It is very improbable that such speeds will ever be exceeded. The limit has no doubt been reached. Very high speed is generally a delusion, and either results in indifferent work, or actually retards its progress. Some idea of the speed of the single thread machines now shown may be gathered from the fact that, running at 4,500, and making eight stitches to the inch, they accomplish over fourteen yards of sewing every minute.

Of special machines of interest, and which are too unwieldy to be shown here, I am enabled to exhibit a few photographs.

One of the most novel of these is the "Twin" machine, designed by the Singer company for the connecting together of the Jacquard cards used in lace machines. The operation was formerly performed by hand. It is now done by machine at less cost. The cards are placed upon a feeding drum, and fed beneath a pair of needles. The laces forming the connection between the cards are fed above and beneath, in line with the needles, and the whole is easily stitched together. An extension of the same device is the multiple machine, in which four needles and shuttles are used, sewing all the four seams at one operation. This method of linking the cards is considered better than similar work done by hand.

Of Wheeler & Wilson's new factory, at Bridgeport, and of the Singer company's great new factory near Glasgow, I am enabled to exhibit photographic views.

Before drawing my remarks to a close, I would briefly indicate the nature of the various machines shown upon the power benching. Of the Singer system, there are four. A drop-feed oscillating shuttle machine for manufacturing purposes; a wheel-feed oscillating shuttle machine, furnished with a trimmer, used chiefly in stitching leather and boot uppers; double chain-stitch machine, used for sack making, now shown for the first time; and a single thread "Lightning Sewer," fitted with a trimmer for hosiery work. Of Wheeler & Wilson's system, there is a drop-feed manufacturing machine with the new detached hook and latest improvements; a No. 10 machine with the usual hook, a wheel feed and trimmer, and a smaller machine of the same type with drop feed. Of Willcox & Gibbs' system, there is the ordinary single-thread machine for manufacturing, a single-thread machine, with a trimmer, as used in the hosiery trades, and a machine specially used for straw hat making.

We have here a small Singer machine, riding upon the edge of two pieces of carpet, a carpet machine weighing ten pounds. When the handle is turned, it stitches and travels over the edges, uniting them faster and more securely than six hand sewers; and several others, representative of the family type of sewing machine, besides Wheeler & Wilson's hemstitch machine, the working of which is of much interest.

I would now invite those of you who seek a better acquaintance with those curious and novel machines to freely examine and test the various types to be found upon the power benching and upon stands. One or two operators will come forward and show some of the capabilities of the machines upon actual work, in which the making of a straw hat will perhaps show what can be done in a few minutes by quick speed and expert fingers; but these performances must not be regarded in the light of competitive tests between the manufacturers showing them, and are intended merely to show the utility of motive power driving.

In conclusion, I desire to thank those gentlemen at the head of the leading firms of sewing machine manufacturers for the trouble they have taken to arrange for your inspection specimens of their excellent systems, and I have much satisfaction in expressing my obligations to them for ready assistance in the preparation of my paper.

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Power machines and treadle machines were exhibited by Messrs. Willcox & Gibbs, Messrs. Wheeler & Wilson, and the Singer Manufacturing Company. The motive power was provided by an electrical motor, supplied by Mr. Moritz Immish. The Howe Machine Company exhibited a model of the first machine made by Elias Howe, and also one of the most recent Howe machines. Mr. Newton Wilson showed a model of the Saint sewing machines, constructed from Thomas Saint's patent specification, 1790, and Mr. Carver showed the Standard sewing machine.

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THE NEW KRUPP GUNS.

Nothing is being talked about at present in Germany but the guns of great caliber that are manufacturing at the celebrated works on the banks of the Ruhr. As our neighbors appear to be elated over this wonderful work, it is expedient to examine the subject, in order to see whether their applause is legitimate.

We have known for a long time that the artillery materiel devoted to the defense of the German coasts consists of a long, stationary 53/4 inch gun; of long 73/4 inch hooped steel guns, closed by a cylindrico-prismatic wedge; of an 8 inch mortar; and of guns of 113/4 and 15 inch caliber. The 113/4 inch gun is 22 feet in length, and, including the closing mechanism, weighs 79,200 pounds. As regards the projectiles that this weapon throws, the ordinary shell is 33 inches in length, and weighs, all charged, 656 pounds, and the exploding shell, of the same length, weighs, all charged, 1,160 pounds. The initial velocity of the latter is 1,600 feet with a maximum charge of 148 pounds of powder.

The 15 inch gun is 32.8 feet in length, and weighs 158,400 pounds. Its projectiles are 3.67 feet in length. The ordinary shell, charge included, weighs 1,400 pounds, and the exploding shell, under the same circumstances, 1,700 pounds, that is, more than three quarters of a metric ton. The initial velocity of this last named projectile is 1,650 feet with a maximum charge of 1,650 pounds of powder. We also know that Mr. Krupp has two models of guns of 131/2 inch caliber, and of a length equal to 35 times the caliber, say 39-5/12 feet. The lighter of these models (which was shown at Anvers) weighs no less than 264,000 pounds, carriage not included. Its cylindrico prismatic closing mechanism (Rundkeilverschluss) alone weighs 82,500 pounds. This is the weight of a 53/4 inch hooped steel gun!



We now learn that the Essen works have just begun the manufacture of a 314,600 pound gun. This piece, called "40 cm. kanone L/40," will, of course, be of 15.6 inch caliber, but it will differ from the one above described in that its length will be equal to 40 times the caliber, say 52 feet, or to the space occupied on the maneuvering ground by a field piece drawn by six horses (Fig. 1). This gun will be provided with two kinds of projectiles. One of these, called light, will be 31/2 feet in length, weigh 1,628 pounds, and be capable of taking an initial velocity of 2,410 feet and of piercing, on its exit from the chamber, either a hammered iron plate 33/4 feet in thickness or two united plates 13/4 and 23/4 feet in thickness.

The shell called heavy will be 53/4 feet in length, and weigh 2,310 pounds, say more than a 43/4 inch siege piece! The charge employed will be 1,067 pounds of brown, prismatic Dunwald powder. Ten hundred and sixty-seven pounds—nearly half a metric ton, more than the weight of a field piece without its carriage! With this enormous charge, the heavy shell will be capable of an initial velocity of 2,100 feet and of piercing, on its exit from the chamber, either a hammered iron plate 4 feet in thickness or two united plates 2 and 2.88 feet in thickness.

The Cologne Gazette, from which we borrow most of the data just presented, adds that the "40 L/40" piece will be the largest cannon in the world, but that it will not long enjoy the privilege of such pre-eminence. It appears, in fact, that Mr. Krupp is preparing to manufacture a gun of 171/2 inch caliber, weighing 330,000 pounds. The projectile for this monster will be 6 feet in length, say the stature of a full grown man, and will weigh no less than a ton and a half. A man of medium stature will measure a little less than this projectile (Fig. 2).

It is possible that all these figures have been slightly exaggerated by the ultra-Vosges journals, who doubtless intend to make an impression upon us; but we shall not dwell upon that point.

As regards the penetrating power of the large "40 L/40" gun, the German press observes that in 1868 artillery was incapable of piercing in one-hundredths of an inch what it is now piercing in tenths of an inch. The principle was formerly admitted, it says, that a shell should by right have a thickness equal to its caliber. Now, "the largest cannon in the world" perforates a plate whose thickness is three times the diameter of the gun's bore. What great progress! exclaim the German journals, and how jealous the French and English are going to be! Jealous of that? Why, indeed? We are not the least in the world so. How could we be? In the first place, we have a gun of very great caliber—a 131/4 inch steel coast and siege piece. This weighs 37 tons, and is 363/4 feet in length. Its projectile weighs from 924 to 1,320 pounds, according to its internal organization. Its conoid head is very elongated, and by reason of this elegant form it always falls upon its point, even at falling angles of an amplitude approaching 60 degrees. The charge used varies from 396 to 440 pounds, according to the nature of the powder. As for the ballistic properties of the piece, they are very remarkable. Its projectile has an initial velocity of 2,132 feet, and the maximum range is from 10 to 11 miles, say the distance from Paris to Montgeron by the Paris-Lyons-Mediterranean railroad, or from Paris to Versailles. Finally, the accuracy of this gun is much greater than that of the 91/2 inch steel one. Now, the accuracy of this latter is such that it is impossible for its projectiles to miss a ship under way, and that we are sure of playing with it against the enemy that game whose device is "We win at every shot!" Well, we do not hesitate to say that these results appear to us to be satisfactory—we mean quite sufficient—and that there is no need of looking for a better gun. If there were, French industry would be capable of producing weapons of any caliber desired. As regards this, there is, so to speak, no limit; moreover, taking into account merely the terrestrial conditions of the problem, we may be satisfied that the great works of our country are more powerfully equipped than those of Essen, and consequently better able to forge large pieces of steel.

Mr. Krupp, it is said, is very proud of his two power hammers, which he has named Max and Fritz. But, on the whole, these two apparatus are only fifty ton ones, and have a fall of but ten feet. Now, Creusot and St. Chamond each has a hundred ton steam hammer with a fall of 16 feet, accompanied with four furnaces and four cranes.



But why proceed to the manufacture of monstrous guns, like those that Mr. Krupp has just produced, or meditates producing in the future; guns of such a caliber can be used only in special cases—in battery on the coast or on board of a ship. It is not with materiel of this kind that war is waged; it is with field pieces. Our ultra-Vosges neighbors well know this.

One of the reasons that the war that very recently threatened us did not break out, was because the Germans could not fail to see that their field materiel was not as powerful as ours; that the shell of our 31/2 inch gun weighs 171/2 pounds, while that of their heavy 31/2 inch gun does not weigh 15. Now, this difference has its value.

Hunters well know what importance it is necessary to attach to the number of the ball that they use.

This granted, it is well to observe that the net cost of the "40 cm. kanone L/40" must not be less than $300,000 or $400,000. Now, on the interest of such a sum we could have from ten to fifteen complete batteries, that is to say, comprising, in addition to the sixty or eighty guns, all the necessary accessories, such as carriages, limbers, caissons, harness, etc.

Frankly, between the two acquisitions, there is no hesitation possible.

Finally, if we must say so, we do not think that foreign powers, when they believe it their duty to provide themselves with materiel of great caliber, will think of supplying themselves from the Essen works, on account of the memorable accidents due to the imperfection of guns coming from this celebrated establishment. The list of burstings that have occurred, not only in Germany, but also in Russia, Bohemia, Italy, Turkey, and Roumania, is already a long one. To speak here only of what occurred in France in 1870-71, it is certain that out of seventy German guns of large caliber in battery against the southwest front of the wall of Paris, thirty-six—say more than half—were put out of service during the first fifteen days of the bombardment, and that too through firing merely; and it was the opinion of Mr. De Moltke himself that the German siege batteries would have been reduced to silence, had the defenders been able to hold out for a week longer. It is equally certain that, during the course of the Loire campaign, eighty guns of Prince Frederick Charles' were put out of service by the sole fact of their firing. Summing up the history of these many accidents, the Duke of Cambridge asserted to the House of Lords (April 30, 1876) that two hundred Krupp guns burst during the Franco-German war. Have the engineers of the Essen works improved their processes of manufacture since that epoch? It is permissible to doubt it, seeing that, very recently, the Italian navy refused to take from Mr. Krupp some 151/2 inch guns whose tubes were but very imperfectly welded.

Must the numerous accidents mentioned be attributed to defects in the metal employed? Were they due to defective hooping? Were they due to some one of the numerous inconveniences inherent to the cylindrico-prismatic system of closing (Rundkeilverschluss)?

They were doubtless owing to such causes combined.—La Nature.

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COLORS OF THIN PLATES.

The Right Hon. Lord Rayleigh lately delivered a lecture at the Royal Institution upon "The Colors of Thin Plates," a term which he explained was applied to thin films of substances, such as oily films on the surface of water or the equally familiar soap bubble. Although the reflection of colors from the surface of a soap bubble is probably the most noticeable, yet the "plate" which lends itself most readily for experiment is a film of air confined between two sheets of glass. If a ray of white light be reflected from the surface of the film upon a screen, the so-called Newton's rings, a series of colored concentric rings, are obtained. If, instead of reflected light, the ray of light transmitted through the film of air be allowed to fall upon the screen, the same phenomenon is observable, but the effect is very considerably minimized, owing to the great preponderance of white light, which overlies as it were the colored rings. Even in the first instance, as the lecturer was able to show later on, the colors are not nearly so intense as they may be obtained, owing to some white light being reflected from the surfaces of the two sheets of glass. With regard to the appearance of the phenomenon, it is observed that the part which corresponds to the thinnest part of the film is considerably darker than the rest of the spectrum; around this is a bright ring of white, succeeded by constantly increasing concentric rings of different colors apparently repeating themselves. Lord Rayleigh also obtained the same results with a film of a solution of soap and glycerine, but in this case the dark portion was observed at the top of the spectrum, the other colors arranging themselves in order in the soap film thinned by the force of gravitation, thus showing that the colors vary according to the thickness of the film. Another form of the experiment called forth a considerable amount of applause from the audience. Lord Rayleigh caused a gentle stream of air to play obliquely upon a soap film, so that the part struck was moved forward and the whole film rotated. Then with the alteration of the force of the current of air, which of course regulated the centrifugal force, alternating thicknesses of film were obtained, causing a varying display of beautiful colors and combinations of colors. This last experiment also tended to prove that the bands of color are not arranged in a certain order, but vary according to the thickness of the film, a conclusion arrived at by Brewster, who observed that if a film reflecting certain colors be carefully inverted so as not to disturb the gravity, the colors reflected are also inverted. Lord Rayleigh explained the phenomenon by referring to Young's wave theory of light. He regarded the film as having two surfaces from which light is reflected, an anterior exterior surface and a posterior interior surface. If a ray of light be thrown upon the film, a part of the light is reflected from the first surface, but the greater part is transmitted, and some of this is reflected from the second surface, passes back through the film, and is combined with the light reflected from the first surface. If then the light reflected from the second surface be in the same state of vibration as that reflected from the first surface, the effect of their combination will be to increase the amount of light reflected from the first surface, but if otherwise, the effect will be a partial neutralization of the light reflected from the first surface. That is to say, if the retardation of the light which is reflected from the second surface, owing to its twice traversing the thickness of the film, be equivalent to a wave length of the vibration of the light, it will increase the intensity of the light reflected from the first surface. If, however, the retardation be only equivalent to half a wave length, the intensity of the light will be decreased. Thus, then, with a ray of monochromatic light it will be seen that the effect of difference in the thickness of the film will be to alter the intensity of the reflected ray, but with a white light composed of several colors the result will be more complicated. As each color has a different wave length in vibration, it will be seen that each color will act independently of the others, and a certain thickness of film which, upon the combination of the two reflected rays, will cause one particular color to be intensified, will at the same time cause the other colors to be more or less obscured.

Thus as the thickness of the film is altered different colors preponderate, causing the appearance of rings or bands, according to the nature of the experiment. The dark appearance on the screen corresponding to the thinnest part of the film is probably due to refraction of the ray of light reflected from the second surface, consequent in its passing from a rare into a denser medium, and again from the denser medium into the rare, which refraction Lord Rayleigh considers to effect a retardation equivalent to half a wave length. Lord Rayleigh supported this theory of the formation of Newton's rings by several interesting experiments. A beam of light was intercepted by two of Nicol's prisms, one of which acted as a polarizer and the other as an analyzer of the light, so that no light was able to pass through both on to the screen. Between the two prisms a double refractive lens was now placed, in this case a double concave lens of selenite, when the same series of concentric rings observed with the film of air was obtained on the screen, only much more intense, while a wedge of selenite gave the bands of color in the same order as with the soap bubble.

But perhaps the most striking proof of the dependence of the colors upon the thickness of the film was shown by the reflection of a beam of light from a piece of mica composed of twenty-four very attenuated plates overlapping each other. With each layer a marked gradation in color was visible.

The remainder of the lecture was devoted to an explanation of the determination of the chromatic relations of the colors of the spectrum. Lord Rayleigh at this point made a rather startling statement that any color can be produced by two other colors. As an example of such a formation, a ray of white light was passed separately through a solution of yellow chromate of potash and an alkaline litmus solution, throwing respectively a yellow and violet-blue color upon the screen. When the ray was made to pass through the two solutions successively, an orange-yellow color was obtained upon the screen, which color Lord Rayleigh asserted to be made up of red and green rays. To prove this, the ray of white light was decomposed by means of a prism, and the decomposed rays passed through the two solutions. The one solution was found to exclude all the yellow and orange rays from the spectrum, while the other excluded all the blue and violet rays, so that when the ray had passed through both solutions, only the red and green rays were left. If, instead of allowing the decomposed ray of light to pass through a slit, and thus obtain definite bands in the spectrum, the ray was passed through a circular hole, the red and green colors overlapped each other on the screen, forming by their combination the identical orange-yellow color obtained with the primary white light. It was then stated that if three definite positions be taken in a spectrum in the red, green, and violet bands respectively, and these positions be represented by the corners of an equilateral triangle (Clerk Maxwell's triangle), it has been mathematically determined in what position within this triangle the colors of Newton's rings would fall. Lord Rayleigh, by means of a diagram and the selenite wedge, showed that the relations to the three standard colors in practice were identical with the position assigned them by theory.

In conclusion, the lecturer showed a piece of glass, the surface of which had been decomposed, a ray of light transmitted through which showed upon the screen patches of very pure color. These he considered to be due to the glass consisting of a number of thin plates, some of which had been removed by the decomposition.

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BELT JOINTS.

From time to time, serious accidents have taken place, and the progress of work stopped, by the sudden snapping of driving belts in machinery, and, as a general rule, it is found that the collapse is attributable either to faulty leather or insecure joining. A great improvement of the leather intended for belts has been brought about during the last few years, by the introduction of improved processes for currying and the subsequent treatment. Paterson has worked successfully a patent for rendering belt leather more pliable, and lessening the tendency to stretch. Under this treatment the leather is either curried or rough dried, and then soaked in a solution of wood, resin, and gum thus, or frankincense, first melted together, and then dissolved, by the application of heat, in boiled or linseed oil. The leather, after this process, is soaked in petroleum or carbon bisulphide containing a little India-rubber solution, and is finally washed with petroleum benzoline. Should the mixture be found to be too thick, it is thinned down with benzoline spirit until it is about the consistency of molasses at the ordinary temperature. The leather so prepared is not liable to stretch, and can be joined in the usual way by copper riveting, or the ends can be sewn. A good material for smaller belts, and for strings and bands for connecting larger ones, is that recently patented by Vornberger, in which the gut of cattle is the basis. After careful cleansing, the gut is split up into strands, and treated with a bath of pearlash water for several days. The strands are then twisted together, and after being dipped in a solution of Condy's fluid, are dried. They are then sulphured in a wooden box for twenty-four hours, after which the twisting can be completed. They are by this process rendered pliable, and can be used in this state for stitching the leather ends of larger belts, or can be stiffened by plunging them into a bath of isinglass and white wine vinegar. After drying they are susceptible of a fine polish, emery cloth being usually employed, and the final "finish" is given to the material with gum arabic and oil.

Canvas and woven fabrics, coated with India-rubber, are also now being used for driving belts and for covering machine rollers. As this material can be made in one piece, without the necessity of a joint, it is uniform in strength, and is recommended as a substitute for leather belts requiring joints. A patented material of this description is due to Zingler, who boils the canvas or similar woven fabric under pressure in a solution of tungstate of soda for three hours. It is then transferred to a bath of acetate of lead solution, and drained, dried, and stretched. When in this condition it is coated, by means of a spreading machine, with repeated layers of a composition consisting of India-rubber, antimony sulphide, peroxide of iron, sulphur, lime, asbestos, chalk, sulphate of zinc, and carbonate of magnesia. When a sufficient thickness of this composition has been applied, it is vulcanized under pressure at a temperature of 250 deg. F., or a little higher. The material produced in this manner is said to have the strength and durability of the best leather belts. Attempts have recently been made to obtain a glue suitable for joining the ends of driving belts, without the use of metal fastenings or sewing, and Messrs. David Kirkaldy & Son have reported favorably on such a belt glue, which is being introduced by Mr. W.V. Van Wyk, of 30 and 31 Newgate street, E.C. In the test applied by them, a joint of this "Hercules glue," as it is called, in a 4 in. single belt was stronger than the solid leather. When a tensile stress of 2,174 lb., equivalent to 2,860 lb. per square inch of section, was applied, the leather gave way, leaving the joint intact. Belts fastened by a scarf joint with this glue are said to be of absolutely the same thickness and pliability at the joint as in the main portion of the belt, and thus insure freedom from noise and perfect steadiness. The instructions for use are simple, and it requires only fifteen minutes for the joint to set before being ready for use. From a rough chemical analysis of the sample submitted to us, we find that it consists of gelatine, with small amounts of mineral ingredients. Josef Horadam, some few years ago, patented in Germany a process for preserving glues from decomposition, by the addition of from 8 to 10 per cent. of magnesium or calcium chlorides. The addition of these salts does not impair in any way the strength of the glue, but prevents it from decomposing, and it may be that the "Hercules glue" is preserved in a similar manner.

A cement of this nature, if thoroughly to be relied on, must be of great value, although the great variation in the quality of leather, apart from the difficulty hitherto experienced of securely connecting the ends together, opens a wide field for a material of uniform composition, and capable of being made in one piece in suitable lengths for driving belts and other machine gear.—Industries.

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INAUGURATION OF THE STATUE OF DENIS PAPIN.

A large crowd was present recently at the inauguration of the statue of Denis Papin, which took place in the court of the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers, under the presidency of Mr. Lockroy, Minister of Commerce and the Industries.



In the large hall in which the addresses were made there were several municipal counselors, the representatives of the Minister of War, Captains Driant and Frocard, several members of the Institute, and others. A delegation from the Syndical Chamber of Conductors, Enginemen, and Stokers, which contributed through a subscription toward the erection of the statue, was present at the ceremony with its banner. Mr. Lanssedat, superintendent of the Conservatoire, received the guests, assisted by all the professors. Mr. Lanssedat opened the proceedings by an address in which he paid homage to the scientists who were persecuted while living, to Denis Papin, who did for mechanics what Nicolas le Blanc did for chemistry, and to those men whose entire life was devoted to the triumph of the cause of science.

After this, an address was delivered by Mr. Lockroy, who expatiated upon the great services rendered by the master of all the sciences known at that epoch, who was in turn physician, physicist, mechanician, and mathematician, and who, in discovering the properties of steam, laid the foundation of modern society, which, so to speak, arose from this incomparable discovery.

Speeches were afterward made by Mr. Feray d'Essonnes, president of the Syndical Chamber of Conductors, Enginemen, and Stokers, and by Prof. Comberousse, of the Central School, who broadly outlined the life of Papin.

Along about four o'clock, the Minister of Commerce and the Industries, followed by all the invited guests, repaired to the court, and the veil that hid the statue was then lifted amid acclamation.

Papin is represented as standing and performing an experiment.

Upon the pedestal is the following inscription:

DENIS PAPIN BORN IN 1647, DIED ABOUT 1714, INVENTED THE STEAM ENGINE IN 1690

NATIONAL SUBSCRIPTION, 1886.

The inauguration is due to the initiative of Mr. Lanssedat, for it was he who in 1885 suggested the national subscription, which was quickly raised.

Denis Papin was born at Blois on the 22d of August, 1647. He was the son of a physician. After the example of his father and of several of his relatives, he studied medicine and took his degree; but his taste for mathematics, and especially for experimental physics, soon led him to abandon medicine.

It was in 1690 that he published in the Actes of Leipsic the memoir which will forever and irrevocably assign to him the priority in the invention of steam engines and steamboats, and the title of which was: "New method of cheaply obtaining the greatest motive powers."

In 1704, Papin, poor and obliged to do everything for himself, finished his first steamboat; but for want of money he was unable to make a trial of it until August 15, 1707. The trial was made upon the Fulda and Wera, affluents of the Weser.

The operation succeeded wonderfully, and, shortly afterward, Papin, being desirous of rendering the experiment complete, put his boat on the Weser; but the stupid boatmen of this river drew his craft ashore and broke it and its engine in pieces.

This catastrophe ruined Papin, and annihilated all his hopes. The great man, falling into shocking destitution, broken down and conquered by adversity, returned to England in 1712 to seek aid and an asylum.

Everywhere repulsed, he returned to Cassel about 1714, sad and discouraged; and the man to whom we owe that prodigy, the steam engine, that instrument of universal welfare and riches, disappeared without leaving any trace of his death.—Le Monde Illustre.

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DECORATION.

THE STUDY OF ORNAMENTS.

[Footnote: Authorities consulted in preparing this paper: "Analysis of Ornament," Wornum; "Truth, Beauty, and Power," Dresser; "Lectures on Art." F.W. Moody; "Hopes and Fears for Art," Wm. Morris; "Ornamental Art," Hulme; "Manuals of Art Education," Prang.]

By MISS MARIE R. GARESCHE, St. Louis High School.

Decoration is the science and art of beautifying objects and rendering them more pleasing to the eye. As an art, individual taste and skill have much to do with the perfection of the results; as a science, it is subject to certain invariable laws and principles which cannot be violated, and a study of which, added to familiarity with some of the best examples, will enable any one to appreciate and understand it, even if lacking the skill and power to create original and beautiful designs.

The study of decoration offers many advantages. It cultivates the imagination and the taste; it develops our capacity for recognizing and enjoying the beautiful in both nature and art; it adds to the pleasure and refinement of life. Practically, its importance can hardly be overestimated, as it enters into almost all the industrial pursuits. We can think of but few classes of objects, even the most simple, in which some attempt at ornamentation is not made.

Ornament is one of the principal means of enhancing the value of the raw material. A piece of carved wood, or an artistically decorated porcelain vase, worth perhaps many hundred dollars, if reduced to the commercial value of the material of which they are composed would be valued at but a few dollars or cents. The higher the ornamentation ranks, from an artistic point of view, the greater becomes the value of the article to which it is applied. Knowledge of good designs is thus evidently important, to the purchaser of the object ornamented as well as to the designer who planned it. This can only be attained by cultivation.

To know and appreciate the best ornament should be an aim set forth in any scheme of general education. This knowledge and appreciation can be obtained by studying the application of the laws and principles of ornamental art as exemplified in the works of masters, and also by endeavoring to apply these principles in designs of our own creation.

PRINCIPLES OF ORNAMENT.

We can only arrive at a knowledge of these principles by a consideration of the object. In other words, nature and history must be studied. First, nature, for she is the primary source and origin of all good ornament, whether ancient or modern; and if, as in everything else, we would not become servile imitators and weak copyists, we must go to the fountain head. Second, history, for by the study of the ornament of past ages we will not only become acquainted with the highest developments of which ornamental art is capable, but will moreover broaden our views as to its object and scope, and will stimulate our own imagination and invention, by leading us to the contemplation of the myriad beautiful and protean forms it has assumed, when surrounding conditions, such as religion, climate, temperament, nationality, etc., have been different. Knowledge of historic ornament will also prevent the imposition on the public, so common in our day, of weak and unworthy productions which claim to be based on classic originals, and which constitute a great stumbling block to the progress and appreciation of good art. The result is somewhat analogous to that produced upon conscientious but ill-informed minds, who make every effort to appreciate and enjoy the spurious productions of a great author, not knowing that they are not genuine.

POSITION AND SCOPE OF ORNAMENTAL OR DECORATIVE ART.

I. Object of Ornamental Art.—The object or purpose of ornament, as in the other fine arts, is to please. In music and poetry this enjoyment is conveyed to the mind through the ear; in the decorative and pictorial arts, through the eye. Generally, the meaning that we find in such productions, the appeal that they make to the understanding or feelings, is as great a source of interest to us as their intrinsic beauty. Poetry and vocal music are greatly dependent for their effect upon the meaning they convey in words; painting and sculpture, upon the ideas or sentiments they suggest. In all four, however, and most decidedly in music unaccompanied by words, the appeal is frequently made almost exclusively to the aesthetic sense, the mind or intellect remaining almost dormant under the impression. Gems of rhythmical verse, such as Poe's "Bells," "The Raven," Whistler's "Symphonies in Color," nameless forms in statuary, expressionless save in the mere beauty of their proportions and curves, and, as has been stated, nearly the entire field of instrumental music, are cases in point. In the ornamental and decorative arts, as well as in architecture (from which they are indeed inseparable), beauty alone, in like manner, should be the principal aim and purpose. In the former, of course, it is indispensable that such should be the case, as they are entirely subordinate and accessory in their nature, their only raison d'etre being to beautify or render more agreeable objects already created for some purpose.

It must not be imagined that such artistic impressions—viz., where the appeal is made almost solely to the aesthetic sense, regardless of the reason, judgment, or feelings—are necessarily of a lower order. Their effect is almost analogous to that which nature herself produces upon us—the starry heavens, the mighty ocean, the tender flower. The impression, whether the object belongs to the domain of nature or art, may be a merely sensuous one; and if it stops there, as it certainly does for the majority of people, it ranks without doubt far below productions where the aesthetic element is only used to stimulate and heighten the appeal to the mind or the feelings. But if it extend beyond, and makes the sensuous impression but the parting link to the contemplation of ideal, abstract beauty, without the intermediate aid of the heart or the reason, it is the shortest and quickest road toward the realization of the infinite, and makes us indeed feel that it is but a short step "from nature up to nature's God." Thus architecture, which embodies, more than any other of the space arts, principles of abstract beauty, has been with reason called the noblest of them all.

However, ornamental and architectural forms frequently do convey a meaning, which we term symbolism in art. If this symbolism does not detract from the first object of ornament—viz., to beautify—it is perfectly legitimate and proper. It is impossible to fully appreciate many phases of art, as, for instance, the Egyptian and the early Christian, if we leave out of sight the symbolism which pervades them.

While beauty, or capacity for pleasing the eye, may be very definitely said to be the aim of ornamental art, it is difficult to arrive at a universal standard as to what constitutes beauty. What pleases one person will not always please another. The child loves glittering objects and gaudy combinations, which the mature taste of the man declares extravagant and unharmonious. Savages decorate their weapons, utensils, and their own persons with ornaments that appear uncouth and barbarous to civilized people.

Besides these differences in taste, which are due to different degrees of mental development, and which can consequently be easily disposed of, we find among highly civilized and cultured nations, at different periods, a great diversity of tastes. These varying and sometimes apparently conflicting products of ornamental art we designate as styles, viz., Egyptian style, Greek style, Gothic style, etc. So marked are the differences between them that we can sometimes tell at a glance to what period and to what style a small fragment of decoration belongs.

Notwithstanding these differences, which at first may appear very great, a careful study of the best styles—those that achieved the greatest and most lasting popularity—will reveal the fact that they are all based upon certain fundamental laws and principles, and that all are good, bad, or indifferent according as they conform to or violate these principles. These essentials having been preserved, the opportunities for the exercise of individual or national taste are almost boundless.

II. Position of Ornament.—The position that ornament occupies is necessarily a secondary one, as it cannot exist independently, but is always applied to objects created for some purpose entirely independent of their capacity for pleasing. This gives us one of the great underlying principles that should characterize all ornament, viz., it must be subordinate to the object which it adorns, and must not detract from its use. We often see this rule violated in personal, household, and architectural decoration—windows so overloaded with projecting cornices and lattice work as to almost exclude light and air; knife handles carved so elaborately that it is impossible to grasp them firmly; styles of dress in form or color that impede the motions of the wearer, and make the clothes, rather than the personality of the wearer, the most noticeable feature. From this principle there is but a step to another: All ornament should be modest and moderate. It must not obtrude itself, and a great profusion and ostentation in its application is always a sign of degeneracy and bad taste. Of course some objects, from their nature, position, and use, will admit of greater and more elaborate ornament than others.

Ornament, being entirely subordinate, should not conceal the construction of the object. In architecture it should follow the leading lines of the building, and should emphasize, or at least suggest, the construction. If architectural in character, it should so enter into the construction of the building that it could not be taken away without injuring it.

We must feel that a column, no matter how beautiful, is supporting something. A floor, always a plane surface, must not be tiled or decorated in any way to express relief. This would apparently destroy the essential constructive quality of a floor, viz., flatness. For the same reason, all shams, such as painted arches, pillars, etc., are not legitimate. As long as they do not actually exist, they are evidently not necessary to the construction, and have no purpose save an imaginary decorative one, and in the words of Owen Jones, construction must be decorated—not decoration constructed.

III. Scope of Ornament.—The scope of ornamental art is almost boundless. It is applied to objects large and small, adapted to the most various uses, constructed of the most different materials. As the ornamentation is always to be subordinate to the object, considerations regarding size, use, position, material, etc., must govern it. An ornament that would be admirable applied to one object, might be detestable if applied to another. A design cannot be made without reference to its future application.

First: The material must be considered. Heavy and hard materials, such as wood and stone, will not admit of as delicate curves and lines as textile fabrics, such as cotton and woolen goods, laces, etc.

Second: The manner in which the article is to be made, whether by weaving, cutting, carving, casting, etc.

Third: The position the object is to occupy. If elevated or otherwise remote from the eye, elaborate finish and minute detail are useless. Ornamental art, from time immemorial, has attained its greatest excellence and exercised its greatest influence in connection with architecture.

In fact, the study of ornament is inseparable from that of architecture. It is upon architectural forms that the greatest artists have in all ages expended their greatest efforts and skill, and in a treatise on historic ornament they are decidedly the most interesting and important object of study.

IV. Material of Ornament.—The two great sources of ornament are geometry and nature. The latter includes the former; for not only must natural forms, in order to be available as material for ornament, be first conventionalized, or reduced to regular, symmetrical, geometric outlines, but any and all designs, whether the unit of repetition be geometric or conventional, must be founded upon geometric construction. This refers to the regularity, repetition, and distribution of parts; so that every good design, if reduced to its principal lines of construction, would exhibit but a few geometric lines and inclosing spaces. Many designs are not only geometric in their basis or plan, but make use of geometric figures as the units or materials of design. Such designs, however, rank lower than those in which natural forms conventionalized are taken as the subjects of repetition; and as the ornament rises in the scale toward perfection, even the geometric basis becomes less and less apparent, and sinks into a decidedly subordinate position; so that in many of the most perfect specimens it can be traced only in a few leading lines of the composition. Its presence, however, is necessary, and is the foundation, if not the most important element, of beauty in the design.

RELATION BETWEEN NATURE AND ORNAMENTAL ART.

While the natural world, including leaves, flowers, animals, etc., is the greatest source of ornament, it is generally the opinion of the best authorities, derived from the study of the best styles and by a consideration of the principles of fitness and propriety which underlie the entire physical and moral world, that natural forms in ornamental and decorative art should not be literally copied or imitated. That is the aim of painting, sculpture, and the other representative arts, where the object is to present something to the eye which will suggest at once the actual presence of the object. To produce that effect, the object, whether animal or vegetable, is represented as much as possible in the actual circumstances of its existence, surrounded by the necessary conditions of its well-being and growth. A frame is placed around it, to shut it off as much as possible from other surroundings, and thus help us delude ourselves that we are in the presence of the real thing, either as it would impress us through our senses or our imagination.

But in ornamental art the case is entirely different. As it is to be applied and consequently subordinated to something, and does not exist for itself, it would be impossible, except in very rare instances, to introduce in a design a natural object in a realistic manner and not violate some important law of its growth or the conditions of its well-being. For instance, to exactly repeat a certain rose, with all the accidents of its growth, many times in a carpet is not natural. Nature never repeats herself. Moreover, to tread on that which is supposed to suggest to us real roses is barbarous. It would really be outraging and distorting nature while pretending to be her faithful disciple and imitator.

We not only derive from nature the most important materials for our designs, but also the various modes of arranging this material. Various modes of repetition—radical, bilateral, etc.—were all probably suggested by some natural arrangement observed in flowers, leaves, etc. Of these different arrangements it is curious to note that the bilateral is more characteristic of the higher forms of nature and the radiating of the lower. The leading principles of ornament—symmetry, proportion, rhythm, contrast, unity, variety, repose, etc.—are all exemplified in natural forms. The latter have also suggested many of the most important architectural forms. The Gothic cathedral, with its clustered columns branching and forming pointed arches overhead, was probably suggested by a grove of trees with overarching branches and boughs. The idea of the column was derived from the papyrus plant, a species of reed growing in the river Nile. The bud or flower suggested the capital of the column; the stalk, the shaft; and the bulbous root, the pedestal. The blue vault of the sky undoubtedly suggested the dome, etc.

The following are a few of the leading principles of ornamental art as set forth by Owen Jones in his Grammar of Ornament, a fine work, magnificently illustrated, whose perusal could hardly fail to delight the most indifferent:

"All good ornamental art should possess fitness, proportion, harmony, the result of all which is repose."

"Construction should be decorated. Decoration should never be purposely constructed."

"All ornament should be based upon geometrical construction."

"Harmony of form consists in the proper balancing and contrast of the straight, the inclined, and the curved."

"In surface decoration all lines should flow out of a parent stem. Every part, however distant, should be traced to its branch or root. Natural law."

"All junctions of curved lines with each other, or with straight lines, should be tangential to each other. Natural law."

"Natural forms, as subjects of ornament, should not be imitated, but should be conventionalized."

HISTORIC ORNAMENT.

The origin of all attempts at decorating or beautifying objects lies in the universal love of mankind for the beautiful. Once the necessaries of life provided for, man instinctively, the world over, turns his attention toward gratifying this feeling, by improving and decorating the forms around him—his arms, utensils, dwelling, or his own person. The history of every nation proves this, and no matter how rude, and even ugly, their efforts may seem to us, we are bound to recognize in them the same motives that actuated the builders of the Parthenon or of St. Peter's at Rome. This awakening and gratification of the aesthetic sense seems to be the first advance from a condition of mere animal existence, in which food, shelter, and comfort are the only considerations, to tastes and desires that are higher and, consequently, more impersonal.

The term historic ornament is applied to the various styles of ornamental art which have flourished at various periods in the world's history, from the Egyptian, dating from the 14th century B.C., to those that exist at the present day. Their number is, consequently, almost unlimited, and we will confine ourselves to the consideration of a few of the principal ones only—those that have achieved the most enduring fame, or those that exercised the most marked influence upon succeeding styles.

In considering the various styles, we must always bear in mind that, with the exception of the Egyptian, all show very markedly the influence of the styles that preceded them, being very often merely an outgrowth or development of a preceding one. Thus the Greeks borrowed many forms from the Egyptians. The Romans simply adapted and elaborated the Greek style, etc. So that while each style is usually known by certain prominent characteristics, it does not follow that these characteristics are peculiar to it alone.[1] They may be found in other styles, though not to such a great extent. While similar features will thus be seen to run through many styles, each will usually be found to possess an individuality of its own. Every nation, like every individual, possesses different wants and capabilities, and will develop itself accordingly. Differences in religion, climate, manners, customs, etc., will cause differences in their art and literature, the most lasting monuments of their morals, taste, and feelings.

[Footnote 1: "Rudiments of Architecture and Building," through courtesy of H.C. Baird.]

It is rather by the study of the art and literature of a people that we arrive at a true knowledge of them than from the perusal of mere historic facts concerning them—when they lived, who conquered them, etc.

THE STYLES.

ANCIENT OR CLASSIC. 1400 B.C.—300 A.D.

Egyptian.—Characteristics: symbolic, severe, simple, grand, massive. Conventional forms of lotus, papyrus, etc. Oblique lines.

Greek.—Characteristics: aesthetic, simple, harmonious, beautiful. Conventional forms, anthemion, acanthus. Ellipse.

Roman.—Characteristics: elaborate, rich, costly. Conventional forms, acanthus scroll, monsters. Circle.

MEDIEVAL. 300 A.D.—1300 A.D.

Byzantine.—Symbolic, rich, elaborate. Conventional forms, principal architectural feature—dome.

Saracenic.—Gorgeous coloring, graceful curves. Forms entirely geometric. Arabesque, geometrical tracery, interlacing.

Gothic.—Imposing, grand. Pointed arches, clustered columns, vaulted roof, spire buttress. Forms both natural and conventional. Stained glass.

MODERN OR RENAISSANCE. 1300 A.D.—1900 A.D.

Renaissance.—Mixture of classic and mediaeval elements. Result not generally good.

Cinquecento.—AEsthetic, revival of true classic principles. Beautiful curves, fine proportions and distribution. Conventional animal and plant forms. Human figure.

Louis Quatorze.—Sparkling, glittering. Absence of color, want of symmetry.

I. ANCIENT OR CLASSIC ART.

Ancient art is also known as classic, a term which, in architecture, sculpture, painting, and music, is almost synonymous with good and admirable. Taken as a whole and at its best, classic art has never been surpassed. The designs of the Greeks, Romans, and Egyptians, and even the forms of their buildings, are still copied at the present day.

The horizontal line is a marked feature of classic art. It is visible in the leading lines of their architecture, in the frequency of horizontal borders, friezes, etc. It accords admirably with the constructive features of classic architecture, and thus conforms to the important decorative principle that ornament should emphasize rather than disguise construction.

1. Egyptian Art.—The oldest of which we have any record dates from 1800 B.C. Egyptian art is symbolic, that is to say, the forms were chosen not so much on account of their beauty as for the purpose of conveying some meaning. The government of Egypt being almost entirely in the hands of the priests, these symbols were generally of a religious character, signifying power and protection. The principal ones were: The lotus, signifying plenty, abundance; the zigzag, symbolic of the river Nile; the winged globe or scarabaeus, signifying protection and dominion, usually placed over doors of houses; the fret, type of the Great Labyrinth, with its three thousand chambers, which was, in its turn, symbolic of the life of a human soul.

The column originated with the Egyptians. It was at first heavy, broad compared to its length, and was usually covered with hieroglyphics. The architecture of Egypt, of which the principal forms are pyramids, sphinxes, obelisks, and temples, is characterized by massiveness of material, grandeur of proportion, and simplicity of parts—a style well suited to its flat, sandy soil, though it would look heavy and out of place in a country where nature had herself supplied the elements of grandeur and massiveness in the form of lofty mountains or mighty forests. Egyptian art greatly influenced all the succeeding styles, and to this time is unsurpassed in many of its qualities.

2. Greek Art.—The next great historic style is the Greek. Its spirit differed entirely from the Egyptian, being aesthetic and not symbolic. Its sole aim was to create beautiful forms, without any thought of attaching to them a meaning. It adopted many Egyptian forms, such as the lotus, fret, and scroll, but divested them of all symbolism or significance. The most characteristic feature of Greek ornament is the anthemion, a conventionalized flower form resembling our honeysuckle bud, which was usually alternated with the lotus or lily form bud. The Greeks also borrowed the column and flat arch from the Egyptians, but changed it to a more slender, graceful form. The three principal orders of Greek architecture are named from the style of the column used that characterized them, viz., the Corinthian, the Doric, the Ionic. Of these the Doric is the simplest and the Corinthian the most elaborate.

For harmony of proportions, elegance of form, and simplicity of detail, Greek architecture and ornament has probably never been surpassed. These qualities are admirably displayed in the Parthenon, a temple in Athens, dedicated to Venus. Though in ruins, it is still one of the greatest attractions to travelers in Greece. A very fine collection of fragments taken from it is to be seen in the British Museum. They are known as the Elgin marbles.

The most flourishing period of Greek art, as will be found in the history of almost all nations, was identical with the most flourishing period of its literature and general welfare.

3. Roman Art.—In the 6th century B.C. the Greeks, already on the decline, were conquered by the Romans, a nation hardier and more powerful, though ruder and less civilized than themselves. The conquerors recognized this, and immediately set to work to copy or steal from their vanquished foes everything that might enhance the beauty and splendor of their own city. Greek artists were transported to Rome and placed in charge of the most important public works. Roman art is, consequently, but a development or adaptation of the Greek. It is noticeable, however, that it almost completely ignored the most characteristic and popular of the Greek forms—for example, the anthemion—and adapted those, such as the acanthus and the scroll, which had been considered of minor importance among the Greeks. They added another to the three orders of the Greek architecture, viz., the Composite, the most elaborate of all, being a combination of the Ionic and the Corinthian. This leads us to consider the leading features of Roman ornament—richness and profusion. With the acanthus and scroll as their principal units of design, they elaborated and enriched every form that would admit of it. The most elaborate Greek example cannot compare in this respect to the simplest Roman. The Roman style of architecture was very similar to the Greek, though more massive in its proportions, probably on account of the larger number of people to be accommodated. The details were also bolder and the curves fuller. They used the round arch to a great extent. The column of Trajan and the Forum are fine examples of their architecture.

II. MEDIAEVAL ART.

The Roman empire, after having reigned as mistress of the world for upward of five centuries, commenced to show signs of decay. Its people had gradually lost the sturdy spirit of independence, endurance, and courage which had characterized their forefathers, and had degenerated into a race of effeminate slaves and cowards. Ostentation became the feature of their art; immorality and luxury, of their mode of living. They thus fell an easy prey to the rude but vigorous barbarians of the North. The latter, rude and uncivilized as they were, extended the contempt they had for the nation they had conquered to their works of art as well, and mutilated or destroyed them whenever they could lay hands on them.

This spirit of antagonism was strengthened upon their conversion to Christianity, and everything that savored of paganism in art or literature was severely proscribed. For the heathen forms, whose only aim and object was beauty, were substituted religious symbols, the cross and other implements of the passion, the lily, the fish, the aureole, etc., whose object was to recall to the faithful the mysteries of religion. Gradually, however, as the artistic feelings of the new people became awakened, principles of beauty commenced to be regarded, and, while symbolism remained an important feature of European art until the period of the Renaissance, and even then was not entirely superseded, magnificent artistic results were obtained.

1. Byzantine Art.—The principal of the early mediaeval art developments was the Byzantine. It flourished principally in the eastern part of Europe. In the west it was known, with a few variations, as the Lombard and the Norman. All three are often included under the term Romanesque.

Byzantine art was essentially Christian in its spirit and motives. It used religious symbols extensively, but incorporated in its ornament a few pagan elements, such as the acanthus and the scroll. Natural forms were always conventionally treated. Its coloring was rich and gorgeous. The principal features of its architecture were the dome and round arch. The plan of the churches was often in the form of a Greek or Latin cross, with the dome placed over the intersection of the two arms. The church of St. Sophia, in Constantinople, is the most magnificent example of Byzantine architecture and ornament. Although now a Mohammedan mosque, it is, probably, in the motive and spirit that actuated its construction, the most Christian building in the world.

2. Saracenic Art.—Developed from the Byzantine by the Moors and the Saracens. It differs from it, however, in one important respect. While the Byzantine makes use of numerous conventionalized plant and animal forms, the Saracens and Moors were forbidden by their religion, the Mohammedan, to copy in any manner the form of any living thing, animal or vegetable. They were thus limited entirely to geometric forms, which, however, often fall insensibly into flower and leaf forms. Interlacing bands and curves of intricate pattern, and exhibiting the peculiar Moorish curve, are very characteristic of Saracenic ornament. Inscriptions were frequently interwoven in this tracery.

The coloring was gorgeous, consisting principally of blue, red, and gold.

The principal arches used were the pointed and the horseshoe arch. The Alhambra Palace in Spain is the most famous example of Saracenic ornament and architecture.

3. Gothic Art.—Gothic art grew out of the Byzantine, all the symbolic elements being retained. It is divided into many different varieties.

In the earliest the round arch was used, but the later and more perfect styles having employed the pointed arch almost exclusively, the latter became characteristic of Gothic art generally. It is a style of architecture and ornament usually applied to churches, and well adapted to moist and cold climates on account of the sloping roof. Clustered columns, the spire or belfry, the arched roof, and the division of the interior into nave, transept, and choir, are leading features. Natural as well as conventional treatment of plants is another important characteristic.



The Gothic style flourished principally in England, France, and parts of Germany. Nearly all the principal cathedrals and churches in these countries, and many in our own, are built after this style. The most beautiful example in this country is St. Patrick's Cathedral, in New York. The finest specimen in the world is probably the Cathedral of Cologne, which was commenced in the 14th century, but was not completed until many years later.

III. MODERN ART.

In the 15th century a remarkable revival occurred in literature and the fine arts, showing a decided tendency to return to the old classic ideas of the Greeks and Romans. After an almost complete neglect, which lasted for centuries, artists and men of letters turned their attention to the long neglected relics of pagan civilization as worthy of study for their intrinsic beauty alone. Symbolism was relegated to a minor position, and beauty was once more cultivated for its own sake. This epoch is termed the Renaissance—which literally means a rebirth or revival.

1. Renaissance Style.—The term Renaissance is also applied to one of the early styles which came into vogue at this time. It flourished principally in southern Europe. It is not a pure style, but marks a transition period from the old popular Gothic and Saracenic forms to the revivified classic. It naturally exhibits a queer mixture of conflicting elements—classic and mediaeval thrown together without much regard to propriety or fitness. It still showed traces of symbolism.

2. The Cinquecento Style.—The Renaissance reached its most perfect development in the Cinquecento or the 15th century style. It followed the Quatrocento or 14th century style. Entirely untrammeled by symbolism, and with the whole field of classic and mediaeval ornament to glean from, its aim was to develop a perfect style of ornament. The best examples of this period are founded on the soundest principles of ornamental art. Nothing that could be turned into an element of beauty was neglected. Animals, real and fictitious, flowers, leaves, fruit, the human form, etc., were conventionalized and made to contribute their part to enhance the beauty of the whole. Some of the principal characteristics of the Cinquecento style are the delicate arabesque scroll work, the profusion and beauty of the curves, its admirable variations of standard classic ornaments, such as the anthemion and scroll. The coloring, also, was one of its most pleasing features. This style flourished principally in Italy and France. Farnese Palace and the tombs of the Medicis are noted examples.

3. The Louis Quatorze.—This style succeeded the Cinquecento, but was far inferior to it. It arose in Italy, and while preserving generally the materials of the style that preceded it, it added as characteristic features the scroll and the shell. Its principal object was to create brilliant and startling effects in light and shade. Color was, in consequence, decidedly secondary, gilding being used everywhere. The Palace of Versailles, near Paris, is a gorgeous example of this style. Everything in it is glittering and sparkling. Mirrors are everywhere placed to intensify this effect. This style was followed by the Louis Quinze, inferior to it in every respect, and in which symmetry, at least in detail, seems to be carefully avoided. It still further degenerated into the Rococo, the most extravagant and exaggerated of all the historic styles, and which prevailed in the latter part of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century.

The present century cannot boast of any great characteristic style in either architecture or ornament. Whether it is only in a course of development, and what will be the results, time only can show. All styles are now in vogue, hence the importance of accurate knowledge on the subject. To be able to judge of and appreciate the best, and to profit by the labors of those gone before us, at the same time imparting individuality and character to our own design, should be the aim and object of the study of decoration, and it should enter into any scheme of general education and culture.—Journal of Education.

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THE MONTAUD ACCUMULATOR.

This accumulator is of the Plante type, and is modified so as to obtain a more rapid formation, a larger surface, and a symmetrical distance of the plates from each other. If into an alkaline bath saturated with litharge (added in excess) we plunge two lead electrodes and pass in a current of suitable tension and intensity, there is deposited upon the anode a layer of peroxide of lead varying in thickness with the intensity of the current, and more or less rich in oxygen according to the intensity of the bath, while the cathode is covered with a stratum of reduced lead. The liquid of the bath supplies material for both deposits, while in galvanoplastic operations the anode supplies it to the cathode. The principle of the formation consists in introducing in an efficacious manner currents of a great intensity, and thus abridging its duration.

Of two plates thus treated, the one becomes positive, and is covered with a thick layer of peroxide of lead. On leaving the bath it undergoes various preparations and several washings, and is then fit to be mounted along with others to form an accumulator ready to be charged and to work. The second, or negative, plate is covered with a thick sponge of lead. It is carefully washed, preserved in water with exclusion of air, and submitted to a very considerable pressure. After this operation it presents the appearance of ordinary sheet lead, but though the physical porosity has disappeared, the chemical porosity is intact, and this alone comes into play in accumulators. When a negative plate is constructed in this manner, it is ready to be combined with the positives to form an accumulator.

The inventor has sometimes put into the bath at the positive pole negative plates prepared as just described. They become very easily peroxidized, but they have the grave defect of requiring two preparations in place of one. To secure an accumulator against any leakage from plate, the solderings and the entire plates must be submerged in the liquid, so that nothing projects up out of the acidulated water except two strong rods for making contact. These rods are covered with an insulating varnish from their origin to above the point where they issue from the liquid. The plates are of a rectangular form (Fig. 1). They are sloped out at one corner, and as two plates in juxtaposition are cut together, when they are separated the sloping out of the one serves for the handle of the other. This handle is doubled back on the plate which is suspended in the bath, so that the part which has to be soldered does not undergo any preparation. A hole pierced in this corner of the plate serves to receive a square rod of lead, which connects the plates together and supports one of the poles or contacts of the accumulator. At the point of soldering the doubled-down handle gives a double thickness, and the margins of the plate are folded in such a manner as to insure their solidity.



The sloped out corner affords the free space necessary for the rod of the opposite pole, and one and the same plate may be indifferently connected either to the + or the - at the right or the left. The plates are made of four different sizes: No. 1, 19 of which serve for an accumulator of 1 square meter; No. 2, 21, 25, or 29 of which serve for accumulators of 2, 3, and 4 square meters; No. 3, which with 21, 25, or 29 plates composes accumulators of 5, 6, and 7 square meters; and No. 4, which with 21, 23, 25, 27 or 29 plates forms accumulators of 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12 square meters.

As the plates are entirely submerged in the liquid their entire surface is active, and the entire surface being absolutely flat, it is sufficient to preserve their respective distance at any one point in order to have it everywhere alike. The weight of the plate depends on the intended duration of the plate and its capacity. As for the negative plate, its thickness is the most important factor of its capacity. The proportion has yet to be established for daily practice. The inventor uses in practice positive plates of 0.002 meter in thickness. On the other hand, the negative plates have a body of only 0.001 meter in thickness, their greater thickness being due only to the deposit of compressed lead. The rod which fixes the plate to each pole (Fig. 2) is formed of a special alloy of lead and antimony, not attacked by acid. This gives rigidity to the rod, and hinders it from binding when the accumulator is taken out of its case. The copper piece which surmounts it is fitted at its base with an iron cramp, which is fixed in the lead, and above which is a wide furrow with two grooved parts, which being immersed in the lead hinders the copper from slipping round under the action of the screw. The rod is square, and is cast in a single piece. Against one of its surfaces the ends of the connected plates press flatly up. A square form has been selected to give more surface for soldering. The soldering is autogenous (as in the lead chambers at vitriol works). The soldering, as well as the entire plates, is entirely immersed in the liquid, and to prevent any leakage an insulating varnish, perfectly proof against the acid and the current, is laid over the rod from the part soldered upward.



If it is wished to lift the accumulator from its chest for any verification, hooks passing between the plates seize hold of the rods, and thanks to the rigidity of the antimony lead, they effect the removal of the apparatus without bending the rods in the least. All the parts of the plates must be kept at exactly the same reciprocal distances, and a difference of only 0.001 meter between two points is sufficient to affect the yield considerably. For an insulating material, wood, when plunged in dilute acid, is preferred by the inventor. He makes a comb of wood, the teeth of which vary according to the thickness of the plates to be lodged between them. Fig. 3 represents a comb having 15/10 of a millimeter for the negative plates and 25/10 for the positive plates.



This appliance, which is 0.01 meter in thickness and 0.02 meter in width in the back, is made very cheaply by machinery. The weight of the accumulator bears entirely upon the back of the combs, which are all placed back downward, and the number of which varies according to the size of the plates. Small combs of wood clasp the plates at their extremities, and make the entire accumulator quite compact and manageable. The entire accumulator is shut up in a wooden chest, which the outer teeth of the comb serve to insulate from the leaden chest, and to prevent any loss of electricity along the sides.

Fig. 4 shows the arrangement of the side combs. A single glance at this figure shows that it would be difficult to have more surface without having recourse to curved, undulated, or folded plates, in which the distances are variable, and consequently defective. In the Montaud accumulator, the weight is simply proportional to the intended duration. For the notion, "So much capacity and so much yield per kilo.," Montaud substitutes the notion, "So much capacity or yield per square meter, the weight not being taken into consideration." These Montaud accumulators are classified as follows: They have from 1 to 12 square meters of surface, and the number corresponding to the surface indicates its weight of useful lead, its manner of charging, its capacity, and its manner of discharge.



According to the inventor's experiments, the square meter of active surface can receive a charging current of 10 amperes, and furnish on discharging a current of the intensity of 20 amperes. For a "No. 10" accumulator we have an active surface of 10 square meters, a charging current of 100 amperes, and on discharging a current of 200 amperes. A square meter of lead of the thickness of 0.001 meter weighs about 11 kilos.

As both surfaces of the lead are utilized, their weight is reduced to 51/2 kilos. A No. 10 therefore requires 55 kilos. of useful lead. It will be seen that to increase the thickness of the sheet of lead merely augments the duration of the accumulator, without affecting its capacity or its manner of charging and discharging. Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4 may be placed in vessels of stoneware, glass, or ebonite, or in boxes of pitch pine, painted with three coats of gum lac and lined with sheet lead. Nos. 5 to 12 are only sent out in pitch pine boxes lined with lead. The box is supported on feet of porcelain of the shape of a mushroom. If a drop of water falls upon this foot, it cannot give a communication with the earth, since, falling upon the broad part of the mushroom, it will glide off without running along the foot, which serves as the stalk of the mushroom. A slip of glass is placed under each foot; the part which supports the mushroom is covered with an insulating varnish, which prevents the formation of climbing salts and preserves the screws from rust. A common layer of insulating varnish is applied under the head of the mushroom.

As regards the advantages of the Montaud accumulator we notice, first, its longevity. Dr. D'Arsonval points out that the accumulators of the Plante class have a great advantage over the Faure type as regards duration, and that the most striking quality of the Montaud accumulator is its longevity. The inventor has in his possession positive plates, five to six years old, completely peroxidized, though there remains in the interior a thin core of metallic lead sufficient to give passage to the current. The adhesion of the peroxide is such that to detach it, it must be beaten with a hammer upon an anvil. The next four points—i.e., the rapidity of charge; the yield, much greater than that of any other system in proportion to its surface; its small weight in comparison with its yield; and its capacity, which for an equal weight is greater than that of any other accumulator. In his experiments in September, 1885, Dr. D'Arsonval obtained with an accumulator of 2 square meters of surface:

Useful capacity 40 ampere hours. Total 62 " " Surface 2 square meters Charge 10 amp. per sq. meter. Discharge 20 " " " Useful weight of lead 10 kilos.

Representing a total capacity of six ampere hours per kilo., and of a discharge of 5 amperes per kilo., or a total capacity of 81 ampere hours per square meter, and a useful capacity of 20 ampere hours per square meter. Subsequently the modification of the negative plate has greatly improved these figures, which will certainly become much more advantageous in future. The total capacity of an accumulator having exactly 13/4 meters of surface has become 87 ampere hours, which if referred to an accumulator of 2 square meters of surface, would give the following results:

Useful weight of lead per sq. meter 51/2 kilos. Total capacity of useful lead per kilo 9.1 amp. hr. Total capacity per sq. meter 50 " Useful capacity of per kilo of useful lead 6.23 " Useful capacity per square meter 34.30 " Current of charge per square meter 10 amp. Current of charge per kilo, of useful lead 2 " Current of discharge per sq. meter 20 " Current of discharge per kilo, of useful lead 4.56 "

The next advantage of the Montaud accumulator is the ease with which it can be taken out of its box and repaired without special tools and experience. A capital defect in this respect has hitherto much interfered with the use of accumulators. In case of accidents, several kinds of which are possible, it is found very difficult to rectify the apparatus. The Montaud accumulator is much less liable to accidents, on account of the firmness and compactness of its construction, and if any accident happens, the repairs are simple and easy. Lastly, the stout framework secures the apparatus from any accident due to a disproportionate charge or discharge. The peculiarities of the combs and rods already described solve this problem. On September 8, 1885, Dr. D'Arsonval, professor at the College of France, wrote as follows: "The Montaud accumulator is of the Plante type, and is extremely well conceived from a mechanical point of view. The wooden combs prevent the plates from coming in mutual contact, and give the apparatus great solidity. The process of formation is ingenious and rapid. To give 1 square meter a capacity of 20 ampere hours, there is required only a quarter of an hour's treatment.

"To obtain the same result by Plante's method, months are required. The entire experiments have been effected with No. 2, which has a surface of two square meters. This apparatus, if charged to saturation, gives 62 ampere hours as its total capacity, and, as in the Plante, this capacity constantly increases with use. The normal rule for the charge is 10 amperes per square meter, and for the discharge double this quantity. This apparatus has always given me on discharging 40 amperes at the E.M.F. of 1.85 volts during 60 or 65 minutes. The charge is effected in two hours up to 20 amperes, without any appreciable loss of electricity.

"The points to be aimed at in an accumulator are longevity and energy, or, rather, rapid yield per kilo. From both points of view accumulators of the Plante type (and consequently those of Montaud) are far superior to those of the Faure type. My opinion, therefore, is that the Montaud accumulator is very practical, that it is a great improvement on the Plante type, and that it can compete successfully with the other systems in use."—Revue Internationale de l'Electricite.

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ELECTRIC REGISTERING APPARATUS FOR METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS.

Mr. E. Gime, whose name is not unknown to our readers, sends us a description of a certain number of meteorological apparatus to which he has applied a peculiar method of registering that it is of interest to make known.



Mr. Gime in the first place has devised a "telemareograph," that is to say, an apparatus designed to register at a distance the curve of the motions of the tide in a given place. The structure of this device, shown diagramatically in Fig. 1, is very simple. It is divided into two distinct parts—a transmitter and a registering apparatus. The transmitter consists of a long glass tube, A, closed at one end and communicating through the other with a receptacle filled with mercury. A barometric vacuum is formed in this tube. The level of the open receptacle corresponds exactly to the level of the lowest tide.



Pieces of iron wire projecting sufficiently in the interior to establish good contacts with the column of mercury are fastened one millimeter apart to the inner surface of the tube. These iron contacts are connected with the divisions of a rheostat, R, arranged in a tight compartment surrounded with paraffine, near the tube.

This rheostat is interposed in the general circuit. It is connected through one extremity with the line, and through the other with a disk of copper, which has a surface of one square meter, and is immersed in the sea.

The line, L, insulated like an ordinary telegraph wire, is prolonged as far as to the registering station.

The registering apparatus consists of a solenoid, S, that acts upon a soft iron core suspended by a cord from the extremity, x, of the beam of a balance. This cord passes between the channels of two rollers designed, despite the motion of the beam, to keep the core in a vertical position in the center of the solenoid.

The opposite arm of the balance carries a sliding weight, i, that moves over a graduated scale and is designed to balance the core, N, in a certain position in regulating the motions of the curve. At its extremity it carries a style that bears against the drum, T, on which the paper is wound that is to receive the mareometric curve.

The solenoid, S, is interposed in the general circuit, being connected on the one hand with the line, L, and on the other with a very constant battery of an electromotive force proportioned to the resistance of the circuit.

Through the electrode that remains free, the battery is grounded with so great care that no variation in resistance can be produced thereby. If the station is near the sea, the conductor of this electrode may be run to a copper disk, having the same surface as the one at the transmitting station. With this description, the operation of the apparatus may be easily understood.

At low water, the pressure of the atmosphere balances a column of mercury rising in a glass tube to a height proportionate to such pressure. In measure as the level of the water rises, the pressure on the mercury in the receptacle increases, and causes the metal to rise in the tube. The higher the level of the sea, the less becomes the sum of the resistances of the rheostat, since the column of mercury puts in short circuit all the divisions of the rheostat, whose contacts are comprised in the height of the column.

From these variations in the resistance of the circuit naturally result variations in the current from the battery, B, at the registering station. To the variations in intensity of the current in the circuit there correspond variations in the attraction of the solenoid for the core that transmits these motions to the balance that carries the registering style, which latter amplifies or reduces them.

The same transmitter suffices for various registering stations arranged in series, as shown in Fig. 2.

The variations in the resistance of the circuit, due to variations in the temperature, and the variations in the height of the column of mercury, due to atmospheric variations, etc., are, according to the inventor, of no importance.

It would evidently be possible, on the same principle, to construct an apparatus for registering the indications of a thermometer at a distance.

Such is the principle of Mr. Gime's apparatus. We do not believe that they are entirely closed to criticism. What, in fact, are the conditions essential for their proper working? Evidently: (1) the constancy of the battery used; (2) a rigorously accurate adjustment. This latter condition, is easily realized; but the same is not the case with the former. Of what elements shall this constant battery be formed?

Mr. Gime recommends the use of the Latimer-Clark elements. Every one knows that the Latimer-Clark element is now the best standard of electromotive force; but let us not forget that this is on condition of its being employed in open circuit. Now, it is not a question here of an open circuit, nor even of infinitely weak currents, since in the line we have a solenoid whose core must set in motion a whole system of connected pieces. We do not see any possibility of employing Latimer-Clark elements; on the contrary, it seems to us indispensable to select piles of large discharge, since the solenoid, S, will attract nothing at all unless a notable quantity of energy is expended in it.

Is there a pile of this kind so constant as not to render a rigorously accurate adjustment illusory? Therein lies the entire question, and for our part we hesitate to pronounce ourselves in the negative.—La Lumiere Electrique.

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A CLINICAL LESSON AT "LA SALPETRIERE."



We reproduce the picture of Mr. Andre Brouillet, which was in the Salon of 1887; and that the subject may be better understood, we give the accompanying sketch and description. This picture is very interesting, not only from an artistic point of view, but also as a representation of students and spectators of all ages admirably grouped around a great master of science when most interested in his work. We borrow from Matin-Salon Mr. Goetschy's explanation of the picture:

"The hall in which the lesson is given is lighted by two large windows opening on one of the courts of the hospital. The Professor stands at the right of the picture, his head uncovered, one hand close to his body and the other extended slightly in a gesture which is familiar to him, his audience being before him. At his side is Mr. Babinski, chief of the clinic, supporting a person afflicted with hysteria. Near the latter stands a nurse and assistant who watches every movement of the patient. This is Mother Bottard, a good, intelligent, and devoted woman, who is well known to all those present.

"The auditors have arranged themselves at the students' tables, some seated on the chairs and stools which furnish the room, and others standing, but all following closely the teaching of the master, and at the same time watching the subject. The picture is full of life and motion, and yet is very exact. The head and shoulders of the subject are beautifully and correctly drawn. The artist has brought together many men who are well known in literature and science."—Le Monde Illustre.

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[NATURE.]



TO FIND THE DAY OF THE WEEK FOR ANY GIVEN DATE.

Having hit upon the following method of mentally computing the day of the week for any given date, I send it you in the hope that it may interest some of your readers. I am not a rapid computer myself, and as I find my average time for doing any such question is about 20 seconds, I have little doubt that a rapid computer would not need 15.

Take the given date in 4 portions, viz., the number of centuries, the number of years over, the month, the day of the month.

Compute the following 4 items, adding each, when found, to the total of the previous items. When an item or total exceeds 7, divide by 7, and keep the remainder only.

The Century Item.—For old style (which ended September 2, 1752) subtract from 18. For new style (which began September 14) divide by 4, take overplus from 3, multiply remainder by 2.

The Year Item.—Add together the number of dozens, the overplus, and the number of 4's in the overplus.

The Month Item.—If it begins or ends with a vowel, subtract the number denoting its place in the year from 10. This, plus its number of days, gives the item for the following month. The item for January is "0;" for February or March (the 3d month), "3;" for December (the 12th month), "12."

The Day Item is the day of the month.

The total thus reached must be corrected by deducting "1" (first adding 7, if the total be "0"), if the date be January or February in a leap year; remembering that every year divisible by 4 is a leap year, excepting only the century years, in new style, when the number of centuries is not so divisible (e.g., 1800).

The final result gives the day of the week, "0" meaning Sunday, "1" Monday, and so on.

EXAMPLES.

1783, September 18.

17 divided by 4 leaves "1" over; 1 from 3 gives "2;" twice 2 is "4."

83 is 6 dozen and 11, giving 17; plus 2 gives 19, i.e. (dividing by 7), "5." Total 9, i.e., "2."

The item for August is "8 from 10," i.e., "2;" so, for September, it is "2 plus 3," i.e., "5." Total 7, i.e., "0," which goes out.

18 gives "4." Answer, "Thursday."

1676, February 23.

16 from 18 gives "2."

76 is 6 dozen and 4, giving 10; plus 1 gives 11, i.e., "4." Total "6."

The item for February is "3." Total 9, i.e., "2."

23 gives "2." Total "4."

Correction for leap year gives "3." Answer, "Wednesday."

LEWIS CARROLL.

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PRECIOUS STONES OF THE UNITED STATES.

To the recently distributed government report on the mineral resources of the United States for 1885.[1] Mr. G.F. Kunz contributes an interesting chapter in which is recorded the progress made during that year in the discovery and utilization of precious stones.

[Footnote 1: Mineral Resources of the United States: Calendar Year 1885. Washington: Government Printing Office. 1888.]

In the summer of 1885, a remarkably large pocket containing fine crystals of muscovite, with brilliant crystals of rutile implanted on them, was found at the Emerald and Hiddenite Mining Company's works, at Stony Point, N.C., and was sold in the form of cabinet specimens for $750. While the soil overlying the rock was being worked, nine crystals of emerald were found, all of which were doubly terminated, and measured from 1 inch to 3-1/8 inches in length and 1-2/3 inch in width. One of these crystals is very perfect as a specimen, being of a fine light green color, and weighing 83/4 ounces. It is held by the company at $1,500, and the nine crystals together at $3,000. Another of these crystals, doubly terminated, measures 21/2 inches by 11/12 of an inch, and is filled with large rhombohedral cavities, which formerly contained dolomite. The only crystal from this collection that has been cut into a gem was found in a pocket at a depth of over 43 feet. In color it is of a pleasing light green, and it weighs 4-22/32 carats. No crystal of a finer color has as yet been found in the United States, and the gem is held by the company at $200.

During the recent mining, the largest fine crystal of lithia emerald ever found was also brought to light. It measures 23/4 inches by 3/5 of an inch by 1/3 of an inch. One end is of a very fine color, and would afford the largest gem of this mineral yet found, and one which would probably weigh 51/2 carats. With this there was a number of superior crystals and some ounces of common pieces of the same mineral. The company estimates the value of this entire yield of hiddenite at about $2,500.

There was also found a quantity of quartz filled with white byssolite, forming very attractive specimens and valued at $250.

A number of beryls of a fine blue color, resembling the Mourne Mountain specimens, were found near Mount Antero, Chaffee County, Col. One of these was 4 inches long and 3/8 of an inch across, with cutting material in it. The other crystals measured from 1 to 11/4 inch in length, and from 1/5 to 1/3 inch in width.

The large beryl mentioned by Mr. Kunz in the Mineral Resources for 1883 and 1884 has afforded the finest aquamarine of American origin known. It is brilliant as a cut gem, and, with the exception of a few internal hair-like striae, is absolutely perfect. It weighs 1333/4 carats, measures 1-2/5 x 1-2/5 x 4/5 inch, and is of a deep bluish green, equal to that of gems from any known locality.

Mr. G.F. Breed, manager of the Valencia Mica Company, has cut nearly one hundred aquamarines, ranging from 1/2 carat to 4 carats in weight, and of a light blue color, from white beryls found in the company's mica mine at North Grafton, N.H.

A number of fine, deep golden-yellow, blue, and green beryls, equaling any ever found, have been taken by Mr. M.W. Barse from his mica mine between New Milford and Litchfield, Conn. Some fine blood-red garnets from this same locality have been cut into gems.

The largest phenacite crystal ever found is owned by Mr. Whitman Cross. It was discovered at Crystal Park, Col., weighs 59 pennyweights 6 grains, and measures 1-4/5 inch in length and 1-1/5 inch in thickness.

Thousands of garnet crystals, found at Ruby Mountain, near Salides, Col., have been made into paperweights and sold to tourists. Those that weigh a few ounces sell for about ten cents each. One was sold that weighed 14 pounds. Apropos of garnets, the discovery, in the heart of New York city, of as fine a crystal as was ever found on this continent, and weighing 9 pounds 10 ounces, may be mentioned as a matter of peculiar interest.

Several thousand dollars' worth of the wood jasper of Arizona has been cut into paper weights, charms, and other objects, or polished on one side for cabinet specimens. Numbers of these articles are now being cut and sold to tourists along the line of the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe Railroad.

The compact quartzite of Sioux Falls, Dakota, is being quarried and polished for ornamental purposes. It is known and sold as "Sioux Falls jasper," and is really the stone referred to by Longfellow in his Hiawatha as being used for arrow heads. This stone takes a very high polish, and is found in a variety of pleasing tints, such as chocolate, brownish-red, brick-red, and yellowish. For the two years previous to 1885, $15,000 worth of it was sold.

A remarkable mass of rock crystal has been received by Messrs. Tiffany & Co. from a locality near Cave City, Va. Although this mass weighs 51 pounds, it is but a fragment of the original crystal, which weighed 300 pounds, and which was broken in pieces by the ignorant mountain girl who found it. The fragment, as it is, will furnish slabs 8 inches square and from 1/3 to 1 inch thick. The original crystal would have furnished a ball from 41/2 to 5 inches in diameter, and almost perfect. A number of fine agates of various kinds were found by Mr. F.C. Yeomans at the same locality.

The meccanite from Cumberland, R.I., is often spotted with white quartz. It has been cut into oval stones several inches in length, which take a fine polish. This quality, coupled with its hardness, makes it a desirable ornamental gem stone.

Mr. Kunz records the discovery, by himself, in the largest mass of the Glorieta Mountain (Santa Fe County, N.M.), of pieces of peridot of sufficient transparency to afford gems one-fifth of an inch in length.