistance of the circuit. This increase in frictional adhesion is principally noticeable in iron, steel, and other metallic bodies, and is due to a molecular change in the conducting substances at their point of contact (which is also the point of greatest resistance in the circuit), caused by the heat developed at that point. This heat is ordinarily imperceptible, and becomes apparent only when the current strength is largely augmented. It is therefore probable that a portion of this increased tractive adhesion is due directly to the current itself aside from its heating effect, although I have not as yet been able to ascertain this definitely. The most economical and efficient results have been obtained by the employment of a transformed current of extremely low electromotive force (between 1/2 and 1 volt), but of very large volume or quantity, this latter being variable at will, so as to obtain different degrees of frictional resistance in the substances under observation.

These experiments were originally directed mainly toward an endeavor to increase the tractive adhesion of the driving wheels of locomotives and other vehicles, and to utilize the electric current for this purpose in such a manner as to render it entirely safe, practical, and economical. It will be apparent at once that a method of increasing the tractive power of the present steam locomotives by more than 50 per cent. without adding to their weight and without injury to the roadbed and wheel tires, such as is caused by the sand now commonly used, would prove of considerable value, and the same holds true with respect to electrically propelled street cars, especially as it has been found exceedingly difficult to secure sufficient tractive adhesion on street railways during the winter season, as well as at other times, on roads having grades of more than ordinary steepness. As this, therefore, is probably the most important use for this application of the electric current, it has been selected for illustrating this paper.

I have here a model car and track arranged to show the equipment and operation of the system as applied to railway motors. The current in the present instance is one of alternating polarity which is converted by this transformer into one having the required volume. The electromotive force of this secondary current is somewhat higher than is necessary. In practice it would be about half a volt. You will notice upon a closer inspection that one of the forward driving wheels is insulated from its axle, and the transformed current, after passing to a regulating switch under the control of the engineer or driver, goes to this insulated wheel, from which it enters the track rail, then through the rear pair of driving wheels and axles to the opposite rail, and then flows up through the forward uninsulated wheel, from the axle of which it returns by way of a contact brush to the opposite terminal of the secondary coil of the transformer. Thus the current is made to flow seriatim through all four of the driving wheels, completing its circuit through that portion of the rails lying between the two axles, and generating a sufficient amount of heat at each point of contact to produce the molecular change before referred to. By means of the regulating switch the engineer can control the amount of current flowing at any time, and can even increase its strength to such an extent, in wet or slippery weather, as to evaporate any moisture that may adhere to the surface of the rails at the point of contact with the wheels while the locomotive or motor car is under full speed.

It will be apparent that inasmuch as the "traction circuit" moves along with the locomotive, and is complete through its driving wheel base, the track rails in front and rear of the same are at all times entirely free from current, and no danger whatever can occur by coming in contact with the rails between successive motors. Moreover, the potential used in the present arrangement, while sufficient to overcome the extremely low resistance of the moving circuit, is too small to cause an appreciable loss of current from that portion of the rails in circuit, even under the most unfavorable conditions of the weather. In practice the primary current necessary is preferably generated by a small high speed alternating dynamo on the locomotive, the current being converted by means of an inductional transformer. To avoid the necessity for electrically bridging the rail joints, a modified arrangement may be employed, in which the electrical connection is made directly with a fixed collar on the forward and rear driving axles, the current dividing itself in parallel between the two rails in such a manner that, if a defective joint exists in the rail at one side, the circuit is still complete through the rail on the other; and as the rails usually break joints on opposite sides, this arrangement is found very effective. The insulation of the driving wheels is very easily effected in either case.

As the amount of additional tractive adhesion produced depends upon the quantity of current flowing rather than upon its pressure, the reason for transforming the current as described will be apparent, and its advantages over a direct current of higher tension and less quantity, both from an economical and practical standpoint, will for this reason be clear. The amount of heat produced at the point of contact between the wheels and rails is never large enough to injure or otherwise affect them, although it may be quite possible to increase the current sufficiently to produce a very considerable heating effect. The amount of current sent through the traction circuit will of course vary with the requirements, and as the extent to which the resistance to slipping may be increased is very great, this method is likely to prove of considerable value. While in some cases the use of such a method of increasing the tractive power of locomotives would be confined to ascending gradients and the movement of exceptionally heavy loads, in others it would prove useful as a constant factor in the work of transportation. In cases like that of the New York elevated railway system, where the traffic during certain hours is much beyond the capacity of the trains, and the structure unable to support the weight of heavier engines, a system like that just described would prove of very great benefit, as it would easily enable the present engines to draw two or three additional cars with far less slipping and lost motion than is the case with mechanical friction alone, at a cost for tractive current that is insignificant compared to the advantages gained. Other cases may be cited in which this method of increasing friction will probably be found useful, aside from its application to railway purposes, but these will naturally suggest themselves and need not be further dwelt upon.

In the course of the experiments above described, another and somewhat different method of increasing the traction of railway motors has been devised, which is more particularly adapted to electric motors for street railways, and is intended to be used in connection with a system of electric street railways now being developed by the author. In this system electro-magnetism provides the means whereby the increase in tractive adhesion is produced, and this result is attained in an entirely novel manner. Several attempts have heretofore been made to utilize magnetism for this purpose, but apparently without success, chiefly because of the crude and imperfect manner in which most of these attempts have been carried out.

The present system owes its efficiency to the formation of a complete and constantly closed magnetic circuit, moving with the vehicle and completed through the two driving axles, wheels, and that portion of the track rails lying between the two pairs of wheels, in a manner similar to that employed in the electrical method before shown. We have here a model of a second motor car equipped with the apparatus, mounted on a section of track and provided with means for measuring the amount of tractive force exerted both with and without the passage of the current.

You will notice that each axle of the motor car is wound with a helix of insulated wire, the helices in the present instance being divided to permit the attachment to the axles of the motor connections. The helices on both axles are so connected that, when energized, they induce magnetic lines of force that flow in the same direction through the magnetic circuit. There are, therefore, four points at which the circuit is maintained closed by the rolling wheels, and as the resistance to the flow of the lines of force is greatest at these points, the magnetic saturation there is more intense, and produces the most effective result just where it is most required. Now, when the battery circuit is closed through the helices, it will be observed that the torque, or pull, exerted by the motor car is fully twice that exerted by the motor with the traction circuit open, and, by increasing the battery current until the saturation point of the iron is reached, the tractive force is increased nearly 200 per cent., as shown by the dynamometer. A large portion of this resistance to the slipping or skidding of the driving wheels is undoubtedly due to direct magnetic attraction between the wheels and track, this attraction depending upon the degree of magnetic saturation and the relative mass of metal involved.

But by far the greatest proportion of the increased friction is purely the result of the change in position of the iron molecules due to the well known action of magnetism, which causes a direct and close interlocking action, so to speak, between the molecules of the two surfaces in contact. This may be illustrated by drawing a very thin knife blade over the poles of an ordinary electro-magnet, first with the current on and then off.

In the model before you, the helices are fixed firmly to, and revolve with, the axles, the connections being maintained by brushes bearing upon contact rings at each end of the helices. If desired, however, the axles may revolve loosely within the helices, and instead of the latter being connected for cumulative effects, they may be arranged in other ways so as to produce either subsequent or opposing magnetic forces, leaving certain portions of the circuit neutral and concentrating the lines of force wherever they maybe most desirable. Such a disposition will prove of advantage in some cases.

The amount of current required to obtain this increased adhesion in practice is extremely small, and may be entirely neglected when compared to the great benefits derived. The system is very simple and inexpensive, and the amount of traction secured is entirely within the control of the motor man, as in the electric system. It will be seen that the car here will not, with the traction circuit open, propel itself up hill when one end of the track is raised more than 5 inches above the table; but with the circuit energized it will readily ascend the track as you now see it, with one end about 131/2, inches above the other in a length of three feet, or the equivalent of a 40 per cent. grade; and this could be increased still further if the motor had power enough to propel itself against the force of gravity on a steeper incline. As you will notice, the motor adheres very firmly to the track and requires a considerable push to force it down this 40 per cent. grade, whereas with the traction circuit open it slips down in very short order, notwithstanding the efforts of the driving mechanism to propel it up.

The resistance of the helices on this model is less than two ohms, and this will scarcely be exceeded when applied to a full sized car, the current from two or three cells of secondary batteries being probably sufficient to energize them.

The revolution of the driving axles and wheels is not interfered with in the slightest, because in the former the axle boxes are outside the path of the lines of force, and in the case of the latter because each wheel practically forms a single pole piece, and in revolving presents continuously a new point of contact, of the same polarity, to the rail; the flow of the lines of force being most intense through the lower half of the wheels, and on a perpendicular line connecting the center of the axle with the rail. In winter all that is necessary is to provide each motor car with a suitable brush for cleaning the track rails sufficiently to enable the wheels to make good contact therewith, and any tendency to slipping or skidding may be effectually checked. By this means it is easily possible to increase the tractive adhesion of an ordinary railway motor from 50 to 100 per cent., without any increase in the load or weight upon the track; for it must be remembered that even that portion of the increased friction due to direct attraction does not increase the weight upon the roadbed, as this attraction is mutual between the wheels and track rails; and if this car and track were placed upon a scale and the circuit closed, it would not weigh a single ounce more than with the circuit open.

It is obvious that this increase in friction between two moving surfaces can also be applied to check, as well as augment, the tractive power of a car or train of cars, and I have shown in connection with this model a system of braking that is intended to be used in conjunction with the electro-magnetic traction system just described. You will have noticed that in the experiments with the traction circuit the brake shoes here have remained idle; that is to say, they have not been attracted to the magnetized wheels. This is because a portion of the traction current has been circulating around this coil on the iron brake beam, inducing in the brake shoes magnetism of like polarity to that in the wheels to which they apply. They have therefore been repelled from the wheel tires instead of being attracted to them. Suppose now that it is desired to stop the motor car; instead of opening the traction circuit, the current flowing through the helices is simply reversed by means of this pole changing switch, whereupon the axles are magnetized in the opposite direction and the brake shoes are instantly drawn to the wheels with a very great pressure, as the current in the helices and brake coil now assist each other in setting up a very strong magnetic flow, sufficient to bring the motor car almost to an instant stop, if desired.

The same tractive force that has previously been applied to increase the tractive adhesion now exercises its influence upon the brake shoes and wheels, with the result of not only causing a very powerful pressure between the two surfaces due to the magnetic attraction, but offering an extremely large frictional resistance in virtue of the molecular interlocking action before referred to. As shown in the present instance, a portion of the current still flows through the traction circuit and prevents the skidding of the wheels.

The method thus described is equally applicable to increase the coefficient of friction in apparatus for the transmission of power, its chief advantage for this purpose being the ease and facility with which the amount of friction between the wheels can be varied to suit different requirements, or increased and diminished (either automatically or manually) according to the nature of the work being done. With soft iron contact surfaces the variation in friction is very rapid and sensitive to slight changes in current strength, and this fact may prove of value in connection with its application to regulating and measuring apparatus. In all cases the point to be observed is to maintain a closed magnetic circuit of low resistance through the two or more surfaces the friction of which it is desired to increase, and the same rule holds good with respect to the electric system, except that in the latter case the best effects are obtained when the area of surface in contact is smallest.

For large contact areas the magnetic system is found to be most economical, and this system might possibly be used to advantage to prevent slipping of short wire ropes and belts upon their driving pulleys, in cases where longer belts are inapplicable as in the driving of dynamos and other machinery. Experiments have also been, and are still being, made with the object of increasing friction by means of permanent magnetism, and also with a view to diminishing the friction of revolving and other moving surfaces, the results of which will probably form the subject matter of a subsequent paper.

Enough has been said to indicate that the development of these two methods of increasing mechanical friction opens up a new and extensive field of operation, and enables electricity to score another important point in the present age of progress. The great range and flexibility of this method peculiarly adapt it to the purposes we have considered and to numerous others that will doubtless suggest themselves to you. Its application to the increase of the tractive adhesion of railway motors is probably its most prominent and valuable feature at present, and is calculated to act as an important stimulus to the practical introduction of electric railways on our city streets, inasmuch as the claims heretofore made for cable traction in this respect are now no longer exclusively its own. On trunk line railways the use of sand and other objectionable traction-increasing appliances will be entirely dispensed with, and locomotives will be enabled to run at greater speed with less slipping of the wheels and less danger of derailment. Their tractive power can be nearly doubled without any increase in weight, enabling them to draw heavier trains and surmount steeper grades without imposing additional weight or strain upon bridges and other parts of the roadbed. Inertia of heavy trains can be more readily overcome, loss of time due to slippery tracks obviated, and the momentum of the train at full speed almost instantly checked by one and the same means.

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ELECTRIC LAUNCH.

Trials have been made at Havre with an electric launch built to the order of the French government by the Forges et Chantiers de la Mediterranee. The vessel, which has rather full lines, measures 28 ft. between perpendiculars and 9 ft. beam, and is 5 tons register.

The electromotor is the invention of Captain Krebs, who is already well known on account of his experiments in connection with navigable balloons, and of M. De Zede, naval architect. The propeller shaft is not directly coupled with the spindle of the motor, but is geared to it by spur wheels in the ratio of 1 to 3, in order to allow of the employment of a light high-speed motor. The latter makes 850 revolutions per minute, and develops 12 horse power when driving the screw at 280 revolutions. Current is supplied by a new type of accumulators made by Messrs. Commelin & Desmazures. One hundred and thirty two of these accumulators are fitted in the bottom of the boat, the total weight being about 2 tons.

In ordering this boat the French government stipulated a speed of 6 knots to be maintained during three hours with an expenditure of 10 horse power. The result of the trials gave a speed of 61/2 knots during five hours with 12 horse power, and sufficient charge was left in the accumulators to allow the boat to travel on the following day for four hours. This performance is exceedingly good, since it shows that one horse power hour has been obtained with less than 60 lb. of total weight of battery.

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THE COMMERCIAL EXCHANGE, PARIS.

Leveling the ground, pulling down old buildings, and distributing light and air through her wide streets, Paris is slowly and continuously pursuing her transformation. At this moment it is an entire district, and not one of the least curious ones, that is disappearing, leaving no other trace of its existence than the circular walls that once inclosed the wheat market.

It is this building that, metamorphosed, is to become the Commercial Exchange that has been so earnestly demanded since 1880 by the commerce of Paris. The question, which was simple in the first place, and consisted in the conversion of the wheat market into a commercial exchange, became complicated by a project of enlarging the markets. It therefore became necessary to take possession, on the one hand, of sixty seven estates, of a total area of 116,715 square feet, to clear the exchange, and, on the other, of 49,965 square feet to clear the central markets. In other words, out of $5,000,000 voted by the common council for this work, $2,800,000 are devoted to the dispossessions necessitated by the new exchange, $1,800,000 to those necessitated by the markets, and $400,000 are appropriated to the wheat market.

The work of demolition began last spring, and the odd number side of Orleans street, Deux-Ecus street, from this latter to J.J. Rousseau street, Babille street, Mercier street, and Sortine street, now no longer exist. All this part is to-day but a desert, in whose center stands the iron trussing of the wheat market cupola. It is on these grounds that will be laid out the prolongation of Louvre street in a straight line to Coquilliere street.

Our engraving shows the present state of the work. What is seen of the wheat market will be preserved and utilized by Mr. Blondeau, the architect, who has obtained a grant from the commercial exchange to construct two edifices on two plots of an area of 32,220 square feet, fronting on Louvre street, and which will bring the city an annual rent of $60,000.



Around the rotunda that still exists there was a circular wall 61/2 feet in thickness. Mr. Blondeau has torn this down, and is now building another one appropriate to the new destination of the acquired estates. As for the trussing of the cupola, that is considered as a work of art, and care has been taken not to touch it. It was constructed at the beginning of this century, at an epoch when nothing but rudimentary tools were to be had for working iron, and it was, so to speak, forged. All the pieces were made with the hammer and were added one to the other in succession. This cupola will be glazed at the upper part, while the lower part will be covered with zinc. In the interior this part will be decorated with allegorical paintings representing the five divisions of the globe, with their commercial and industrial attributes. It was feared at one time that the hall, to which admission will be free, would not afford sufficient space, and the halls of the Bordeaux and Havre exchanges were cited. It is true that the hall of the wheat market has an area of but 11,825 square feet, but on utilizing the 5,000 feet of the circular gallery, which will not be occupied, it will reach 16,825 feet.

As for the tower which stands at one side of the edifice, that was built by Marie de Medici for the astrologer whom she brought with her to Paris from Florence. On account of its historic interest, this structure will be preserved. On either side of this tower, overlooking the roofs of the neighboring dwellings, are perceived the summit of a tower of St. Eustache church and a campanile of a pavilion of the markets.—L'Illustration.

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THE MANUFACTURE OF COCAINE.

Cocaine is manufactured from the dry leaves of the _Erythroxylon coca_, which grows in the valleys of the East Cordilleras of South America—i.e., in the interior of Peru and Bolivia. The fresh leaves contain 0.003 to 0.006 per cent of cocaine, which percentage decreases considerably if the leaves are stored any length of time before being worked up. On the other hand, the alkaloid can be transported and kept without decomposition. This circumstance caused the author to devise a simple process for the manufacture of crude cocaine on the spot, neither Peru nor Bolivia being suitable countries for complicated chemical operations. After many experiments, he hit upon the following plan: The disintegrated coca leaves are digested at 70 deg. C. in closed vessels for two hours, with a very weak solution of sodium hydrate and petroleum (boiling between 200 deg. and 250 deg. C). The mass is filtered, pressed while still tepid, and the filtrate allowed to stand until the oil has completely separated from the aqueous solution. The oil is drawn off and carefully neutralized with very weak hydrochloric acid. A white bulky precipitate of cocaine hydrochloride is obtained, together with an aqueous solution of the same compound, while the petroleum is free from the alkaloid and may be used for the extraction of a fresh batch of leaves. The precipitate is dried, and by concentrating the aqueous solution a further quantity of the hydrochloride is obtained. Both can be shipped without risk of decomposition. The product is not quite pure, but contains some hygrine, traces of gum and other matters. Its percentage of alkaloid is 75 per cent., while chemically pure cocaine hydrochloride (C_{17}H_{21}NO_{4}.2HCl) contains 80.6 per cent. of the alkaloid. The sodium hydrate solution cannot be replaced by milk of lime, nor can any other acid be used for neutralization. Alcohol or ether are not suitable for extraction. A repetition of the process with once-extracted coca leaves gave no further quantity of cocaine, proving that all the cocaine goes into solution by one treatment. The same process serves on the small scale for the valuation of coca leaves. 100 grms. of coca leaves are digested in a flask with 400 c.c. of water, 50 c.c. of 1/10 NaOH (10 grms. of NaOH in 100 c.c.) and 250 c.c. of petroleum. The flask is loosely covered and warmed on the water bath for two hours, shaking it from to time. The mass is then filtered, the residue pressed, and the filtrate allowed to separate in two layers. The oil layer is run into a bottle and titrated back with 1/100 HCl (1 grm. of HCl in 100 c.c.) until exactly neutral. The number of c.c. of hydrochloric acid required for titrating back multiplied by 0.42 gives the percentage of cocaine in the sample. The following are some of the results with different samples of coca leaves of various age:

Contained per cent. of Cocaine. Coca leaves from Mapiri, 1 month old 0.5% " " " Yungas " " 0.5% " " " Mapiri and Yungas 6 months old 0.4% Of the " " " Cuzco (Peru) _ weight of 6 months old 0.3% the dry " " " Mapiri and Yungas leaves. 1 year old 0.3% " " " Cuzco " " " 0.2% " " " Mapiri and Yungas 2 years old 0.15%/

Coca leaves from Yungas and Cuzco, three years old, contained no trace of the alkaloid, whereas fresh green leaves from Yungas contained 0.7 per cent. of the weight of the dry leaves. The same process is also applicable for the manufacture of quinine from poor quinine bark, with the single alteration that weak sulphuric acid must be used for the neutralization of the alkaline petroleum extract.—H.T. Pfeiffer, Chem. Zeit. 11.

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[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 622, page 9941.]



THE CHEMICAL BASIS OF PLANT FORMS.[1]

By HELEN C. DE S. ABBOTT.

The succession of plants from the lower to the higher forms will be reviewed superficially, and chemical compounds noted where they appear.

When the germinating spores of the fungi, myxomycetes, rupture their walls and become masses of naked protoplasm, they are known as plasmodia. The plasmodium AEthalium septicum occurs in moist places, on heaps of tan or decaying barks. It is a soft, gelatinous mass of yellowish color, sometimes measuring several inches in length.

The plasmodium[2] has been chemically analyzed, though not in a state of absolute purity. The table of Reinke and Rodewold gives an idea of its proximate constitution.

Many of the constituents given are always present in the living cells of higher plants. It cannot be too emphatically stated that where "biotic" force is manifested, these colloidal or albuminous compounds are found.

The simplest form of plant life is an undifferentiated individual, all of its functions being performed indifferently by all parts of its protoplasm.

The chemical basis of plasmodium is almost entirely composed of complex albuminous substances, and correlated with this structureless body are other compounds derived from them. Aside from the chemical substances which are always present in living matter, and are essential properties of protoplasm, we find no other compounds. In the higher organisms, where these functions are not performed indifferently, specialization of tissues is accompanied by many other kinds of bodies.

The algae are a stage higher in the evolutionary scale than the undifferentiated noncellular plasmodium. The simple Alga protococcus[3] may be regarded as a simple cell. All higher plants are masses of cells, varying in form, function, and chemical composition.

A typical living cell may be described as composed of a cell wall and contents. The cell wall is a firm, elastic membrane closed on all sides, and consists mainly of cellulose, water, and inorganic constituents. The contents consist of a semi-fluid colloidal substance, lying in contact with the inner surface of the membrane, and, like it, closed on all sides. This always is composed of albuminous substances. In the higher plants, at least, a nucleus occurs embedded in it; a watery liquid holding salts and saccharine substances in solution fills the space called the vacuole, inclosed by the protoplasm.

These simple plants may be seen as actively moving cells or as non-motile cells. The former consist of a minute mass of protoplasm, granular and mostly colored green, but clear and colorless at the more pointed end, and where it is prolonged into two delicate filaments called cilia. After moving actively for a time they come to rest, acquire a spherical form, and invest themselves with a firm membrane of cellulose. This firm, outer membrane of the Protococcus accompanies a higher differentiation of tissue and localization of function than is found in the plasmodium.

Haeatococcus and plasmodium come under the classes algae and fungi of the Thallothyta group. The division[4] of this group into two classes is based upon the presence of chlorophyl in algae and its absence in fungi. Gelatinous starch is found in the algae; the fungi contain a starchy substance called glycogen, which also occurs in the liver and muscles of animals. Structureless bodies, as aethalium, contain no true sugar. Stratified starch[5] first appears in the phanerogams. Alkaloids have been found in fungi, and owe their presence doubtless to the richness of these plants in nitrogenous bodies.

In addition to the green coloring matter in algae are found other coloring matters.[6] The nature[7] of these coloring matters is usually the same through whole families, which also resemble each other in their modes of reproduction.

In form, the algae differ greatly from filaments or masses of cells; they live in the water and cover damp surfaces of rocks and wood. In these they are remarkable for their ramifications and colors and grow to a gigantic size.

The physiological functions of algae and fungi depend upon their chemical differences.

These facts have been offered, simple as they are, as striking examples of chemical and structural opposition.

The fungi include very simple organisms, as well as others of tolerably high development, of most varied form, from the simple bacillus and yeast to the truffle, lichens, and mushrooms.

The cell membrane of this class contains no pure cellulose, but a modification called fungus cellulose. The membrane also contains an amyloid substance, amylomycin.[8] Many of the chemical constituents found in the entire class are given in Die Pflanzenstoffe.[9]

Under the Schizomycetes to which the Micrococcus and Bacterium[10] belong are found minute organisms differing much in form and in the coloring[11] matters they produce, as that causing the red color of mouldy bread.

The class of lichens[12] contains a number of different coloring substances, whose chemical composition has been examined. These substances are found separately in individuals differing in form. In the Polyporus[13] an acid has been found peculiar to it, as in many plants special compounds are found. In the agariceae the different kinds of vellum distinguish between species, and the color of the conidia is also of differential importance. In all cases of distinct characteristic habits of reproduction and form, one or more different chemical compounds is found.

In the next group of the musiceae, or mosses, is an absence of some chemical compounds that were characteristic of the classes just described. Many of the albuminous substances are present. Starch[14] is found often in large quantities, and also oily fats, which are contained in the oil bodies of the liverworts; wax,[15] organic acids, including aconitic acid, and tannin, which is found for the first time at this evolutionary stage of the plant kingdom.

The vascular cryptogams are especially characterized by their mineral composition.[16] The ash is extraordinarily rich in silicic acid and alumina.

Equisetum[17]..........silicic acid 60 per cent. Aspidium............... " " 13 Asplenium.............. " " 35 Osmunda................ " " 53 Lycopodium[18]......... " " 14 " ........ alumina 26 to 27 " ........ manganese 2 to 2.5

These various plants contain acids and compounds peculiar to themselves.

As we ascend in the plant scale, we reach the phanerogams. These plants are characterized by the production of true seeds, and many chemical compounds not found in lower plants.

It will be convenient in speaking of these higher groups to follow M. Heckel's[19] scheme of plant evolution. All these plants are grouped under three main divisions: apetalous, monocotyledonous, and dicotyledonous; and these main divisions are further subdivided.

It will be observed that these three main parallel columns are divided into three general horizontal planes.

On plane 1 are all plants of simplicity of floral elements, or parts; for example, the black walnut, with the simple flower contained in a catkin.

On plane 2 plants which have a multiplicity of floral elements, as the many petals and stamens of the rose; and finally, the higher plants, the orchids among the monocotyledons and the composite among the dicotyledonous plants, come under the third division of condensation of floral elements.

It will be impossible to take up in order for chemical consideration all these groups, and I shall restrict myself to pointing out the occurrence of certain constituents.

I desire now to call attention to chemical groups under the apetalous plants having simplicity of floral elements.

Cassuarina equisetifolia[20] possibly contains tannin, since it is used for curing hides. The bark contains a dye. It is said to resemble Equisetum[21] in appearance, and in this latter plant a yellow dye is found.

The Myrica[22] contains ethereal oil, wax, resin, balsam, in all parts of the plant. The root contains in addition fats, tannin, and starch, also myricinic acid.

In the willow and poplar,[23] a crystalline, bitter substance, salicin or populin, is found. This may be considered as the first appearance of a real glucoside, if tannin be excluded from the list.

The oak, walnut, beech, alder, and birch contain tannin in large quantities; in the case of the oak, ten to twelve per cent. Oak galls yield as much as seventy per cent.[24]

The numerous genera of pine and fir trees are remarkable for ethereal oil, resin, and camphor.

The plane[25] trees contain caoutchouc and gum; peppers,[26] ethereal oils, alkaloids, piperin, white resin, and malic acid. Datisca cannabina[27] contains a coloring matter and another substance peculiar to itself, datiscin, a kind of starch, or allied to the glucosides.

Upon the same evolutionary plane among the monocotyledons, the dates and palms[28] contain in large quantities special starches, and this is in harmony with the principles of the theory. Alkaloids and glucosides have not yet been discovered in them.

Other monocotyledonous groups with simplicity of floral elements, such as the typhaceae, contain large quantities of starch; in the case of Typha latifolia[29] 12.5 per cent., and 1.5 per cent. gum. In the pollen of this same plant, 2.08 per cent. starch has been found.

Under the dicotyledonous groups, there are no plants with simplicity of floral elements.

Returning, now, to apetalous plants of multiplicity and simplification of floral elements, we find that the urticaceae[30] contain free formic acid; the hemp[31] contains alkaloids; the hop,[32] ethereal oil and resin; the rhubarb,[33] crysophonic acid; and the begonias,[34] chicarin and lapacho dyes. The highest apetalous plants contain camphors and oils; the highest of the monocotyledons contain a mucilage and oils; and the highest dicotyledons contain oils and special acids.

The trees yielding common camphor and borneol are from genera of the lauraceae family; also sassafras camphor is from the same family. Small quantities of stereoptenes are widely distributed through the plant kingdom.

The gramineae, or grasses, are especially characterized by the large quantities of sugar and silica they contain. The ash of the rice hull, for example, contains ninety eight per cent. silica.

The ranunculaceae contain many plants which yield alkaloids, as Hydrastia canadensis, or Indian hemp, Helleborus, Delphinum, Aconitum, and the alkaloid berberine has been obtained from genera of this family.

The alkaloid[35] furnishing families belong, with few exceptions, to the dicotyledons. The colchiceae, from which is obtained veratrine, form an exception among the monocotyledons. The alkaloids of the fungus have already been noted.

[36]Among the greater number of plant families, no alkaloids have been found. In the labiatae none has been discovered, nor in the compositae among the highest plants.

One alkaloid is found in many genera of the loganiaceae; berberine in genera of the berberidaceae, ranunculaceae, menispermaceae, rutaceae, papaveraceae, anonaceae.

Waxes are widely distributed in plants. They occur in quantities in some closely related families.

Ethereal oils occur in many families, in the bark, root, wood, leaf, flower, and fruit; particularly in myrtaceae, laurineae, cyperaceae, crucifereae, aurantiaceae, labiatae, and umbelliferae.

Resins are found in most of the higher plants. Tropical plants are richer in resins than those of cold climates.

Chemical resemblance between groups, as indicating morphological relations, has been well shown. For example: the similarity[37] of the viscid juices, and a like taste and smell, among cactaceae and portulaceae, indicate a closer relationship between these two orders than botanical classification would perhaps allow. This fact was corroborated by the discovery of irritable stamens in Portulaca and Opuntia, and other genera of cactaceae.

Darwin[38] states that in the compositae the ray florets are more poisonous than the disk florets, in the ratio of about 3 to 2.

Comparing the cycadeae and palmae, the former are differently placed by different botanists, but the general resemblance is remarkable, and they both yield sago.

Chemical constituents of plants are found in varying quantities during stated periods of the year. Certain compounds present at one stage of growth are absent at another. Many facts could be brought forward to show the different chemical composition of plants in different stages of growth. The Thuja occidentalis[39] in the juvenescent and adult form, offers an example where morphological and chemical differences go hand in hand. Analyses of this plant under both conditions show a striking difference.

Different parts of plants may contain distinct chemical compounds, and the comparative chemical study of plant orders comprises the analysis of all parts of plants of different species.

For example; four portions of the Yucca angustifolia[40] were examined chemically; the bark and wood of the root and the base and blades of the leaves. Fixed oils were separated from each part. These were not identical; two were fluid at ordinary temperature, and two were solid. Their melting and solidifying points were not the same.

This difference in the physical character and chemical reaction of these fixed oils may be due to the presence of free fatty acid and glycerides in varying proportions in the four parts of the plants. It is of interest to note that, in the subterranean part of the Yucca, the oil extracted from the bark is solid at the ordinary temperature; from the wood it was of a less solid consistency; while the yellow base of the leaf contained an oil quite soft, and in the green leaf the oil is almost fluid.

Two new resins were extracted from the yellow and green parts of the leaf. It was proposed to name them yuccal and pyrophaeal An examination of the contents of each extract showed a different quantitative and qualitative result.

Saponin was found in all parts of the plant.

Many of the above facts have been collected from the investigations of others. I have introduced these statements, selected from a mass of material, as evidences in favor of the view stated at the beginning of this paper.[41] My own study has been directed toward the discovery of saponin in those plants where it was presumably to be found. The practical use of this theory in plant analysis will lead the chemists at once to a search for those compounds which morphology shows are probably present.

I have discovered saponin in all parts of the Yucca angustifolia, in the Y. filimentosa and Y. gloriosa, in several species of agavae, and in plants belonging to the leguminosae family.

The list[42] of plants in which saponin has been discovered is given in the note. All these plants are contained in the middle plane of Heckel's scheme. No plants containing saponin have been found among apetalous groups. No plants have been found containing saponin among the lower monocotyledons.

The plane of saponin passes from the liliaceae and allied groups to the rosales and higher dicotyledons.

Saponin belongs to a class of substances called glucosides. Under the action of dilute acids, it is split up into two substances, glucose and sopogenin. The chemical nature of this substance is not thoroughly understood. The commercial[43] product is probably a mixture of several substances.