From this reservoir, which was 77 ft. long and 51 ft. wide, pipes of lead conveyed the water to the imperial palace and to the other buildings near the top of the hill. Some of these lead pipes were found in a vineyard near the top of Fourvieres at the beginning of the eighteenth century, and were described by Colonia in his history of Lyons. They are made of thick sheet lead rolled round so as to form a tube, with the edges of the sheet turned upward, and applied to one another in such a way as to leave a small space, which was probably filled with some kind of cement. These pipes, of which it is said that twenty or thirty, each from 15 ft. to 20 ft. long, were found, were marked with the initial letters TI. CL. CAES. (Tiberius Claudius Caesar), and afford positive evidence that the work was carried out under the emperor Claudius. Lead pipes, constructed in a similar manner, have also been found at Bath, in this country, in connection with the Roman baths. The great difference between this aqueduct and those near Rome arises from the fact that, instead of being carried across a nearly flat country, it was carried across one intersected with deep ravines, and that it was therefore necessary to have recourse to the system of inverted siphons. There can be no doubt that the inverted siphons were made of lead, although no remains of them have been found; for we know that the Romans used lead largely, and, as we have seen, pieces of the lead distribution pipes have been found. It is possible, and even likely, that strong cords of hemp were wound round the pipes forming the siphons, as is related by Delorme in describing a similar Roman aqueduct siphon near Constantinople; Delorme also describes, in the aqueduct last mentioned, a pipe for the escape of air from the lowest part of the siphon carried up against a tower, which was higher than the aqueduct, and it is certain that there must have been some such contrivance on the siphons of the aqueduct constructed at Lyons.

Flacheron supposes that they consisted of small pipes carried from the lowest part of the siphons up along the side of the valley and above the reservoirs, or, in some instances, of taps fixed at the lowest part of the siphons. The Romans have been blamed for not using inverted siphons in the aqueducts at Rome, and it has been said that this is a sufficient proof that they did not understand the simplest principles of hydraulics, but the remains of the aqueducts at Lyons negative this assumption altogether. The Romans were not so foolish as to construct underground siphons, many miles long, for the supply of Rome; but where it was necessary to construct them for the purpose of crossing deep valleys, they did so. The same emperor Claudius who built the aqueduct at Rome known by his name built the aqueduct of Mont Pila, at Lyons, and it is quite clear, therefore, that his engineers were practically well acquainted with the principles of hydraulics. It is thus seen that the ancient Romans spared no pains to obtain a supply of pure water for their cities, and I think it is high time that we followed their example, and went to the trouble and expense of obtaining drinking water from unimpeachable sources, instead of, as is too often the case, taking water which we know perfectly well has been polluted, and then attempting to purify it for domestic purposes.

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STEAM ENGINE ECONOMY.

By Chief Engineer JOHN LOWE, U.S. Navy.

The purpose of this article is to point out an easy method whereby any intelligent engineer can determine the point at which it is most economical to cut off the admission of steam into his cylinder.

In the attack upon such a problem, it is useful to employ all the senses which can be brought to bear upon it; for this purpose, diagrams will be used, in order that the sense of sight may assist the brain in forming its conclusions.



Fig. XABCX is an ideal indicator card, taken from a cylinder, imagined to be 600 feet long, in which the piston, making one stroke per minute, has therefore a piston speed of 600 feet per minute. Divide this card into any convenient number of ordinates, distant dx feet from each other, writing upon each the absolute pressure measured upon it from the zero line XX.

By way of example, let the diameter of the cylinder be 29.59 inches, and let the back pressure from all causes be 7 pounds uniformly throughout. It will be represented by the line b{1}, b{2}, etc. This quantity subtracted from the pressures p{1}, p{2}, etc., leaves the remainder (p-b) upon each ordinate, which remainder represents the net pressures which at that point may be applied to produce external power.

If, now, A is the area of the piston, then the external power (d W) produced between each ordinate is:

To any convenient scale, upon each ordinate, set off the appropriate power as calculated by this equation (1).

A(p-b)dx dW = ———————. (1.) 33,000

There will result the curve w, w, w, determining the power which at any point in the diagram is to be regarded as a gain, to be carried to the credit side of the account.

It is evident that, so long as the gains from expansion exceed the losses from expansion, it is profitable to proceed with expansion, but that expansion should cease at that point at which gains and losses just balance each other.

TO CALCULATE THE LOSSES.

The requisite data are furnished by the experiments conducted some years since by President D.M. Greene, of Troy College, for the Bureau of Steam Engineering, U.S. Navy.

According to these experiments, the heat which is lost per hour by radiation through a metallic plate of ordinary thickness, exposed to dry air upon one side and to the source of heat upon the other, for one degree difference in temperature, is as follows:

Condition. Heat units.

Naked...................................... 2.9330672 Covered with hair felt, 0.25 inch thick.... 1.0540710 " " 0.50 " .... 0.5728647 " " 0.75 " .... 0.4124625 " " 1.00 " .... 0.3070554 " " 1.25 " .... 0.2746387 " " 1.50 " .... 0.2507097

If now t' = temperature of steam at the ordinate, t = temperature of the surrounding atmosphere, dS = surface of the cylinder included between each ordinate, k = that figure from the table satisfying the conditions, then the power loss (dR) per minute will be:

k (t'-t)dS dR = ( — ) —————. (2) 60 33,000

To the same scale as the power gains, upon each ordinate, set off the appropriate power loss, as calculated by this equation (2).

There will result the curve r, r, r, which determines the power which at any point in the diagram is to be regarded as a loss, to be carried to the debit side of the account. This curve of losses intersects the curve of gains at a point (it is evident) where each equals the other.

Therefore this is the point at which expansion should cease, and this absolute pressure is the economic terminal pressure, which determines the number of expansions profitable under the given conditions.

In the foregoing example are taken k = 0.3070554, t' = 331.169, t = 60, while the back pressure was taken at 7 pounds.

By way of further illustration, first let the back pressure be changed from 7 to 5.

By equation 1 there will result a new curve of gains, W, W, W, a portion only being plotted.

Second, let t' = 331.169 as before. t = 150 instead of 60. k = 0.2507097 instead of 0.3070554.

There will result the second curve of losses, R, R, R, intersecting the second curve of gains at the point F, the new economic point for our new conditions.

These two examples fully illustrate the whole subject, furnishing an easy and, when carefully made, a very exact calculation and result.

The following are a few of the general conclusions to be drawn:

1. That radiation is a tangible and measurable cause, sufficient to account for all losses heretofore ascribed to an intangible, immeasurable, and wholly imaginary cause, viz., "internal evaporation and re-evaporation."

2. In order to prevent the high initial temperatures now used becoming a source of loss, it is necessary to prevent the quantity dS (t'-t) becoming great, by making dS as small as possible. In other words, we must compound our engines. Thus for the first time is pointed out the true reason why compound engines are economical heat engines.

3. The foregoing reasoning being correct, it follows that steam jackets are a delusion.

4. In order to attain economy, we must have high initial temperatures, small high pressure cylinders, low back pressures from whatsoever cause, high piston speeds, short rather than long strokes, to avoid the cooling effects of a long piston rod; but especially must we have scrupulous and perfect protection from radiation, especially about the cylinder heads, now oftentimes left bare.

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ELECTRICITY IN WARFARE.

[Footnote: From a recent lecture before the Franklin Institute, Philadelphia.]

By Lieut. B.A. FISKE, U.S.N.

Lieutenant Fiske began by paying a tribute to the remarkable pioneer efforts of Colonel Samuel Colt, who more than forty years ago blew up several old vessels, including the gunboat Boxer and the Volta, by the use of electricity. Congress voted Colt $17,000 for continuing his experiments, which at that day seemed almost magical; and he then blew up a vessel in motion at a distance of five miles. Lieut. Fiske next referred briefly to the electrical torpedoes employed in the Crimean war and our civil war.

At the present day, an electrical torpedo may be described as consisting of a strong, water-tight vessel of iron or steel, which contains a large amount of some explosive, usually gun-cotton, and a device for detonating this explosive by electricity. The old mechanical mine used in our civil war did not know a friendly ship from a hostile one, and would sink either with absolute impartiality. But the electrical submarine mine, being exploded only when a current of electricity is sent through it from ship or shore, makes no such mistake, and becomes harmless when detached from the battery. The condition of the mine at any time can also be told by sending a very minute current through it, though miles away and buried deep beneath the sea.

When a current of electricity goes through a wire, it heats it; and if the current be made strong enough, and a white hot wire thus comes in contact with powder or fulminate of mercury in a torpedo, an explosion will result. But it is important to know exactly when to explode the torpedo, especially during the night or in a fog; and hence torpedoes are often made automatic by what is called a circuit closer. This is a device which automatically bridges over the distance between two points which were separated, thus allowing the current to pass between them. In submarine torpedoes it is usual to employ a small weight, which, when the torpedo is struck, is thrown by the force of the blow across two contact points, one of which points is in connection with the fuse and the other in connection with the battery, so that the current immediately runs over the bridge thus offered, and through the fuse. In practice, these two contact points are connected by a wire, even when the torpedo is not in the state of being struck; but the wire is of such great resistance that the current is too weak to heat the wire in the fuse. Yet when the weight above mentioned is thrown across the two contact points, the current runs across the bridge, instead of through the resistance wire, and is then strong enough to heat the wire in the fuse and explode the torpedo. The advantage of having a wire of high resistance between the contact points, instead of having no wire between them, is that the current which then passes through the fuse, though too weak to fire it, shows by its very existence to the men on shore that the circuit through the torpedo is all right.

But instead of having the increased current caused by striking the torpedo to fire the torpedo directly, a better way is to have it simply make a signal on shore. Then, when friendly vessels are to pass, the firing battery can be disconnected; and when the friendly ship bumps the torpedo, the working of the signal shows not only that the circuit through the fuse is all right, but also that the circuit closer is all right, so that, had the friendly ship been a hostile ship, she would certainly have been destroyed.

While the management of the torpedo is thus simple, the defense of a harbor becomes a complex problem, on account of the time and expense required to perfect it, and the training of a corps of men to operate the torpedoes.

In order to detect the presence of torpedoes in an enemy's harbor, an instrument has been invented by Capt. McEvoy, called the "torpedo detecter," in which the action is somewhat similar to that of the induction balance, the iron of a torpedo case having the effect of increasing the number of lines of force embraced by one of two opposing coils, so that the current induced in it overpowers that induced in the other, and a distinct sound is heard in a telephone receiver in circuit with them. As yet, this instrument has met with little practical success, but, its principle being correct, we can say with considerable confidence that the reason of its non-success probably is that the coils and current used are both too small.

Lieut. Fiske described the spar torpedo and the various classes of movable torpedoes, including the Lay. His conclusion is that the most successful of the movable torpedoes is the Simms, with which very promising experiments have been conducted under the superintendence of Gen. Abbot.

Recent experiments in England have shown that the Whitehead torpedo, over which control ceases after it is fired, is not so formidable a weapon when fired at a ship under way as many supposed, for the simple reason that it can be dodged. But an electrical torpedo, over which control is exercised while it is in motion through the water, cannot be dodged, provided it receives sufficient speed. For effective work against ships capable of steaming fifteen knots per hour, the torpedo should have a speed of twenty knots. There is no theoretical difficulty in the way of producing this, for a speed of eleven knots has already been recorded, though an electric torpedo, to get this speed, would have to be larger than a Whitehead having the same speed. It may be conceived that a torpedo carrying 50 lb. of gun-cotton, capable of going 20 knots per hour, so that it would pass over a distance of 500 yards in about 45 sec., and yet be absolutely under control all the time, so that it can be constantly kept pointed at its target, would be a very unpleasant thing for an enemy to meet.

Military telegraphy is a second use of electricity in warfare. Lieut. Fiske traces its origin to our own civil war. Foreign nations took the hint from us, and during the invasion of France the telegraph played a most important part. In military telegraph trains, miles of wire are carried on reels in specially constructed wagons, which hold also batteries and instruments. Some of the wire is insulated, so that it can rest on the ground, and thus be laid out with great speed, while other wire is bare, and is intended to be put on poles, trees, etc. For mountain service the wires and implements are carried by pack animals. Regularly trained men are employed, and are drilled in quickly running lines, setting up temporary stations, etc. In the recent English operations in Egypt, the advance guard always kept in telegraphic communication with headquarters and with England, and after the battle of Tel-el-Kebir news of the victory was telegraphed to the Queen and her answer received in forty-five minutes.

The telephone is also used with success in warfare, and in fact sometimes assists the telegraph in cases where, by reason of the haste with which a line has been run, the current leaks off. A telephone may then be used to receive the message—and for a transmitter a simple buzzer or automatic circuit breaker, controlled by an ordinary key. In the case of vessels there is much difficulty in using the telegraph and the telephone, as the wire may be fouled and broken when the ship swings by a long chain. In England in the case of a lightship this difficulty has been surmounted, or rather avoided, by making hollow the cable by which the ship rides, and running an insulated wire along the long tube thus formed inside. But the problem is much simplified when temporary communication only is desired between ships at anchor, between a ship and the shore, or even between a ship and a boat which has been sent off on some special service, such as reconnoitering, sounding, etc. In this case portable telephones are used, in which the wire is so placed on a reel in circuit with the telephone that communication is preserved, even while the wire is running off the reel.

The telegraph and telephone are both coming largely into use in artillery experiments, for example, in tracking a vessel as she comes up a channel so that her exact position at each instant may be known, and in determining the spot of fall of a projectile. In getting the time of flight of projectiles electricity is of value; by breaking a wire in circuit with a chronograph, the precise instant of start to within a thousandth of a second being automatically registered. Velocimeters are a familiar application of electricity somewhat analogous. In these, wires are cut by the projectile at different points in its flight, and the breaking of the electric current causes the appearance of marks on a surface moving along at a known speed. The velocity of the projectile in going from one wire to another can then be found.

Electricity is also used for firing great guns, both in ships and forts. In the former, it eliminates the factor of change produced by the rolling of the ship during the movement of the arm to fire the gun. The touch of a button accomplishes the same thing almost instantaneously. Moreover, an absolutely simultaneous broadside can be delivered by electricity. The officer discharges the guns from a fighting tower, whither the wires lead, and the men can at once lie down out of the enemy's machine guns, as soon as their own guns are ready for discharge. The electric motor will certainly be used very generally for handling ordnance on board ships not very heavily plated with armor, since a small wire is a much more convenient mode of conveying energy to a motor of any kind, and is much less liable to injury, than a comparatively large pipe for conveying steam, compressed air, or water under pressure. Besides, the electric motor is the ideal engine for work on shipboard, by reason of its smooth and silent motion, its freedom from dirt and grease, the readiness with which it can be started, stopped, and reversed, and its high efficiency. Indeed, in future we may look to a protected apparatus for all such uses in every fort and every powerful ship.

In photographing the bores of great guns, electric lights are used, and they make known if the gun is accurately rifled and how it is standing the erosion of the powder gases.

In the case of a fort, electricity can be employed in connection with the instruments used for determining at each instant the position of an approaching vessel or army. Whitehead torpedoes are now so arranged that they can be ejected by pressing an electric button.

Electric lights for vessels are now of recognized importance. At first they were objected to on the ground that if the wire carrying the current should be shot away in action, the whole ship would be plunged in darkness; and so it would be in an accident befalling the dynamo that generates the current. The criticism is sensible, but the answer is that different circuits must be arranged for different parts of the ship, and the wires carrying the current must be arranged in duplicate. It is also easy to repair a break in a copper wire if shot away. As to the dynamo and engines, they must be placed below the water line, under a protective deck, and this should be provided for in building the vessel. There should be several dynamos and engines. All the dynamos should, of course, be of the same electromotive force, and feed into the same mains, from which all lamps draw their supply, and which are fed by feeders from the dynamo at different points, so that accident to the mains in one part of the ship will affect that part only. But it is the arc light, used as what is called a search light, that is most valuable in warfare. Lieut. Fiske thinks its first use was by the French in the siege of Paris, to discover the operations of the besiegers. It can be carried by an army in the field, and used for examining unknown ground at night, searching for wounded on the battle field, and so on. On fighting vessels the search light is useful in disclosing the attack of torpedo boats or of hostile ships, in bringing out clearly the target for guns, and in puzzling an enemy by involving him successively in dazzling light and total darkness. Lieut. Fiske suggests that this use would be equally effective in embarrassing troops groping to the attack of a fort at night by sudden alternations of blinding light and paralyzing darkness. There should be four search lights on each side of a ship.

As to the power and beauty of the search light, Lieut. Fiske refers to the magnificent one with which he lighted up Philadelphia last autumn, during the electric exhibition in that city. One night he went to the tower of the Pennsylvania railroad station and watched the light stationed at the Exhibition building on 32d street. The ray of light when turned at right angles to his direction looked like a silver arrow going through the sky; and when turned on him, he could read the fine print of a railroad time table at arm's length. Flashes from his search light were seen at a distance of thirty miles.

In using incandescent lamps for night signaling, the simplest way is to arrange a keyboard with keys marked with certain numbers, indicating the number of lamps arranged in a prominent position, which will burn while that key is being pressed. For example, suppose the number 5348 means "Prepare to receive a torpedo attack." Press keys 5, 3, 4, 8, and the lights of lamps 5, 3, 4, 8, successively blaze out.

Electrical launches have been used to some extent, their storage batteries being first charged ashore or on board the ship to which the launch belongs. They have carried hundreds of people, and have made eight knots an hour. The improvement of storage batteries, steadily going on, will eventually cause the electrical launch to replace the steam launch. One of its advantages is in having no noise from an exhaust and no flame flaring above a smoke pipe to betray its presence. In warfare two sets of storage batteries should be provided for launches, one being recharged while the other is in use.

Mr. Gastine Trouse has recently invented "an electric sight," a filament of fine wire in a glass tube covered with metal on all sides save at the back. The battery is said to be no larger than a man's finger, and to be attached to the barrel near the muzzle by simple rubber bands, so arranged that the act of attaching the battery to the barrel automatically makes connection with the sight; and so arranged also that the liquid of the battery is out of action except when the musket is brought into a horizontal position for firing.

To throw a good light upon the target the same inventor has devised a small electric lamp and projector, which is placed on the barrel near the muzzle by rubber bands, the battery being held at the belt of the marksman, with such connections that the act of pressing the butt of the musket against the shoulder completes the circuit, and causes the bright cylinder of light to fall on the target, thus enabling him to get as good a shot as in the day time.

Search lights and incandescent lights are advantageously used with balloons. In submarine boats electricity will one day be very useful. Submarine diving will play a part in future wars, and the diver's lamp will be electrical.

Progress has been made also in constructing "electrical guns," in which the cartridge contains a fuse which is ignited by pressing an electric button on the gun. A better aim can be had with it, when perfected, than with one fired by a trigger. At present, according to Lieut. Fiske, this invention has not reached the practical stage, and the necessity for a battery to fire a cartridge is decidedly an objection. But the battery is very small, needs little care, and will last a long time. The hard pull of the ordinary trigger causes a movement of the barrel except in the hands of the most highly skilled marksmen, and this hard pull is a necessity, because the hammer or bolt must have considerable mass in order to strike the primer with sufficient force to explode it. Having the mass, it must have considerable inertia; hence it needs a deep notch to hold it firm when jarred at full cock, and this deep notch necessitates a strong pull on the trigger. But with an electric gun the circuit-closing parts are very small and light, and can be put into a recess in the butt of the gun, out of the way of chance blows. Thus a light pressure of the finger is alone needed to fire it, while from the small inertia of the parts a sudden shock will not cause accidental closing of the circuit and firing of the gun.

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MEUCCI'S CLAIMS TO THE TELEPHONE.

Our readers have already been informed through these columns that, notwithstanding the refusal of the Attorney-General, Mr. Garland, to institute suit for the nullification of the Bell patent, application has again been made by the Globe Telephone Co., of this city, the Washington Telephone Co., of Baltimore, and the Panelectric Co. These applications have been referred to the Interior Department and Patent Office for examination, and upon their report the institution of the suit depends. The evidence which the companies above mentioned have presented includes not only the statement of Prof. Gray and the circumstances connected with his caveat, but brings out fully, for the first time, the claims of Antonio Meucci.



The latter evidence is intended to show that Meucci invented the speaking telephone not only before Bell, but that he antedated Reis by several years. In a recent interview with Meucci we obtained a brief history of his life and of his invention, which will, no doubt, interest our readers. Meucci, a native of Italy, was educated in the schools of Florence, devoting his time as a student to mechanical engineering. In 1844 he gave considerable attention to the subject of electricity, and had a contract with the government of the island of Cuba to galvanize materials used in the army. While experimenting with electricity he read the works of Becquerel, Mesmer, and others who treated largely of the virtues of electricity in the cure of disease. Meucci made experiments in this direction, and at one time thought that he heard the sound of a sick person's voice more distinctly than usual, when he had the spatula connected with the wire and battery in his mouth.



The apparatus he used for this purpose is shown in Fig. 1. It consists of an oval disk or spatula of copper attached to a wire which was coiled and supported in an insulating handle of cork. To ascertain that he was able to hear the sound, he covered the device with a funnel of pasteboard, shown in the adjoining figure, and held it to his ear, and thought that he heard the sound more distinctly.

These instruments were constructed in 1849 in Havana, where Meucci was mechanical director of a theater. In May, 1851, he came to this country, and settled in Staten Island, where he has lived ever since. It was not until a year later that he again took up his telephonic studies, and then he tried an arrangement somewhat different from the first. He used a tin tube, Figs. 3 and 4, and covered it with wire, the ends of which were soldered to the tongue of copper. With this instrument, he states, he frequently conversed with his wife from the basement of his house to the third floor, where she was confined as an invalid.



Continuing his experiments, he conceived the idea of using a bobbin of wire with a metallic core, and the first instrument he constructed on this idea is shown in Fig. 5. It consisted of a wooden tube and pasteboard mouth piece, and supported within the tube was a bundle of steel wires, surrounded at their upper end by a bobbin of insulated wire. The diaphragm in this instrument, was an animal membrane, and it was slit in a semicircle so as to make a flap or valve which responded to the air vibrations. This was the first instrument in which he used a bobbin, but the articulation naturally left much to be desired, on account of the use of the animal membrane. Meucci fixes the dates from the fact that Garibaldi lived with him during the years 1851-54, and he remembers explaining the principles of his invention to the Italian patriot.

After constructing the instrument just described, Meucci devised another during 1853-54. This consisted of a wooden block with a hole in the center which was filled with magnetic iron ore, and through the center of which a steel wire passed. The magnetic iron ore was surrounded by a coil of insulated copper wire. But an important improvement was introduced here in the shape of an iron diaphragm. With this apparatus greatly improved effects were obtained.



In 1856 Meucci first tried, he says, a horseshoe magnet, as shown in Fig. 6, but he went a step backward in using an animal membrane. He states that this form did not talk so well as some which he had made before, as might be expected.

During the years 1858-60 Meucci constructed the instrument shown in Fig. 7. He here employed a core of tempered steel magnetized, and surrounded it with a large coil. He used an iron diaphragm, and obtained such good results that he determined to bring his invention before the public. His national pride prompted him to have the invention first brought out in Italy, and he intrusted the matter to a Mr. Bendalari, an Italian merchant, who was about to start for that country. Bendalari, however, neglected the matter, and nothing was heard of it from that quarter. At the same time Meucci described his invention in L'Eco d'Italia, an Italian paper published in this city, and awaited the return of Bendalari.

Meucci, however, kept at his experiments with the object of improving his telephone, and several changes of form were the result. Fig. 8 shows one of these instruments constructed during 1864-65. It consisted of a ring of iron wound spirally with copper wire, and from two opposite sides iron wires attached to the core supported an iron button. This was placed opposite an iron diaphragm, which closed a cavity ending in a mouthpiece. He also constructed the instrument which is shown in Fig. 9, and which, he says, was the best instrument he had ever constructed. The bobbin was a large one, and was placed in a soapbox of boxwood, with magnet core and iron diaphragm. Still seeking greater perfection, Meucci, in 1865, tried the bent horseshoe form, shown in Fig. 10, but found it no improvement; and, although he experimented up to the year 1871, he was not able to obtain any better results than the best of his previous instruments had given.



When Meucci arrived in this country, he had property valued at $20,000, and he entered into the brewing business and into candle making, but he gradually lost his money, until in 1868 he found himself reduced to little or nothing. To add to his misery, he had the misfortune of being on the Staten Island ferryboat Westfield when the latter's boiler exploded with such terrible effect in 1871. He was badly scalded, and for a time his life was despaired of. After he recovered he found that his wife, in their poverty, had sold all his instruments to John Fleming, a dealer in second-hand articles, and from whom parts of the instruments have recently been recovered.



With the view of introducing his invention, Meucci now determined to protect it by a patent; and having lost his instrument, he had a drawing made according to his sketches by an artist, Mr. Nestori. This drawing he showed to several friends, and took them to Mr. A. Bertolino, who went with him to a patent attorney, Mr. T.D. Stetson, in this city. Mr. Stetson advised Meucci to apply for a patent, but Meucci, without funds, had to content himself with a caveat. To obtain money for the latter he formed a partnership with A.Z. Grandi, S.G.P. Buguglio, and Ango Tremeschin. The articles of agreement between them, made Dec. 12, 1871, credit Meucci as the inventor of a speaking telegraph, and the parties agree to furnish him with means to procure patents in this and other countries, and to organize companies, etc. The name of the company was "Teletrofono." They gave him $20 with which to procure his caveat, and that was all the money he ever received from this source.

The caveat which Meucci filed contained the drawing made by Nestori, and as shown in the cut, which is a facsimile, represents two persons with telephones connected by wires and batteries in circuit. The caveat, however, does not describe the invention very clearly; it describes the two persons as being insulated, but Meucci claims that he never made any mention of insulating persons, but only of insulating the wires. To explain this seeming incongruity, it must be stated that Meucci communicated with his attorney through an interpreter, as he was not master of the English language; and even at the present time he understands and speaks the language very poorly, so much so that we found it necessary to communicate with him in French during the conversation in which these facts were elicited.



In the summer of 1872, after obtaining his caveat, Meucci, accompanied by Mr. Bertolino, went to see Mr. Grant, at that time the Vice President of the New York District Telegraph Company, and he told the latter that he had an invention of sound telegraphs. He explained his inventions and submitted drawings and plans to Mr. Grant, and requested the privilege of making a test on the wires of the company, which test if successful would enable him to raise money. Mr. Grant promised to let him know when he could make the test, but after nearly two years of waiting and disappointment, Mr. Grant said that he had lost the drawings; and although Meucci then made an instrument like the one shown in Fig. 9 for the purpose of a test, Mr. Grant never tried it. Meucci claims that he made no secret of his invention, and as instance cites the fact that in 1873 a diver by the name of William Carroll, having heard of it, came to him and asked him if he could not construct a telephone so that communication could be maintained between a diver and the ship above. Meucci set about to construct a marine telephone, and he showed us the sketch of the instrument in his memorandum book, which dates from that time and contains a number of other inventions and experiments made by him.



When Professor Bell exhibited his inventions at the Centennial, Meucci heard of it, but his poverty, he claims, prevented him from making his protestations of priority effective, and it was not until comparatively recently that they have been brought out with any prominence.—The Electrical World.

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AN ELECTRICAL CENTRIFUGAL MACHINE FOR LABORATORIES.

[Footnote: Paper read before Section B, British Association, Aberdeen meeting.]

By ALEXANDER WATT, F.I.C., F.C.S.

The late Dr. Mohr[1] of Bonn, advocated the use of a centrifugal machine as a means of rapidly drying crystals and crystalline precipitates; but although they are admirably adapted for that purpose, centrifugal machines are seldom seen in our chemical laboratories.

[Footnote 1: "Lehrb. d. Chem. Analyt. Titrirmethode," 3d ed., 1870, p. 684.]

The neglect of this valuable addition to our laboratory apparatus is probably owing to the inconvenience involved in driving the machine at a high speed by means of the ordinary hand driving gear, especially when the rotation has to be maintained for a considerable length of time. It occurred to me, therefore, that by attaching the drum or basket of the machine (or the rotating table of Mohr's apparatus) directly to the spindle of an electro-motor, the difficulty of driving might be got over, and at the same time a combination of great efficiency would result, as the electro-motor, like the centrifugal machine, is most efficient when run at a high speed. The apparatus shown in the sketch consists essentially of a perforated basket, A, which is slipped on to a cone attached to the spindle, S, of an electro-motor, and held in position by the nut, D. The casing, B, with its removable cover, C, serves to receive the liquid driven out of the substance being dried. A flat form of the ordinary Siemens H armature, E, revolves between the poles, P, of the electro-magnets, M, which are connected by means of the base plate, I. The brass cross-bar, G, carries the top bearing of the spindle, S, and prevents the magnet poles from being drawn together.



From four to six cells of a bichromate battery or Faure secondary battery furnish sufficient power to run the machine at a high speed. An apparatus with a copper basket four inches in diameter has been found extremely useful in the laboratory for drying such substances as granulated sulphate of copper and sulphate of iron and ammonia, but more especially for drying sugar, which when crystallized in very small crystals cannot be readily separated from the sirupy mother-liquor by any of the usual laboratory appliances. For drying substances which act on copper the basket may be made of platinum or ebonite; in the latter case, owing to the increased size of the perforations, it may be necessary to line the basket with platinum wire gauze or perforated parchment paper.

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TRANSMISSION OF POWER BY ELECTRICITY.

The experiments of M. Marcel Deprez have entered on a decisive phase. The dynamos are completed, and were put in place on the 20th October, when M. Deprez carried out some preliminary tests in the presence of a commission consisting of MM. Collignon, Inspector-General des Ponts et Chaussees; Delebecque, Ingenieur en Chef du Materiel et de la Traction of the Northern Railway of France; Contanini, engineer in the same company; and Sartaux. The generating dynamos made by MM. Breguet, and the receiving dynamos constructed by MM. Mignon and Rouart, were during a preliminary trial placed side by side, one portion of the circuit being very short, and the other twice the distance between La Chapelle and Creil, or seventy miles. In future experiments the two dynamos will be placed in their normal positions at each end of the line. The generating machine is driven by a locomotive engine; the resistance of its field magnets is 5.68 ohms, and of the two armatures 33 ohms. The resistance of the two armatures of the receiving machine is 36.8 ohms, and the resistance of the line is 97 ohms; the generator and receiver field magnets are excited each by a separate machine. Five different trials were made at varying speeds of the driving shaft; the initial work on this shaft was measured by a dynamometer, and the available energy of the shaft of the receiving machine was ascertained by a Prony brake; the other results of the experiments were deduced from the constants of the machines and from galvanometric measurements. For the first trials the different elements were as follows:

1. Generating dynamos: Velocity of shaft 123 revolutions. Electromotive force at terminals, 3370.25 volts. " " total 3624.7 " Available work at driving shaft. 43 h. p. Electrical work of generator 37.38 " Difference absorbed 5.62 "

2. Line: Work absorbed by the line. 7.59 h. p.

3. Receiving dynamos: Velocity of shaft 154 revolutions. Electromotive force at terminals, 2616.25 volts. " " total 2336.94 " Electrical work of receiver 24.10 h. p. Available work on shaft 22.10 " Difference absorbed 2 "

The duty obtained would thus be 22.10/43 = 51.3 per cent., if the work absorbed by the exciting machines be not considered. Taking this into account, it would be reduced to 40 per cent.

In subsequent experiments the speed of the generator was increased gradually. In the last trial the following were the elements:

1. Generating dynamos: Speed of shaft 190 revolutions. Electromotive force at terminals 5231.25 volts. " " total 5469.75 " Available work on driving shaft, 62 h. p. Electrical work on generator 53.59 " Difference absorbed 8.51 " Work absorbed by armature 2.33 "

2. Line: Work absorbed by conductors 7.21 h. p.

3. Receiving dynamos: Speed of shaft 248 revolutions. Electromotive force at terminals 4508 volts. Electromotive force total 4242.67 " Electrical work of receiver 41.44 h. p. Work measured on receiver shaft 35.8 " Difference absorbed 5.64 " Duty obtained, not including exciting machine 57 per cent. Duty obtained, including exciting machine 48 "

During the various experiments the current traversing the line varied from 7.59 amperes to 7.21 amperes. No heating of any kind was observed.

M.J. Bertrand, who communicated a paper to the Academy of Sciences on the subject, commented on the relatively low speeds. It corresponds to a linear displacement of the surface armatures, in no case exceeding the speed of a locomotive wheel. The tension reached 5,500 volts., under very satisfactory mechanical conditions, and with a current that in no way endangered the line. This first experiment is certainly encouraging, and it will be followed by others of a more complete and exhaustive character. MM. De Rothschild are now embodying a powerful commission of French and foreign scientists who will follow the subject carefully, and report upon it. It may be safely predicted that one result of this action will be the development of a new series of observations of the highest technical interest and value.—Engineering.

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THE LOCKED AND CORDED BOX TRICK.

The trick with the locked and corded box, I believe, is an old one, though perhaps not in its present form. In late years it has been revived with improvements, and popularized by those clever illusionists, Messrs. Maskelyne & Cook and Dr. Lynn, at the Egyptian Hall. There are several ways of working the trick or, rather, of arranging the special bit of mechanism wherein the peculiar features of the box consist. The one I am about to describe is, I think, the best of those I am acquainted with, or at liberty to divulge. Indeed, I don't know that any method is better, and this one has the advantage over most others of allowing the performer to get into as well as out of the box, without leaving a trace of his means of ingress. It will be seen the box is paneled, and all the panels look equally firm and fixed. As a matter of fact, one of the panels is movable, though the closest scrutiny would fail to discover this if the box and fittings are carefully made and adjusted. Fig. 1 shows the general appearance of the box, of which the back is the same as the front. In the box I describe, the end marked + has a movable panel. The size of the box should be regulated by the size of the performer; but one measuring 3 feet 6 inches long by 2 feet back to front, and 21 inches high, exclusive of the lid, which may be 3 inches, will be of general use. In making the box it is most important that all sides and panels look alike, and that nothing special in the appearance of the end with the loose panel should attract notice. Fig. 2 shows this end with fittings drawn half of full size, and it will he seen from this that the framing, A, is 3 inches wide by 11/4 inches thick, and the panel, B, 1/2 inch thick.



It will be noticed that the top and bottom rails of the frame are rabbeted to receive the panel, but the sides are grooved, the groove in front rail being double the depth of the one in the back rail.



The dotted line, B, shows the size of the panel; the dotted line, C, shows the depth of groove in the front rail. From this it will be clear that the panel is only held in place at the back and front, and that on sliding it toward the front it will be free out of the groove in the back rail. Three sides of it are thus free, and a little manipulation will allow of its being taken out altogether, leaving plenty of space for the performer to get out, presuming him to have been locked inside the box.

If the panel were to be finished in this way, without further fittings, the secret would soon be discovered; and I now proceed to show how the panel is held in place and firm while under examination.

Determine the size of screws that are to be used in fixing the brass corner clamps. Let us say No. 7 is decided on; and if brass screws are used, then get a piece of brass, Fig. 4, the exact diameter of the screw-head, and a little longer than the thickness of the framing. If iron screws are to be used, then this piece must be iron. Now bore a hole into which this bolt will fit closely, right through the framing at D, Fig. 2. It is most important that the hole should be made close up to the edge of the panel, B, so that when the bolt is in it firmly holds the panel, and prevents it moving from back to front in the grooving. Now get a piece of sheet brass, 1/8 inch thick, and cut it to the shape shown by E, Fig. 2. The width of this piece should not be less than 3/8 inch, and it must be of such length that the end reaches to the middle of the top framing, as shown at L, Fig. 2. This piece of brass is sunk in the top and front framing, as shown by the dotted lines, G, in Figs. 2 and 3, and also in section in the latter.

When the box is open, the lower or short arm of this lever, which is shaped as shown full size, at E, Fig. 8, is kept pressed down on the bolt, D, as shown by the dotted lines, E, E, E, Fig. 2, and E, Fig. 7, by of the spring, J, Fig. 2.

On the box being closed, a pin on the under edge of lid goes into the hole, L, Fig. 3, and presses the end of the lever down in such a way as to raise the claw end of it from D. The thick dotted lines, F, F, F, Fig. 2, show position of lever when box is closed.

It will be noted that the bolt, D, Fig. 4, has a groove cut in it all around, into which the claw fits. This prevents the bolt being pushed backward or forward when the box is open.

The lever must be hung as shown, K, Fig. 2. The exact position of this is immaterial, but it is as well to have the fulcrum as near the end as may be, in order that the claw may be raised sufficiently with only a small movement of the short arm of the lever. Of course, the shorter the arm is, the more accurately the lid and pin must be made to close.

If the pin, pressing short arm down, be too short, the pressure will not be enough to release the claw, and consequently the performer might find himself really unable to get out of the box after it is locked.

The end of the lever should be finished with a wood block, as Fig. 6, larger than the pin on the lid, as represented by L and M, Fig. 3.

The block may be of other material, but should be colored the same as the wood the box is made of, so that, if any one were to look down on it, no suspicion would be aroused, as might be were plain brass used.



In Fig. 5, I show an easy way of hanging the lever. It is simply a piece of wire sharpened and notched, so as to form several small barbs, preventing withdrawal. The mode of fixing will be easily understood by reference to B and C, Fig. 5. Some considerable amount of care will have to be bestowed on fitting and adjusting this part of the work, on which the successful performance of the trick consists, and before finally fixing up, it should be ascertained that all the movements work harmoniously. It will be best to cut the groove in which the lever works from below, and, after the lever is fixed, to fill up the space not required by the lever with strips of wood, H, H. If preferred, the space can be shaped out from the back, i.e., the inside of the framing, and then filled where not required, but as this, however neatly done, would show a joint which might be detected by sharp eyes, it is better to cut from below, though more troublesome.

The end containing the movable panel being arranged, make up the rest of the box to it, taking care to make the rebates of the top and bottom frames to correspond with those of the end.

The other panels should not, however, depend on the grooves on two sides only, but at tops and bottoms as well.



The rebates are to be cut only to have all the framing inside look alike; and as the panel, B, is made to fit quite close into the rebate, it will not be surmised that it is not fitted in the usual way.

After the box is made and fitted together, the clamping must be done. The only necessity for this is in order that the bolt, D, which we have seen is made on the outside end exactly to match the screws used to fasten the clamps, should not be conspicuous, as it would be were it alone. As it is, it will not be specially observable, being apparently only one of the screws to fasten the clamps.

The clamps may be of thin brass or iron, shaped as shown at Fig. 9. One of the corner holes must be arranged to cover D exactly, and the others regulated to it. Let us suppose that A, Fig. 9, is the one through which the bolt goes; the other corner screw holes must be equally distant from the edges of the clamps. Twelve of these clamps will be needed. After they have been screwed on, put the bolt through, and let the claw of the lever hold it in place. Then mark and cut the bolt flush with the clamp, making a hollow on the end of it to imitate the screws, as D, Fig. 4. The other end of the bolt should either be made flush with the inside of frame and colored to match it, or, better, cut short and faced flush with a piece of wood to match the framing.

If a piece of wood with a knot be chosen for this side of the frame, so much the better. Immediately over the hole, L, a wooden pin should be fixed in the lid, and of such length that it will press the short arm of lever down sufficiently. It should fit the hole pretty closely.

At the other end, a corresponding pin and hole should be made, and, say, two along the front. These will then look as if they were intended merely as fittings to hold the lid in position. The lid at the other end of the box from the movable panel should have a stop of some sort; the ordinary brass joint stop will do as well as any, and should be strong. The reason for placing it at what I may call "the other end" is that, when the box is being examined, it will attract notice, and draw attention from the movable panel end.

We may now finally adjust the loose panel, which must fit tight at top and bottom, and be slightly beveled, as shown on section. Two holes must also be cut through it, at such a distance from each other that a finger and thumb can be put through them, so as to allow of the panel being moved. In the deep grooving in front also put a couple of springs, say pieces of clock springs, as shown, I, I, Fig, 2. These serve to assist the bolt, D, by pushing the panel into position.

Holes to match those in end panel must also be cut in the other panels, and when a lock, preferably a padlock, has been fitted, the box is complete.

I don't know whether it is necessary to say that the lid should be hinged at the back, and of course it will add to the appearance of the box if it be polished or oiled.

Now, for those who may not have seen the locked and corded box trick performed, a few words of caution may not be out of place. Don't forget to have something in a pocket easily got at that will serve to push the bolt out, before going into the box. A piece of stout wire, a small pencil case, or anything of that sort will do. Be careful when getting into the box to lie with your head toward the loose panel end, and face toward the front—as there will be no space to turn round; the right hand will then be uppermost and free to push the bolt out. Having done this, grasp the panel with the finger and thumb by means of the two holes, push it to the front of the box, when the back edge will be clear of the groove. It can now easily be pulled into the box, and the performer can creep out. When out, refix panel and bolt so that everything looks as it was. Any cording that may be over the end of the box will give sufficiently to allow of exit.

I have, I think, made it quite clear that padlock and ropes have nothing to do with the real performance of the trick, but they serve to mystify spectators, who may be allowed to knot the rope and seal the knots in any way they choose.

There must always be a screen or curtain to hide the box from the spectators while the performer is getting in or out.—D.B. Adamson, in Amateur Work.

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PRICES OF METALS.

The Metallarbeiter remarks that metals have in most cases experienced a reduction in value of late years, this depreciation being attributed in some measure to the cheaper methods of obtaining metals as well as to the discovery of new sources of mineral wealth.

The following comparative table shows the approximate prices of various metals in December, 1874, and December, 1884:

Dec., 1874. Dec., 1884. Per lb. Per lb. L s d. L s. d. Osmium 71 10 0 62 0 0 Iridium 70 0 0 45 0 0 Gold 62 15 0 63 0 0 Platinum 25 7 6 21 7 6 Thallium 23 17 6 4 15 0 Magnesium 10 5 0 1 15 0 Potassium 5 0 0 4 0 0 Silver 3 17 6 (in Hamburg) 3 7 6 Aluminum 1 16 0 1 16 0 Cobalt 1 14 0 1 2 0 Sodium 0 14 2 0 8 8 Nickel 0 11 0 0 3 1 Bismuth 0 8 1 0 8 1 Cadmium 0 7 1 0 4 0 Quicksilver 0 2 0 (in London) 0 1 9 Tin 0 1 1 (in Berlin) 0 0 9 Copper 0 0 10 (" " ) 0 0 7 Arsenic 0 0 8 0 0 4-1/2 Antimony 0 0 6-1/4 (" " ) 0 0 5 Lead 0 0 2-3/4 (" " ) 0 0 1-3/8 Zinc 0 0 2-1/2 (" " ) 0 0 1-3/4 Steel 0 0 1-3/8 ( in 0 0 0-3/4 Bar iron 0 0 1-1/8 Upper 0 0 0-5/8 Pig iron 0 0 0-7/16 Silesia ) 0 0 0-1/4

Gold now ranks highest in value of all metals, the competition of osmium and iridium having been over come. It is only by reason of improved methods of preparation that the latter have become cheaper, while their use has at the same time increased. Iridium is mixed with platinum in order to increase its strength and durability. The normal standards of the metrical system are made of platinum-iridium on account of its known immutabilty. In 1882, platinum stood 15 per cent. below its present value; but its increased employment for industrial purposes led to the subsequent improvement in price. Thallium has experienced a severe depreciation on account of the economical process by which it is extracted from the residue of the lead chambers used in the manufacture of sulphuric acid. The use of this metal is mainly confined to experimental purposes. The fall in silver has arisen from increased production and diminished use for coinage.

Magnesium was scarcely of any industrial value prior to the fall in price now recorded. Improved processes for its treatment have successfully engaged the attention of scientific men, and it is now capable of being used as an alloy with other metals. The Salindres factory regulates the price to a certain extent, and its system of working is regarded as a guide in the various processes connected with this branch of industry. The manufacture of potassium and sodium will, it is expected, be more fully elucidated than hitherto, by means of researches made at Schering's Charlottenburg factory. The course of nickel prices illustrates the stimulus to economical production afforded by an increased consumption. This latter fact is principally due to the employment of nickel for coinage, as alloy for alfenide, etc. The use of cadmium is materially restricted by its relatively limited supply. Hitherto, its only source was in the incidental products of zinc distillation, but of late it has been attempted to bring it into solution from its oxide combinations. An increased employment of cadmium for industrial purposes is expected to follow.

Production in excess of the demand has caused the depreciation recorded in tin, and various other metals not commented upon, this remark applying even to the scarce metals, arsenic and antimony. Even the better marks of Cornwall tin and Mansfield refined copper have had to follow the downward course of the market.

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A PERPETUAL CALENDAR.

The annexed figure represents a perpetual calendar, which any one can construct for himself, and which permits of finding the day that corresponds to a given date, and conversely.

The apparatus consists of a certain number of circles and arcs of circles divided by radii. The ring formed by the two last internal circles is divided into 28 equal parts, which bear the names of the week, the first seven letters of the alphabet in reversed order, and two signs X. The circle formed by the external circumference of the ring constitutes the movable part of the apparatus, and revolves around its center. Two circular sectors, which are diametrically opposite, are each divided into seven parts and constitute the fixed portions. In the divisions of the upper sector are distributed the months, according to the order of the monthly numbers. In the other sector the days of the month are regularly distributed. In order to render the affair complete, a table is arranged upon the movable disk for giving the annual numbers, or rather, in this case, the annual letters. The calendar is used as follows: Say, for example, we wish to find what days correspond to the different dates of August, 1885; we look in the table for the letter (D) that corresponds to this year; then we bring this letter under the given month (August) and the days marked upon the movable disk corresponding to the dates sought, and it only remains to make a simple reading.



It will be seen that the leap-years correspond to two letters. We here employ the first to Feb. 29 inclusive, and the second for the balance of the year. The calendar may be made of cardboard, and be fixed to wood.—La Nature.

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AN ACCOMPLISHED PARROT.

Around the door of a Sixth Ave. bird store near Twenty-third St. was gathered the other day a crowd so large that it was a work of several minutes to gain entrance to the interior. From within there proceeded a hoarse voice dashed with a suspicion of whisky, which bellowed in Irish-American brogue the enlivening strains of "Peek-a-boo." With each reiteration of "Peek-a-boo" the crowd hallooed with delight, and one small boy, in the exuberance of his joy, tied himself into a sort of knot and rolled on the pavement. Suddenly the inebriated Irishman came to a dead stop, and another voice, pleasanter in quality, sang the inspiring national ode of "Yankee Doodle," followed by the stentorian query and answer all in one, "How are the Psi-Upsilon boys? Oh, they're all right!"

A passer-by, puzzled at the scene, made his way into the store and soon solved the mystery. In a large cage in the center was an enormous green and yellow parrot, which was hanging by one foot to a swinging perch, and trolling forth in different voices with the ease of an accomplished ventriloquist. He resumed a normal position as he was approached, and flapping his wings bellowed out, "Hurrah for Elaine and Logan!" Then, cocking his head on one side, he dropped into a more conversational tone, and with a regular "Alice in Wonderland" air remarked: "It's never too late to mend a bird in the hand;" and again, after a pause, "It's a long lane that never won fair lady." His visitor affably remarked:

"You're quite an accomplished bird, Polly," and quick as a flash the creature replied:

"I can spell, I can. C-a-t, cat. D-o-g, fox," with an affectation of juvenility which was grewsome. He resented an ill-advised attempt at familiarity by snapping at the finger which tried to scratch his poll, and barked out:

"Take care! I'm a bad bird, I am. You betcher life!"

"He's one of the cleverest parrots I have had for some time," said his owner, Mr. Holden. "In fact, he is almost as good as Ben Butler, whom I sold to Patti. His stock of proverbs seems inexhaustible, and he makes them quite funny by the ingenious way in which he mixes them up. I could not begin to tell you all the things he says, but his greatest accomplishment is his singing. He is a double yellowhead—the only species of parrot which does sing. The African grays are better talkers, but they do not sing. They only whistle. What do I ask for him? Oh, I think $200 is cheap for such a paragon, don't you?"—N.Y. Tribune.

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THE ROSCOFF ZOOLOGICAL LABORATORY.

The celebrated Roscoff zoological station was founded in 1872, and has therefore been in existence for thirteen years; but it may be said that it has changed appearance thirteen times. Those who, for the last six or seven years, have gone thither to work with diligence find at every recurring season some improvement or new progress.

A rented house, a small shed in a yard, little or no apparatus, and four work rooms—such was the debut of the station; and modest it was, as may be seen. Later on, the introduction of a temporary aquarium, which, without being ornamental, was not lacking in convenience, sufficed for making some fine discoveries regarding numerous animals.

A small boat served for supplying necessaries to the few workers who were then visiting Roscoff; but as the number of these kept gradually increasing, it became necessary to think of enlarging the station, and the purchase of a piece of property was decided upon. Since then, Mr. Lacaze Duthiers has done nothing but develop and transform this first acquisition. A large house, which was fitted up in 1879, formed the new laboratory. This was built in a large garden situated nearly at the edge of the sea. We say nearly, as the garden in fact was separated from the sea by a small road. The plan in Fig. 1 shows that this road makes an angle; but formerly it was straight, and passed over the terrace which now borders upon the fish pond. How many measures, voyages, and endless discussions, and how much paper and ink, it has taken to get this road ceded to the laboratory! Finally, after months of contest, victory rewarded Mr. Duthiers's tenacity, and he was then able to begin the construction of a pond and aquarium. All this was not done at once.



Another capital improvement was made in 1882. The public school adjoining the establishment was ceded to it, the separating walls fell, the school became a laboratory, the class rooms were replaced by halls for research, and now no trace of the former separation can be seen—so uniform a whole does the laboratory form. No one knows what patience it required to form, piecemeal as it were, so vast an establishment, and one whose every part so completely harmonizes.

During the same year a park, one acre in area, was laid out on the beach opposite the laboratory. This is daily covered by the sea, and forms a preserve in which animals multiply, and which, during the inclement season, when distant excursions are impossible, permits of satisfying the demands that come from every quarter. All, however, is not finished. Last year a small piece of land was purchased for the installation of hydraulic apparatus for filling the aquarium. This acquisition was likewise indispensable, in order to prevent buildings from being erected upon the land and shutting off the light from the work rooms opposite. Alas, here we find our enemy again—the little road! Negotiations have been going on for eighteen months with the common council, and, what is worse, with the army engineers, concerning the cession of this wretched footpath.

The reader now knows the principal phases of the increases and improvements through which the Roscoff station has passed. If, with the plan before his eyes, he will follow us, we will together visit the various parts of the laboratory. The principal entrance is situated upon the city square, one of the sides of which is formed by the buildings of the station. We first enter a large and beautiful garden ornamented with large trees and magnificent flowers which the mild and damp climate of Roscoff makes bloom in profusion. We next enter a work room which is designed for those pupils who, doing no special work, come to Roscoff in order to study from nature what has been taught them theoretically in the lecture courses of schools, etc. There is room here for nine pupils, to each of whom the laboratory offers two tables, with tanks, bowls, reagents, microscopes, and instruments of all kinds for cabinet study, as well as for researches upon animals on the beach. Here the pupils are in presence of each other, and so the explanations given by the laboratory assistants are taken advantage of by all. At the end of this room, on turning to the left, we find two large apartments—the library and museum. Here have been gradually collected together the principal works concerning the fauna of Roscoff and the English Channel, maps and plans useful for consultation, numerous memoirs, and a small literary library. The scientific collection contains the greater portion of the animals that inhabit the vicinity of Roscoff. To every specimen is affixed a label giving a host of data concerning the habits, method of capture, and the various biological conditions special to it. In a few years, when the data thus accumulated every season by naturalists have been brought together, we shall have a most valuable collection of facts concerning the fauna of the coast of France. Two store rooms at the end of these apartments occupy the center of the laboratory, and are thus more easy of access from the work rooms, and the objects that each one desires can be quickly got for him.



After the store rooms comes what was formerly the class room for boys, and which has space for three workers, and then the former girls' class room, which has space for eight more. Let us stop for a moment in this large room, which is divided up into eight stalls, each of which is put at the disposal of some naturalist who is making original researches. Fig. 2 represents one of these, and all the rest are like it. Three tables are provided, the space between which is occupied by the worker. Of these, one is reserved for the tanks that contain the animals, another, placed opposite a window giving a good light, supports the optical apparatus, and the last is occupied by delicate objects, drawings, notes, etc., and is, after a manner, the worker's desk. Some shelving, some pegs, and a small cupboard complete the stall. It is unnecessary to say that the laboratory furnishes gratuitously to those who are making researches everything that can be of service to them.

Four of these stalls are situated to the north, with a view of the sea, and the other four overlook the garden. They are separated from each other by a simple partition, and all open on a wide central corridor that leads to the aquarium. Before reaching the latter we find two offices that face each other, one of them for the lecturer and the other for the preparator. These rooms, as far as their arrangement is concerned, are identical with the stalls of the workers. The laboratory, then, is capable of receiving twenty-three workers at a time, and of offering them every facility for researches.



The aquarium is an immense room, 98 ft. in length by 33 in width, glazed at the two sides. It is at present occupied only by temporary tanks that are to be replaced before long by twenty large ones of 130 gallons capacity, and two oval basins of from 650 to 875 gallons capacity, constructed after the model of the one that is giving so good results at Banyuls. At the extremity of the aquarium there is a store room containing trawls, nets of all kinds, and mops, for the capture of animals. Here too is kept the rigging of the two laboratory boats, the Dentale and Laura. Above the store room is located the director's work room.

A wide terrace separates the aquarium from the pond. This latter is 38 yards long by 35 wide. Thanks to a system of sluice valves, it is filled during high tide, and the water is shut in at low tide, thus permitting of having a supply of living animals in boxes and baskets until the resources of the laboratory permit of a more improved arrangement. This basin is shown in Fig. 3. It is at the north side of the laboratory as seen from the beach. Here too we see the aquarium, the garden, and a portion of the shore that serves as a post for the station boats.

We must not, in passing, fail to mention the extreme convenience that the proximity of the aquarium work room to the pond and sea offers to the student.

This entire collection of halls, constituting the scientific portion of the laboratory, occupies the ground floor. The first and second stories are occupied by sleeping apartments, fourteen in number. These, without being luxurious, are sufficiently comfortable, and offer the great advantage that they are very near the work rooms, thus permitting of observing, at leisure, and at any hour of the day or night, the animals under study.

Everything is absolutely free at the laboratory. The work rooms, instruments, reagents, boats, dwelling apartments, etc., are put at the disposal of all with an equal liberality; and this absence of distinction between rich or poor, Frenchmen or foreigners, is the source of a charming cordiality and good will among the workers.

Shall we speak, too, of the richness of the Roscoff fauna? This has become proverbial among zoologists, as can be attested by the 265 of them who have worked at the laboratory. The very numerous and remarkable memoirs that have been prepared here are to be found recorded in the fourteen volumes of the Archives de Zoologie Experimentale founded by Mr. Lacaze Duthiers.

It only remains to express our hope that the aquarium may be soon finished; but before this is done it will be necessary to get possession of that unfortunate little road. After this final victory, Mr. Duthiers in his turn will be able, amid his pupils, to enjoy all those advantages of his work which he has until now offered to others, but from which he himself has gained no benefit.—La Nature.

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THE MURAENAE AT THE BERLIN AQUARIUM.

Of all fish, eels are probably the most interesting, as the least is known of them. Electricians are now examining the animal source of electricity in the electric eel (Gymnotus electricus); zoologists are still searching for the solution of the problem of the generation of eels, of which no more is known than that the young eels are not born alive; and numerous fishing societies are now studying the important question of raising eels in ponds, lakes, etc., that are not connected with the sea.



The annexed cut, taken from the Illustrirte Zeitung, is a copy of a drawing by Muetzel, and represents a group of Mediterranean Muraenae (Muraena Helena). This fish attains a length of from 5 ft. to 6 ft., and has a smooth, scaleless body of a dark color, on which large light-yellow spots appear, which give the fish a very peculiar appearance. The pectoral fin is missing, but it has the dorsal and anal fins, which it uses with great ability. Its head is pointed, and its jaws are provided with extraordinarily sharp teeth, which are inclined toward the rear; and at each side of the head it is provided with a gill. The nostrils are on the upper side of the snout, and a second, tubular, pair of nostrils is located near the eyes. The bright eyes have a fierce expression, which makes the fish appear very much like a snake. These fish are ravenous, and devour crabs, snails, worms, and fishes, and if they have no other food, bite off the tails of their brethren. They are caught in eel baskets or cages, and by means of hooks; but they are rather dangerous to handle, as they attack the fishermen and injure them severely.

Since the times of the ancients, Muraenae have been prized very highly on account of their savory flesh. The Romans were great experts at feeding these fish, Vidius Pollio being the master of them all, as he made a practice of feeding his Muraenae with the flesh of slaves sentenced to death. Pliny states that at Caesar's triumphal entry Hirius furnished six thousand Muraenae. Slaves were frequently driven into the ponds, and were immediately attacked by the voracious fishes, and killed in a very short time.

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METAMORPHOSES OF ARCTIC INSECTS.

In the chapter entitled "Das insektenleben in arktischen laendern," which Dr. Christopher Aurivillius contributes to the account of A.E. Nordenskioeld's Arctic investigations, published this year in Leipzig,[2] the author says: "The question of the mode of life of insects and of its relation to their environment in the extreme north is one of especial interest. Knowing, as we do, that any insect in the extreme north has at the most not more than from four to six weeks in each year for its development, we wonder how certain species can pass through their metamorphosis in so short a period. R. McLachlan adverts, in his work upon the insects of Grinnell Land, to the difficulties which the shortness of the summer appears to put in the way of the development of the insects, and expresses the belief that the metamorphosis which we are accustomed here to see passed through in one summer there requires several summers. The correctness of this supposition has been completely shown by the interesting observations which G. Sandberg has made upon species of lepidoptera in South Varanger, at 69 deg. 40' north latitude. Sandberg succeeded in following the development from the egg onward of some species of the extreme north. Oeneis bore, Schn., a purely Arctic butterfly, may be taken as an example. This species has never been found outside of Arctic regions, and even there occurs only in places of purely Arctic stamp. It flies from the middle of June onward, and lays its eggs on different species of grass. The eggs hatch the same summer; the larva hibernates under ground, continues eating and growing the next summer, and does not even then reach its full development, but winters a second time and pupates the following spring. The pupa, which in closely related forms, in regions further to the south, is suspended free in the air upon a blade of grass or like object, is in this case made in the ground, which must be a very advantageous habit is so raw a climate. The imago leaves the pupa after from five or six weeks, an uncommonly long period for a butterfly. In more southern regions the butterfly pupa rests not more than fourteen days in summer. The entire development, then, takes place much more slowly than it does in regions further south. Sandberg has shown, then, by this and other observations, that the Arctic summer, even at 70 deg. N., is not sufficient for the development of many butterflies, but that they make use of two or more summers for it. If then more than one summer is requisite for the metamorphosis of the butterflies, it appears to me still more likely that the humble-bees need more than one summer for their metamorphosis. With us only the developed female lives over from one year to the next; in spring she builds the new nest, lays eggs, and rears the larvae which develop into the workers, who immediately begin to help in the support of the family; finally, toward autumn, males and females are developed. It seems scarcely credible that all this can take place each summer in the same way in Grinnell Land, at 82 deg. N., especially as the access to food must be more limited than it is with us. The development of the humble-bee colony must surely be quite different there. If it is not surely proved that the humble-bees occur at so high latitudes, one would not, with a knowledge of their mode of life, be inclined to believe that they could live under such conditions. They seem, however, to have one advantage over their relatives in the south. In the Arctic regions none of those parasites are found which in other regions lessen their numbers, such as the conopidae among the flies, the mutillas among the hymenoptera, and others."—Psyche.

[Footnote 2: Nordenskioeld, A.E., Studien und forschungen veranlasst durch meine reisen im hohen norden. Autorisirte ausgabe. Leipzig, Brockhaus, 1885, 9 + 581 pp., 8 pl., maps, O. il.]

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A YEAR'S SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS IN NERVOUS AND MENTAL DISEASES.

[Footnote: Volunteer report presented to Nebraska State Medical Society, May, 1885, at Grand Island, Neb.]

By L.A. MERRIAM, M.D., Omaha, Neb.,

Professor of the Principles and Practice of Medicine in the University of Nebraska College of Medicine, Lincoln, Neb.

The records of the Nebraska State Medical Society show that the only report of progress on nervous and mental diseases ever made in the history of the society (sixteen years) was made by the writer last year; and expecting that those appointed to make a report this year would, judging by the history of the past, fail to prepare such a report, I have seen fit to prepare a brief volunteer report of such items of progress as have come to my notice during the last twelve months. I have not been able to learn that any original work has been done in our State during the past year, nor that those having charge of the insane hospital have utilized the material at their command to add to the sum of our knowledge of mental diseases.

Last year I said: "There is a growing sentiment that many diseases not heretofore regarded as nervous (and perhaps all diseases) are of nervous origin." This truth, that all pathologico-histological changes in the tissues of the body are degenerative in character, and, whether caused by a parasite, a poison, or some unknown influence, are first brought about by or through a changed innervation, is one that is being accepted very largely by the best men in the profession, and the accumulation of facts is increasing rapidly, and the acceptance of this great truth will prove to be little short of revolutionary in its influence on the treatment of the disease. This is the outgrowth of the study of disease from the standpoint of the evolution hypothesis. Derangements of function precede abnormalities of structure; hence the innervation must be at fault before the organ fails. Hence the art of healing should aim at grappling with the neuroses first, for the local trophic changes, perverted secretions, and structural abnormalities are the effects or symptoms, not the causes of the disease. Dr. J.L. Thudicum has studied the chemical constitution of the brain, and he holds that, "When the normal composition of the brain shall be known to the uttermost item, then pathology can begin its search for abnormal compounds or derangements of quantities." The great diseases of the brain and spine, such as general paralysis, acute and chronic mania, and others, the author believes will all be shown to be connected with special chemical changes in neuroplasm, and that a knowledge of the composition and properties of this tissue and of its constituents will materially aid in devising modes of radical treatment in cases in which, at present, only tentative symptomatic measures are taken.

The whole drift of recent brain inquiry sets toward the notion that the brain always acts as a whole, and that no part of it can be discharging without altering the tensions of all the other parts; for an identical feeling cannot recur, for it would have to recur in an unmodified brain, which is an impossibility, since the structure of the brain itself is continually growing different under the pressure of experience.

Insanity is a disease of the most highly differentiated parts of the nervous system, in which the psychical functions, as thought, feeling, and volition, are seriously impaired, revealing itself in a series of mental phenomena. Institutions for the insane were at first founded for public relief, and not to benefit the insane; but this idea has changed in the past, and there is a growing feeling that a natural and domestic abode, adapted to the varying severity of the different degrees of insanity, should be the place for the insane, with some reference to their wants and necessities, and that many patients (not all) could be better treated in a domestic or segregate asylum than in the prison-like structures that so often exist, and that the asylum should be as much house-like and home-like in character as the nature of the insanity would permit; while exercise and feeding are accounted as among the best remedies in some cases of insanity, particularly in acute mania.

The new disease called morbus Thomsenii, of which I wrote in my report last year, has been carefully studied by several men of eminence, and the following conclusions have been reached as to its pathology: The weight of the evidence seems to prove that it is of a neuropathic rather than a myopathic nature, and that it depends on an exaggerated activity of the nervous apparatus which produces muscular tone, and that it has much analogy to the muscular phenomena of hysterical hypnosis, the genesis of which is precisely explained by a functional hyperactivity of the nervous centers of muscular activity. Until quite recently it was supposed that the rhythmical action of the heart was entirely due to the periodical and orderly discharge of motor nerve force in the nerve ganglia which are scattered through the organ; but recent physiological observations, more especially the brilliant researches of Graskell, seem to show that the influence of the cardiac ganglia is not indispensable, and that the muscular fiber itself, in some of the lower animals, at all events possesses the power of rhythmical contraction.

Several valuable additions to our knowledge of the anatomy of the nervous system have been made by Huschke, Exner, Fuchs, and Tuczek.

Tuczek and Fuchs have confirmed the discoveries of Exner, that there are no medullated nerve fibers in the convolutions of the infant, and Flechzig has developed this law, that "medullated nerve fibers appear first in the region of the pyramidal tracts and corona radiata, and extend from them to the convolutions and periphery of the brain," being practically completed about the eighth year. This fact is of practical importance in nervous and mental diseases, since it is becoming an admitted truth that the histological changes in disease follow in an inverse order the developmental processes taking place in the embryo. Hence the recent physiological division of the nervous system by Dr. Hughlings Jackson into highest, middle, and lowest centers, and the evolution of the cerebro-spinal functions from the most automatic to the least automatic, from the most simple to the most complex, from the most organized to the least organized. In the recognition of this division we have the promise of a steadier and more scientific advance, both in the physiology and in the pathology of the nervous system.

Mr. Victor Horsley has recently demonstrated the existence of true sensory nerves supplying the nerve trunks of nervi-nervorum.

Prof. Hamilton, of Aberdeen, claims that the corpus callosum is not a commissure, but the decussation of cortical fibers on their way down to enter the internal and external capsules of the opposite side.

Profs. Burt G. Wilder, of Ithaca, and T. Jefrie Parker, of New Zealand Institute, have proposed a new nomenclature for macroscopic encephalic anatomy, which, while seemingly imperfect in many respects, has, at least, the merit of stimulating thought, and has given an impulse to a reform which will not cease until something has been actually accomplished in this direction. The object being to substitute for many of the polynomial terms, technical and vernacular, now in use, technical names which are brief and consist of a single word. This has already been adopted by several neurologists, of whom we may mention Spitzka, Ramsey, Wright, and H.T. Osborn.

Luys holds that the brain, as a whole, changes its position in the cranial cavity according to different attitudes of the body, the free spaces on the upper side being occupied by cerebro-spinal fluid, which, obeying the laws of gravity, is displaced by the heavier brain substance in different positions of the body.

Luys claims that momentary vertigo, often produced by changing from a horizontal to a vertical position, seasickness, pain in movement in cases of meningitis, epileptic attacks at night, etc., may be by this explained. These views of Luys are accepted as true, but to a less extent than taught by Luys. The prevalent idea that a lesion of one hemisphere produces a paralysis upon the opposite side of the body alone is no longer tenable, for each hemisphere is connected with both sides of the body by motor tracts, the larger of the motor tracts decussating and the smaller not decussating in the medulla. Hence a lesion of one hemisphere produces paralysis upon the opposite side of the body. It has recently been established that a lesion of one hemisphere in the visual area produces, not blindness in the opposite eye, as was formerly supposed, but a certain degree of blindness in both eyes, that in the opposite eye being greater in extent than that in the eye of the same side. Analogy would indicate that other sensations follow the same law, hence the probability is that all the sensations from one side of the body do not pass to the parietal cortex of the opposite side, but that, while the majority so pass, a portion go up to the cortex of the same side from which they come.

Dr. Hammond says that the chief feature of the new Siberian disease called miryachit is, that the victims are obliged to mimic and execute movements that they see in others, and which motions they are ordered to execute.

Dr. Beard, in June, 1880, observed the same condition when traveling among the Maine hunters, near Moosehead Lake. These men are called jumpers, or jumping Frenchmen. Those subject to it start when any sudden noise reaches the ears. It appears to be due to the fact that motor impulse is excited by perceptions without the necessary concurrence of the volition of the individual to cause the discharge, and are analogous to epileptiform paroxysms due to reflex action.

The term spiritualism has come to signify more than has usually been ascribed to it, for some recent authors are now using the term to denote a neurosis or nervous affection peculiar to that class of people who claim to be able to commune with the spirits of the dead.

Evidence obtained from clinical observations has tended of late to locate the pathological lesions of chorea in the cerebral cortex.

Dr. Godlee's operation of removing a tumor from the brain marks an important step in cerebral localization, and cerebral surgery bids fair to take a prominent place in the treatment of mental diseases.

Wernicke has observed that the size of the occipital lobes is in proportion to the size of the optic tracts, and that the occipital lobes are the centers of vision.

Hughlings Jackson has observed that limited and general convulsions were often produced by disease in the cortex of the so-called motor convolutions. The sense of smell has been localized by Munk in the gyri hippocampi, while the center of hearing has been demonstrated to be in the temporal lobes. The center for the muscles of the face and tongue is in the inferior part of the central convolution; that for the arm, in the central part; that for the leg, in the superior part of the same convolution; the center for the muscles and for general sensibility, in the angular gyrus; and the center for the muscles of the trunk, in the frontal lobes. In pure motor aphasia the lesion is in the posterior part of the left third frontal convolution; in cases of pure sensory aphasia, the lesion is in the left first temporal convolution.

The relation of the cerebrum to cutaneous diseases has been studied much of late, and it is now held that the cutaneous eruptions are mainly due to the degree of inhibiting effect exerted upon the vaso-motor center.

The relation of the spinal cord to skin eruptions has been more thoroughly investigated and more abundant evidence supplied to demonstrate the influence degeneration of the spinal cord has in causing skin diseases, notably zoster, urticaria, and eczema.

This rheumatism, pneumonia, diabetes, and some kidney diseases and liver affections are often the result of persistent nervous disturbance is now held. That a high temperature (the highest recorded) has resulted from injuries of the spinal cord, and where the influence of microzymes is excluded, is not a matter of question. In one instance, the temperature reached 122 deg. F., and remained for seven weeks between 108 deg. and 118 deg. F. The patient was a lady; the result was recovery. Hence it cannot be fever which kills or produces rapid softening of the heart and other organs in fatal cases of typhoid. Fever, so far as it consists in elevation of temperature, can be a simple neurosis.

Many other items of progress might be presented did time permit, particularly in the treatment of nervous affections, but this I leave for another occasion.

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SCARING THE BABY OUT.

Dr. Grangier, surgeon in the French army, writes from Algeria: "A few days after the occupation of Brizerte, when the military authorities had forbidden, under the severest penalties, the discharge of firearms within the town, the whole garrison was awakened at three o'clock one morning by the tremendous explosion of a heavily loaded gun in the neighborhood of the ramparts; a guard of soldiers rushed into the house from whence the sound had come, and found a woman lying on the floor with a newly born babe between her thighs. The father of the child stood over his wife with the smoking musket still in his hand, but his intentions in firing the gun had been wholly medical, and not hostile to the French troops. The husband discovered that his wife had been in labor for thirty-six hours. Labor was slow and the contractions weak and far apart. He had thought it advisable to provoke speedy contraction, and, following the Algerian custom to scare the baby out, he had fired the musket near his wife's ear; instantanously the accouchement was terminated. After being imprisoned twenty-four hours, the Arab was released."—Cincinnati Lancet.

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"ELASTIC LIMIT" IN METAL.

The Engineering and Mining Journal raises the question whether steel, which is becoming so popular a substitute for wrought iron, will, when it is subjected to continuous strain in suspension bridges and other similar structures, do as well as iron has proved that it can. Recent tests of sections from the cables at Fairmount Park, Philadelphia, and at Niagara Falls show that long use has not materially changed the structure. The Journal says: "It is a serious question, and one which time only can completely answer, whether steel structures will prove as uniformly and permanently reliable as wrought iron has proved itself to be. In other words, whether the fibrous texture of wrought iron can be equaled in this respect by the granulated texture of steel or ingot iron. In this connection it is interesting to note that the fibrous texture referred to is imparted to wrought iron by the presence in it of a small proportion of slag from the puddling furnace, and that this can be secured in the Bessemer converter also if desired. The so-called Klein-Bessemerei, carried on at Avesta in Sweden for several years past, produces an exclusively soft, fibrous iron by the simple device of pouring slag and iron together into the ingot mould. This requires however a very small charge (usually not more than half a ton), and a direct pouring from the converter, without the intervention of a ladle, which would chill the slag."

The effect of the introduction of slag would seem to be to retrace the steps usually taken in producing steel, viz., to separate the iron from its impurities, and then to add definite quantities of carbon and such other ingredients as are found to neutralize the effects of certain impurities not fully removed.

The most intelligent engineers, after ascertaining by exhaustive physical tests what they need, present their "requirements" to the iron and steel makers, whose practical experience and science guide them in the protracted metallurgical experiments necessary to find the exact process required. The engineer verifies the product by further tests, and by practical use may find that his "requirement" needs further modifications. As a result of all this care, some degree of certainty is secured as to what the material may be expected to do.

No doubt the chemical composition of the slag used at Avesta was known and met some equally well known want in the iron, and thus the result arrived at was one which had been definitely and intelligently sought.

An important factor in selecting material for the cables of suspension bridges is its true elastic limit. By this term we mean the percentage of the total strength of the material which it can exert continuously without losing its resilience, i.e., its power to resume its former shape and position when stress is removed. Now, in the case particularly of steel wire as commonly furnished in spiral coils, the curve put into the wire in the process of manufacture seriously diminishes this available sustaining power.

For it is evident that it would be unsafe to subject these cables at any time to a stress beyond their elastic limit. If, e.g., a snowstorm or a great crowd of people should load a bridge beyond this limit, when the extra weight was removed the cables could not bring the bridge back to its normal place, and the result would be a permanent flattening and weakening of the arch.

By a process invented and patented by Col. Paine, the wire in the New York and Brooklyn bridge was furnished straight instead of curved. Now, if a short piece of common steel wire is taken from the coil, and pulled toward a straight position, and then released, it springs back into its former curve; but if a short piece of the straight-furnished wire that was put into this bridge is bent, and then released, it springs back toward its straight position.

THE END