In the early days of this lamp it was thought necessary to remove the delicate platinum wire which forms the core of the filament, by raising the strength of the current sufficiently to destroy it in the course of manufacture. This, however, was given up, and the platinum now remains either as a continuous wire or as a series of small separated granules.

* * * * *



ELECTRIC LIGHT APPARATUS FOR MILITARY PURPOSES.

In the first period of the siege of a stronghold it is of very great importance for the besieged to embarrass the first progress of the attack, in order to complete their own armament, and to perform certain operations which are of absolute necessity for the safety of the place, but which are only then possible. In order to retard the completion of the first parallel, and the opening of the fire, it is necessary to try to discover the location of such parallel, as well as that of the artillery, and to ply them with projectiles. But, on their side, the besiegers will do all in their power to hide their works, and those that they are unable to begin behind natural coverts they will execute at night. It will be seen from this how important it is for the besieged to possess at this stage of events an effective means of lighting up the external country. Later on, such means will be of utility to them in the night-firing of long-range rifled guns, as well as for preventing surprises, and also for illuminating the breach and the ditches at the time of an assault, and the entire field of battle at the time of a sortie.



On a campaign it will prove none the less useful to be provided with movable apparatus that follow the army. A few years ago. Lieut. A. Cuvelier, in a very remarkable article in the Revue Militaire Belge, pointed out the large number of night operations of the war of 1877, and predicted the frequent use of such apparatus in future wars.

The accompanying engraving represents a very fine electric light apparatus, especially designed for military use in mountainous countries. It consists of a two-wheeled carriage, drawn by one horse and carrying all the apparatus necessary for illuminating the works of the enemy. The machine consists of the following parts: (1) A field boiler. (2) A Gramme electric machine, type M, actuated directly by a Brotherhood 3-cylinder motor. (3) A Mangin projector, 12 inches in diameter, suspended for carriage from a movable support. This latter, when the place is reached where the apparatus is to operate, may be removed from the carriage and placed on the ground at a distance of about a hundred yards from the machine, and be connected therewith by a conductor. Col. Mangin's projector consists of a glass mirror with double curvature, silvered upon its convex face. It possesses so remarkable optical properties that it has been adopted by nearly all powers. The fascicle of light that it emits has a perfect concentration. In front of the projector there are two doors. The first of these, which is plane and simple, is used when it is desired to give the fascicle all the concentration possible; the other, which consists of cylindrical lenses, spreads the fascicle horizontally, so as to make it cover a wider space.

The range of the concentrated fascicle is about 86,000 feet. The projector may be pointed in all directions, so as to bring it to bear in succession upon all the points that it is desired to illuminate. The 12-inch projector is the smallest size made for this purpose. The constructors, Messrs. Sautter, Lemonnier & Co., are making more powerful ones, up to 36 inches in diameter, with a corresponding increase in the size of the electric machines, motors, and boilers.

The various powers make use of these apparatus for the defense of fortresses and coasts, for campaign service, etc.

The various parts of the apparatus can be easily taken apart and loaded upon the backs of mules. The only really heavy piece is the boiler, which weighs about 990 pounds.

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ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM.[1]

[Footnote 1: Introductory to the course of Lectures on Physics at Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri—Kansas City Review.]

Prof. FRANCIS E. NIPHER.

It was known six hundred years before Christ that when amber is rubbed it acquires the power of attracting light bodies. The Greek name for amber, elektron, was afterward applied to the phenomenon. It was also known to the ancients that a certain kind of iron ore, first found at Magnesia, in Asia Minor, had the property of attracting iron. This phenomenon was called magnetism. This is the history of electricity and magnetism for two thousand years, during which these facts stood alone, like isolated mountain peaks, with summits touched and made visible by the morning sun, while the region surrounding and connecting them lay hidden and unexplored.

In fact, it is only in more recent times that men could be found possessing the necessary mental qualities to insure success in physical investigation. Some of the ancients were acute observers, and made valuable observations in descriptive natural history. They also observed and described phenomena which they saw around them, although often in vague and mystical terms.

They, however, were greatly lacking in power to discriminate between the possible and the absurd, and so old wives' tales, acute speculations, and truthful observations are strangely jumbled together. With rare exceptions they did not contrive new conditions to bring about phenomena which Nature did not spontaneously exhibit—they did not experiment. They attempted to solve the universe in their heads, and made little progress.

In mediaeval times intellectual men were busy in trying to set each other right, and in disputing and arguing with those who believed themselves to be right. It was an era of intellectual pugilism, and nothing was done in physics. In fact, this frame of mind is incompatible with any marked success in scientific work.

The physical investigator cannot take up his work in the spirit of controversy; for the phenomena and laws of Nature will not argue with him. He must come as a learner, and the true man of science is content to learn, is content to lay his results before his fellows, and is willing to profit by their criticisms. In so far as he permits himself to assume the mental attitude of one who defends a position, in so far does he reveal a grave disqualification for the most useful scientific work. Scientific truth needs no man's defense, but our individual statements of what we believe to be truth frequently need criticism. It is hardly necessary to remark, also, that critics are of various degrees of excellence, and it seems that those in whom the habit of criticism has become chronic are of comparatively little service to the world.

The great harbinger of the new era was Galileo. There had been prophets before him, and after him came a greater one—Newton. They did nothing of note in electricity and magnetism, but they were filled with the true spirit of science, they introduced proper and reasonable methods of investigation, and by their great ability and distinguished success they have produced a revolution in the intellectual world. Other great men had also appeared, such as Leibnitz and Huyghens; and it became very clear that the methods of investigation which had borne such fruit in the days of Galileo were not disposed of completely by his unwilling recantation; it became very clear that the new civilization which was dawning upon Europe was not destined to the rude fate which had overwhelmed the brilliant scientific achievements of the Spanish Moors of a half century before.

Already in 1580, about the time when Galileo entered Pisa as a student, Borroughs had determined the variation of the magnetic needle at London, and we have upon the screen a view of his instrument, which seems rude enough, in comparison with the elaborate apparatus of our times. The first great work on electricity and magnetism was the "De Magnete" of Gilbert, physician of Queen Elizabeth, published in 1600. Galileo, already famous in Europe, recognized in the methods of investigation used by Gilbert the ones which he had found so fruitful, and wrote of him, "I extremely praise, admire, and envy this author."

Gilbert made many interesting contributions to magnetism, which we shall notice in another lecture, and he also found that sulphur, glass, wax, and other bodies share with amber the property of being electrified by friction. He concluded that many bodies could not be thus electrified. Gray, however, found in 1729 that these bodies were conductors of electricity, and his discoveries and experiments were explained and described to the president of the Royal Society while on his death bed, and only a few hours before his death. If precautions are taken to properly insulate conductors, all bodies which differ in any way, either in structure, in smoothness of surface, or even in temperature, are apparently electrified by friction. In all cases the friction also produces heat, and if the bodies rubbed are exactly alike, heat only is produced.

An electrified body will attract all light bodies. This gutta percha when rubbed with a cat's skin attracts these bits of paper, and this pith ball, and this copper ball; it moves this long lath balanced on its center, and deflects this vertical jet of water into a beautiful curve.

If a conductor is to be electrified, it must be supported by bad conductors. This brass cylinder standing on a glass column has become electrified by friction with cat's-skin. My assistant will stand upon this insulating stool, and by stroking his hand you will observe that with his other hand he can attract this suspended rod of wood, and you will hear a feeble spark when I apply my knuckle to his.

Du Fay, of Paris, discovered what he called two kinds of electricity. He found that a glass rod rubbed with silk will repel another glass rod similarly rubbed, but that the silk would attract a rubbed glass rod. We express the facts in the well-known law that like electricities repel each other, and unlike attract. For a long time the nature of the distinctions between the two electricities was not understood. It was found later that when the two bodies are rubbed together they become oppositely electrified, and that the two electricities are always generated in equal quantity; so that if the two bodies are held in contact after the rubbing has ceased the two electricities come together again and the electrical phenomena disappear. They have been added together, and the result is zero. Franklin proposed to call these electricities positive and negative. These names are well chosen, but we do not know any reason why one should be called positive rather than the other. The electricity generated on glass when rubbed with silk is called positive.

Let us now examine the distinction between positive and negative electricities somewhat more closely, aiding ourselves by two cases which are somewhat analogous.

Two air-tight cylinders, A and B, contain air at ordinary pressure. The cylinders are connected by a tube containing an air-pump in such a way that, when the pump is worked, air is taken from A and forced into B. To use the language of the electricians, we at once generate two kinds of pressure. The vessels have acquired new properties. If we open a cock in the side of either vessel, we hear a hissing sound, if a light body is placed before the opening in A it would be attracted, and before the opening in B it would be repelled. Now this is only roughly analogous to the case of the electrified bodies, but the analogy will nevertheless aid us in our study. If the two vessels are first connected with the air, and then closed up and the pump is set to work, we increase the pressure in B and diminish the pressure in A. To do this requires the expenditure of a quantity of work. If the cylinders are connected by an open tube—a conductor—the difference in pressure disappears by reason of a flow of gas from one vessel to the other.

If we had a pump by means of which we could pump heat from one body into another, starting with two bodies at the same temperature, the temperature of one body would increase and that of the other would diminish. If we knew less than we do of heat, we might well discuss whether the plus sign should be applied to the heat or to the cold, because these names were coined by people who knew very little about the subject except that these bodies produce different sensations when they come in contact with the human body.

Furthermore, we find that whether the hand is applied to a very hot body or to a very cold body, the physiological effect is the same. In each case the tissue is destroyed and a burn is produced. Shall we now say that this burn is produced by an unusual flow of heat from the hot body to the hand, or from the hand to the cold body, or shall we say that it is due to an unusual flow of cold from the cold body to the hand, or from the hand to the hot body?

Logically these expressions are identical; still we have come to prefer one of them. It is because we have learned that in those bodies which our fathers called hot, the particles are vibrating with greater energy than in cold bodies, that we prefer to say that heat is added and not cold subtracted, when a cold body becomes less cold.

Now to come back to our electrified bodies. Let us suppose that this gutta percha, and this cat's-skin are not electrified. That means that their electrical condition is the same as that of surrounding bodies. Let us also suppose that their thermal condition is the same as surrounding bodies, ourselves included—that is, they are neither hot nor cold. We express these conditions in other words by saying that the bodies have the same electrical potential and the same temperature.

Temperature in heat is analogous to potential in electricity. As soon as adjacent bodies are at different temperatures, we have the phenomena which reveal to us the existence of heat. As soon as adjacent bodies have different electrical potentials, we have the phenomena which reveal the existence of electricity. As soon as adjacent regions in the air are at different pressures, we have phenomena which reveal the existence of air.

Bodies all tend to preserve the same temperature and also the same electrical potential. Any disturbances in electrical equilibrium are much more quickly obliterated than in case of thermal equilibrium, and we therefore see less of electrical phenomena than of thermal. In thunder storms we see such disturbances, and with delicate instruments we find them going on continuously. Changes in temperature occurring on a large scale in our atmosphere, occurring in these gas jets, in our fires, in the axles of machinery, and in thousands of other places, are so familiar that we have ceased to wonder at them.

If we rub these two bodies together, the potential of the two is no longer the same. We do not know which one has become greater, and in this respect our knowledge of electricity is less complete than of heat. We assume that the gutta percha has become negative. If we now leave these bodies in contact, the potential of the cat's skin will diminish and that of the gutta percha will increase until they have again reached a common potential—that of the earth. As in the case of heat and cold, we may say either that this has come about by a flow of positive electricity from the cat's skin to the gutta percha, or by a flow of negative electricity in the opposite direction, for these statements are identical.

In case of our gas cylinders, the gas tends to leak out of the vessel where the pressure is great into the vessel where it is small. The heat tends to leak out of a body of high temperature into the colder one, or the cold tends to go in the opposite direction. Similarly, the plus electricity tends to flow from the body having a high potential, to the body having a low potential, or the minus electricity tends to go in the opposite direction.

* * * * *

[ENGINEERING.]



THE HYDRODYNAMIC RESEARCHES OF PROFESSOR BJERKNES.

BY CONRAD W. COOKE.



We have in former articles described the highly interesting series of experimental researches of Dr. C. A. Bjerknes, Professor of Mathematics in the University of Christiania, which formed so attractive a feature in the Electrical Exhibition of Paris in 1881, and which constituted the practical development of a theoretical research which had extended over a previous period of more than twenty years. The experiments which we described in those articles were, as our readers will remember, upon the influence of pulsating and rectilinear vibrating bodies upon one another and upon bodies in their neighborhood, as well as upon the medium in which they are immersed. This medium, in the majority of Professor Bjerknes earlier experiments, was water, although he demonstrated mathematically, and to a small extent experimentally, that the phenomena, which bear so striking an analogy to those of magnetism, may be produced in air.

Our readers will recollect that in the spring of 1882 Mr. Stroh, by means of some very delicate and beautifully designed apparatus, was able to demonstrate a large number of the same phenomena in atmospheric air of the ordinary density; and about the same time Professor Bjerknes, in Christiania, was extending his researches to phenomena produced by a different class of vibrations, namely, those of bodies moving in oscillations of a circular character, such, for example, as a cylinder vibrating about its own axis or a sphere around one of its diameters; some of these experiments were brought by Professor Bjerknes before the Physical Society of London in the following June. Since that time, however, Professor Bjerknes, with the very important assistance of his son, Mr. Vilhelm Bjerknes, has been extending these experimental researches in the same direction, and with the results which it is the object of the present series of articles to describe.



The especial feature of interest in all Professor Bjerknes experiments has been the remarkably close analogy which exists between the phenomena exhibited in his mechanical experiments in water and other media and those of magnetism and of electricity, and it may be of some interest if we here recapitulate some of the more striking of these analogies.

(1.) In the first place, the vibrating or pulsating bodies, by setting the water or other medium in which they are immersed into vibration, set up in their immediate neighborhood a field of mechanical force very closely analogous to the field of magnetic force with which magnetized bodies are surrounded. The lines of vibration have precisely the same directions and form the same figures, while at the same time the decrease of the intensity of vibration by an increase of distance obeys precisely the same law as does that of magnetic intensity at increasing distances from a magnetic body.

(2.) When two or more vibrating bodies are immersed in a fluid, they set up around them fields of vibration, and act and react upon one another in a manner closely analogous to the action and reaction of magnets upon one another, producing the phenomena of attraction and repulsion. In this respect, however, the analogy appears to be inverse, repulsion being produced where, from the magnetic analogy, one would expect to find attraction, and vice versa.

(3.) If a neutral body, that is to say a body having no vibration of its own, be immersed in the fluid and within the field of vibration, phenomena are produced exactly analogous to the magnetic and diamagnetic phenomena produced by the action of a magnet upon soft iron or bismuth, its apparently magnetic or diamagnetic properties being determined by the specific gravity of the neutral body as compared to that of the medium in which it is immersed. If the neutral body be lighter than the medium, it exhibits the magnetic induction of iron with respect to polarity, but is nevertheless repelled; while if it be heavier than the medium, its direction is similar to that of diamagnetic bodies such as bismuth, but on the other hand exhibits the phenomena of attraction.

In this way Professor Bjerknes has been able to reproduce analogues of all the phenomena of magnetism and diamagnetism, those phenomena which may be classed as effects of induction being directly reproduced, while those which may be classed as effects of mechanical action, and resulting in change of place, are analogous inversely. This fact has been so much misunderstood both in this country and on the Continent that it will be well, before describing the experiments, to enter more fully into an explanation of these most interesting and instructive phenomena.

For the sake of clearness we will speak of magnetic induction as that property of a magnet by which it is surrounded by a field of force, and by which pieces of iron, within that field, are converted into magnets, and pieces of bismuth into diamagnets, and we will speak of magnetic action as the property of a magnet by which it attracts or repels another magnet, or by which it attacks or repels a piece of iron or bismuth magnetized by magnetic induction.



The corresponding hydrodynamic phenomena may be regarded in a similar manner; thus, when a vibrating or pulsating body immersed in a liquid surrounds itself with a field of vibrations, or communicates vibrations to other immersed bodies within that vibratory field, the phenomena so produced may be looked upon as phenomena of hydrodynamic induction, while on the other hand, when a vibrating or pulsating body attracts or repels another pulsating or vibratory body (whether such vibrations be produced by outside mechanical agency or by hydrodynamical induction), then the phenomena so produced are those of hydrodynamical action, and it is in this way that we shall treat the phenomena throughout this article, using the words induction and direct action in these somewhat restricted meanings.



In the hydrodynamical experiments of Professor Bjerknes all the phenomena of magnetic induction can be reproduced directly and perfectly, but the phenomena of magnetic action are not so exactly reproduced, that is to say, they are subject to a sort of inversion. Thus when two bodies are pulsating together and in the same phase (i. e., both expanding and both contracting at the same time), they mutually attract each other: but if they are pulsating in opposite phases, repulsion is the result. From this one experiment taken by itself we might be led to infer that bodies pulsating in similar phases are the hydrodynamic analogues of magnets having their opposite poles presented to one another, and that bodies pulsating in opposite phases are analogous to a presentation of similar magnetic poles; but it will be seen at once that this cannot be the case if three magnetic poles or three pulsating bodies be considered instead of only two. It is clear, on the one hand, that three similar magnet poles will all repel one another, while, on the other, of three pulsating bodies, two of them must always attract one another, while a third would be repelled; and, moreover, two similarly pulsating bodies set up around them the same lines of force as two similar magnetic poles, and two oppositely pulsating bodies produce lines of force identically the same as those set up by two magnets of opposite polarity. Thus it will be seen that there is a break in the analogy between the hydrodynamical and the magnetic phenomena (if a uniform inversion of the effects can be called a break, for it is, as far as Professor Bjerknes' experiments go, without an exception); and if by any means this inversion could be reinverted, all the phenomena of magnetism and diamagnetism could be exactly reproduced by hydrodynamical analogues; there would thus be grounds for forming a theory of magnetism on the basis of mechanical phenomena, and a very important link in the chain of the correlation of the physical forces would be supplied.

While the experiments of Professor Bjerknes upon pulsating and rectilinearly vibrating bodies and their influence upon one another illustrate by very close analogies the phenomena of magnetism, those upon circularly vibrating bodies and their mutual influences bear a remarkable analogy to electrical phenomena; and it is a significant fact that exactly as in the case of magnetic illustration, the analogies are direct as regards the phenomena of induction, and inverse in their illustration of direct electrical action.

If we examine the figure produced by the field of force surrounding a conductor through which a current of electricity is being transmitted (see Fig. 1), we see that iron filings within that field arrange themselves in more or less concentric circles around the conductor conveying the current. From this fact Professor Bjerknes and his son, reasoning that, to produce a similar field of energy around a vibrating body, the vibrations of that body must partake of a circular or rotary character, constructed apparatus for producing the hydrodynamic analogue of electric currents, in which a conductor transmitting a current of electricity is represented by a cylinder to which oscillations in circles around its axis are given by suitable mechanical means, so as to cause the enveloping medium to follow its motion and make similar rotative vibrations. In some of the earlier experiments in this direction, cylinders carrying radial veins (A, Fig. 2) or fluted longitudinally around their surfaces (B, Fig. 2) were employed with the object of giving the vibrating cylinder a greater hold of the liquid in which they were immersed; but it was found that these vanes or flutings had but little or no effect upon water or liquids of similar viscosity, and Professor Bjerkes was led to adopt highly viscous fluids, such as Glycerin or maize sirup, both of which substances are well adapted for the experiments, being at the same time both highly viscous and perfectly transparent and colorless. In seeking, for the purpose of this research, a fluid medium which shall possess analogous properties to the luminiferous ether, or whatever may be the medium whose vibrations render manifest certain physical phenomena, it might be considered at first sight that substances so dense as glycerin and sirup could have but little in common with the ether, and that an analogy between experiments made within it and phenomena associated with ethereal vibrations would be of a very feeble description: but Professor Bjerknes has shown that the chief requisite in such a medium is that its viscosity should be great, not absolutely, but large only in proportion to its density, and if the density be small, the necessary viscosity may be small also. Neither is it necessary for the fluid medium to possess great internal friction, but what is necessary to the experiments is that the medium shall be one which is readily set into vibration by the action of the circularly vibrating cylinder; this property appears to be possessed exclusively by the more viscous fluids, and is, moreover, in complete accord with what is known of the luminiferous ether according to the theory of light.

The property is rather a kind of elasticity, which ordinary fluids do not possess, but which facilitates the propagation of transverse vibrations.

One form of apparatus for the propagation of rotative oscillations is shown to the left of Fig. 3, and consists of a cylinder, A, mounted on a tubular spindle, and which is set into circular oscillations around its axis by the little vibrating membrane, C, which is attached to the axis of the cylinder by a little crank and connecting rod shown in detail in Fig. 4. This membrane is set into vibration by a rapidly pulsating column of air contained in a flexible tube M, by which apparatus is connected to the pulsation pump which was employed by Professor Bjerknes in his earlier experiments. In Fig. 5, a somewhat similar apparatus for producing horizontal vibrations is shown, and marked N H C, the only difference between them being one of mechanical detail necessitated by the change in the position of axis of vibration from the vertical to the horizontal.

If circularly vibrating cylinders, such as we have described, be immersed in a viscous fluid and set into action, the following phenomena may be observed: 1. The effect upon the fluid itself, setting up therein a field of vibration, and corresponding by analogy with the production of a field of force around a wire conveying an electric current. 2. The effect upon other circularly vibrating bodies within that field of force corresponding to the action and reaction of electric currents upon one another. 3. The effect on pulsating and oscillating bodies similarly immersed, illustrating the mutual effects upon one another of magnets and electric currents. The first of these effects is one of induction, and, from what has been said from an earlier part of this article, it will be understood that the analogy between the hydrodynamic and the electric phenomena is direct and complete. The effects classified under the second and third heads, being phenomena of direct action (in the restricted use of the word), are uniformly analogous to the magnetic and electric phenomena which they illustrate.

(To be continued.)

* * * * *



THE XYLOPHONE.

Like most musical instruments, the xylophone, had its origin in very remote times. The Hebrews and Greeks had instruments from which the one of to-day was derived, although the latter has naturally undergone many transformations. Along about 1742 we find it widely in use in Sicily under the name of Xylonganum. The Russians, Cossacks, and Tartars, and especially the mountain population of the Carpathians and Ural, played much upon an instrument of the same nature that they called Diereva and Saloma.

It appears that the xylophone was played in Germany as early as the beginning of the 16th century. After this epoch it was in use for quite a long period, but gradually fell into oblivion until the beginning of the present century. It was toward 1830 that the celebrated Russian Gussikow undertook a grand artistic voyage through Europe, and gained a certain renown and received many honors due to his truly original productions. Gussikow possessed a remarkable technique that permitted the musical instrument which he brought into fashion to be appreciated for all its worth.



As the name, "instrument of wood and straw," indicates, the xylophone (which Fig. 1 shows the mode of using) consists of small pieces of wood of varying length, and narrow or wide according to the tone that it is desired to get from them. These pieces of wood are connected with each other by cords so as to form a triangular figure (Fig. 2) that may be managed without fear of displacing the parts. The whole is laid upon bands of straw designed to bring out the sounds and render them stronger and purer. The sounds are produced by striking the pieces of wood with a couple of small hammers. They are short and jerky, and, as they cannot be prolonged, nothing but pieces possessing a quick rhythm can be executed upon the instrument. Dances, marches, variations, etc., are played upon it by preference, and with the best effect.



The popularity of this instrument is making rapid progress, and it is beginning to be played in orchestras in France [as it has been in America for many years]. A method of using it has just been published, as well as pieces of music adapted to it, with piano, violin, orchestra, etc., accompaniment.

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ELECTROTYPING.

This eminently useful application of the art of electrotyping originated with Volta, Cruickshank, and Wollaston about 1800 or 1801. In 1838, Spencer, of London, made casts of coins, and cast in intaglio from the matrices thus formed; in the same year Jacobi, of Dorpat, in Russia, made casts by electro deposit, which caused him to be put in charge of the work of gilding the dome of St. Isaac at St. Petersburg.

Electrotyping for the purposes of printing originated with Mr. Joseph A. Adams, a wood-engraver of New York, who made casts (1839-41) from wood-cuts, some engravings being printed from electrotype plates in the latter year. Many improvements in detail have been added since, in the processes as well as the appliances. Robert Murray introduced graphite as a coating for the form moulds. He first communicated his discovery to the Royal Institution of London, and afterward received a silver medal from the Society of Arts.

BLACKLEADING THE FORM.

The process of electrotyping is as follows: The form is locked up very tightly, and is then coated with a surface of graphite, commonly known as blacklead, but it is a misnomer. This is put on with a brush, and may be done very evenly and speedily by a machine in which the brush is reciprocated over the type by hand-wheel, crank, and pitman. A soft brush and very finely powdered graphite are used; the superfluous powder being removed, and the face of the type cleaned by the palm of the hand.

TAKING THE MOULD.

A shallow pan, known as a moulding pan, is then filled with melted yellow wax, making a smooth, even surface, which is blackleaded. The pan is then secured to the head of the press, and the form placed on the bed, which is then raised, delivering an impression of the type upon the wax.

The pan is removed from the head of the press, placed on a table, and then built up, as it is termed. This consists in running wax upon the portions where large spaces occur between type, in order that corresponding portions in the electrotype may not be touched by the inking roller, or touched by the sagging down of the paper in printing.

MAKING THE DEPOSIT.

The wax mould being built, is ready for blackleading, to give it a conducting surface upon which the metal may be deposited in the bath, superfluous blacklead being removed with a bellows. Blacklead, being nearly pure carbon, is a poor conductor, and a part of the metal of the pan is scraped clean, to form a place for the commencement of the deposit. The back of the moulding is waxed, to prevent deposit of copper thereon, and the face of the matrix is wetted to drive away all films or bubbles of air which may otherwise be attached to the blackleaded surface of the type.

The mould is then placed in the bath, containing a solution of sulphate of copper, and is made a part of an electric circuit, in which is also included the zinc element in the sulphuric-acid solution in the other bath. A film of copper is deposited on the blacklead surface of the mould; and when this shell is sufficiently thick, it is taken from the bath, the wax removed, the shell trimmed, the back tinned, straightened, backed with an alloy of type-metal, then shaved to a thickness, and mounted on a block to make it type-high.

A RECENT IMPROVEMENT.

has been introduced in which there is added finely pulverized tin to the graphite for facing the wax mould; the effect in the sulphate of copper bath is to cause a rapid deposition of copper by the substitution of copper for the tin, the latter being seized by the oxygen, while the copper is deposited upon the graphite. The film is after increased by the usual means. Knight's expeditious process consists in dusting fine iron filings on the wet graphite surface of the wax mould, and then pouring upon it a solution of sulphate of copper. Stirring with a brush expedites the contact, and a decomposition takes place; the acid leaves the copper and forms with the iron sulphate a solution which floats off, while the copper is freed and deposited in a pure metallic form upon the graphite. The black surface takes on a muddy tinge with marvelous rapidity. The electric-connection gripper is designed to hold and sustain the moulding pan and make an electric connection with the prepared conducting pan of the mould only, while the metallic pan itself is out of the current of electricity, and receives no deposit.

BACKING-UP.

The thin copper-plate, when removed from the wax mould, is just as minutely correct in the lines and points as was the wax mould, and the original page of type. But it is obvious that the copper sheet is no use to get a print from. You must have something as solid as the type itself before it can be reproduced on paper. So a basis of metal is affixed to the copper film, and this again is backed up with wood thick enough to make the whole type-high. To get this, a man melts some tinfoil in a shallow iron tray, which he places on the surface of molten lead, kept to that heat in square tanks over ordinary fires. The tinfoil sticks to the back of the copper, and on the back of this is poured melted type-metal, until a solid plate has been formed, the surface of which is the copper facsimile and the body white metal. The electro metal plate, copper colored and bright on its surface, has now to go to the

FINISHING ROOM.

Here are two departments. In one the plates are shaved and trimmed down to fit the wood blocks, which are made in the other department. Some of these operations are done by hand, but it is very interesting to see self-working machines planing the sheets of metal to precisely the required thinness with mathematical exactness. A pointed tool is set to a certain pitch, and the plate of metal is made to revolve in such a way that one continuous curl shaving falls until the whole surface (back) has been planed perfectly true. The wood blocks are treated in the same way, after being sawn into the required sizes by a number of circular saws. Another set of workmen fit and join the metal to the wood, trim the edges, and turn the blocks out type-high and ready for working on the printing press.

A WET BLACKLEADING PROCESS.

In Messrs. Harper's establishment in New York, an improved wet process of blackleading is adopted. The wax mould is laid face upward on the floor of an inclosed box, and a torrent of finely pulverized graphite suspended in water is poured upon it by means of a rotary pump, a hose, and a distributing nozzle which dashes the liquid equally over the whole surface of the mould. Superfluous graphite is then removed by copious washing, an extremely fine film of graphite adhering to the wax. This answers a triple purpose; it coats the mould with graphite, wets it ready for the bath, and expels air bubbles from the letters. This process prevents entirely the circulation of blacklead in the air, which has heretofore been so objectionable in the process of electrotyping.

A NEW FOREIGN PROCESS.

The galvanoplastic process of M. Coblence for obtaining electrotypes of wood-engravings is as follows: A frame is laid upon a marble block, and then covered with a solution of wax, colophane, and turpentine. This mixture on the frame, after cooling, becomes hard, and presents a smooth, even surface. An engraved wooden block is then placed upon the surface of the frame, and subjected to a strong pressure. The imprint on matrix in cameo, having been coated with graphite, is then placed vertically in a galvanoplastic bath, and a cast, an exact reproduction of the wood-engraving, is obtained. The shell is then backed with type metal and finished in the usual way.—Printer and Stationer.

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A NEW SEISMOGRAPH.

All the seismographs that have hitherto been employed have two grave disadvantages: they are either too simple, so that their indications are valueless, or too complicated, so that their high cost and delicacy, and the difficulty of mounting them and keeping them in order, tend to prevent them from being generally used.

Seismology will not be able to make any serious progress until it has at its disposal very certain and very numerous data as to telluric movements registered at a large number of points at once by accurate instruments. I have endeavored to construct a simple apparatus capable of automatically registering such facts as it is most necessary to know in scientific researches on the movements of the earth. After numerous experiments I believe that I have succeeded in solving this delicate problem, since my apparatus, put to the test of experience, has given me satisfactory results. I have consequently decided to submit it to the approval of men of science.

My seismograph is capable of registering (1) vertical shocks, (2) horizontal ones, (3) the order in which all the shocks manifest themselves, (4) their direction, and (5) the hour of the first movement.



The apparatus is represented in the accompanying cut. The horizontal shocks are indicated by the front portion of the system, and the vertical ones by the back portion. The hour of the first shock is indicated as follows: The elastic strip of steel, C, is fixed by one of its extremities to a stationary support, d. When, as a consequence of a vertical motion, the free extremity of this strip oscillates, the leaden ball, x, drops into the tube, c, and, on reaching the bottom of this, acts by its shock upon a cord, i, which actuates the pendulum of a clock that has previously been stopped at 12. The other strip, B, is very similar to the one just described, but, instead of carrying a ball, it holds a small metallic cylinder, u, so balanced that a vertical shock in an upward direction causes it to drop forward into the anterior half of the tube to the left. A second vertical shock in a downward direction causes it to drop into the other half. The cylinder, u, and the ball, x, are regulated in their positions by means of screws affixed to a stationary support.

The portion of the apparatus designed to register horizontal (undulatory) motions consists of four vertical pendulums, z z z z, each of which is capable of moving in but one direction, since, in the other, it rests against a fixed column.

Telluric waves, according to modern observations, almost invariably in every region follow two directions that cross each other at right angles. When the seismograph has been arranged according to such directions, no matter from what part the first horizontal shock comes, one of the four pendulums will be set in motion. If, after the first undulation in one direction, another occurs in the opposite, the pendulum facing the first will in its turn begin to move; and if other undulations make themselves felt in diametrically opposite directions, the other pendulums will begin to act. These pendulums, in their motion, carry along the appendages, e e e e, which are so arranged as to fall in the center of the marble or iron table, one upon another, and thus show the order according to which the telluric waves manifested themselves. The part of the apparatus that records vertical shocks has a winch, r, which falls at the same place when the lead ball drops.

The apparatus as a whole may be inclosed in a case. When it is desired to employ it, it should be mounted in a cellar, while the clock that is connected with it can be located in one of the upper stories of the house.—F. Cordenons, in La Nature.

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NOTES ON THREE NEW CHINESE FIXED OILS.[1]

[Footnote 1: Read at an evening meeting of the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain, Feb, 4, 1885.]

By ROBERT H. DAVIES, F.I.C., F.C.S., General Superintendent of Apothecaries' Hall.

The three oils that form the subject of the examination detailed in this paper were consigned to a London broker, with a view to their being regularly exported from China if a market could be found for them here: it was, therefore, necessary to ascertain what commercial oils they resembled in character, so as to estimate to what uses they might be applied.

TEA OIL (Camellia oleifera).

In color, transparency, and mobility, this oil considerably resembles olive oil. The odor and taste, though characteristic, are not easy to describe.

(1.) Specific Gravity.—The specific gravity at 60 deg. F. is 917.5), water at 60 deg. F. being taken as 1,000.

(2.) Action of Cold.—On subjecting to the cold produced by a mixture of pounded ice and salt, some solid fatty matter, probably stearine, separates, adhering to the side of the tube. It takes a longer exposure and a lower temperature than is necessary with olive oil. I did not succeed in solidifying it, but only in causing some deposit. Olive oil became solid, while almond and castor oil on the other hand did not deposit at all under similar circumstances. The lowest temperature observed was -13.3 deg. C. (8 deg. F.), the thermometer bulb being immersed in the oil.

A few qualitative tests, viz., the action of sulphuric acid, nitric acid (sp. gr. 1.42), and digestion, with more dilute nitric acid (1.2 sp. gr.) and a globule of mercury, were first tried.

When one drop of sulphuric acid is added to eight or ten drops of tea oil on a white plate, the change of color observed is more like that when almond oil is similarly treated than with any other oil, olive oil coming next in order of similarity.

When a few drops of tea oil are boiled with thirty drops or so of nitric acid in a small tube, the layer of oily matter, when the brisk action has moderated, is of a light yellow color, similar in tint to that produced from almond and olive oil under similar circumstances. When the oil is digested with an equal volume of nitric acid (1.2 sp. gr.), and a globule of mercury added, the whole becomes converted into a mass of elaidin in about two hours, of the same tint as that produced from almond oil when similarly treated.

These tests point to the fact that the oil may be considered as resembling almond or olive oil in composition, a conclusion which is borne out by the subsequent experiments.

(3.) Free Acidity of Oil.—The oil was found to contain free acid in small quantity, which was estimated by agitating a weighed quantity with alcohol, in which the free acid dissolves while the neutral fat does not, and titrating the alcoholic liquid with decinormal alkali, using solution of phenol-phthalein as an indicator.

It was thus found that 100 grammes of the oil require 0.34 gramme of caustic potash to neutralize the free acid. Mr. W. H. Deering (Journ. Soc. of Chem. Industry, Nov., 1884) states that in seven samples of olive oil examined by him, the minimum number for acidity was 0.86 per cent., and the maximum 1.64 per cent., the mean being 1.28 per cent. Tea oil compares favorably with olive oil, therefore, in respect of acidity, a quality of which note has to be taken when considering the employment of oil as a lubricating agent.

(4.) Saponification of the Oil.—Considerable light is thrown on the composition of a fixed oil by ascertaining how much alkali is required to saponify it. In order to estimate this, a known excess of alcoholic solution of potash is added to a weighed quantity of the oil, contained in a stout, well-closed bottle (an India-rubber stopper is the most convenient), which is then heated in a water oven until the liquid is clear, no oil bubbles being visible. Phenol-phthalein solution being added, the excess of potash is estimated by carefully titrating with standard hydrochloric acid solution.

It was thus found that 1,000 grammes of oil would require 195.5 grammes of caustic potash to convert it entirely into potash soap.

Koettstorfer, to whom this method of analysis is due, gives 191.8, and Messrs. F. W. and A. F. Stoddart the numbers 191 to 196, as the amounts of caustic potash required by 1,000 parts of olive oil. The numbers given by niger seed, cotton seed, and linseed oils are very similar to these. These oils differ from olive and tea oil, however, in having a higher specific gravity, and in the property they possess of drying to a greater or less extent on exposure to air.

(5.) The Fatty Acids Produced.—A solution of the potash soap was treated with excess of hydrochloric acid, and after being well washed with hot water, the cake of fatty acids was dried thoroughly and weighed. These, insoluble in water, amounted to 93.94 per cent, of the fat taken. The proportion dissolved in the water used for washing was estimated by titration with alkali; the quantity of KOH required was insignificant, equaling 0.71 per cent, of the fat originally used. This portion was not further examined.

The insoluble fatty acids amounted, as last stated, to 93.94 per cent. Pure olein, supposing none of the liberated acid to be dissolved in water, would yield 95.7 per cent. of fatty acid.

The acid was evidently a mixture, and had no definite melting point. It was solid at 9 deg. C., and sufficiently soft to flow at 12 deg. C., but did not entirely liquefy under 22 deg. C. To test its neutralizing power, 0.9575 gramme dissolved in alcohol was titrated with decinormal alkali; it required 34.05 c.c. This amount of pure oleic acid would require 33.95 c.c.; of pure stearic acid, which has almost the same molecular weight as oleic acid, 33.71 c.c.; or of pure palmitic acid, 37.4 c.c. This, taken in conjunction with the way in which the acid melted, makes it extremely probable that it is a mixture of oleic and stearic acids.

Additional evidence of the large proportion of oleic acid was furnished by forming the lead salt, and treating with ether, in which lead oleate is soluble, the stearate and palmitate being insoluble. In this way it was found that the oleic acid obtained from the ethereal solution of the lead salt amounted to 83.15 per cent. of the oil.

This acid was proved to be oleic, by its saturating power and its melting point, which were fairly concordant with those of the pure acid.

CABBAGE OIL (Brassica, sp.).

Appearance, etc.—The sample was of a deep brown color, of a fluidity intermediate between olive and castor oil, and possessed a strong, rather disagreeable odor.

The Specific Gravity at 60 deg. Fahr., 914.0.—The specific gravity of rape oil and colza oil, both of which are obtained from species of the genius Brassica, varies from 913.6 to 916.

Exposure to Cold.—This oil by exposure to a temperature of -12 deg. C. (10 deg. F.) becomes solidified in course of an hour, a bright orange-yellow mass resulting.

Qualitative Examination.—The three reagents before indicated were applied to this oil.

(a.) Sulphuric Acid.—The color produced was very marked and characteristic; it differed considerably from any of the others simultaneously tested, the nearest to it being olive end rape oil.

(b.) Strong Nitric Acid.—The reaction was more violent than before, the stratum of oil after cooling being darker in color than in the three cases before mentioned. The reaction with rape oil was similar in all respects.

(c.) Elaidin Test.—The solid mass of elaidin formed was of a darker color than that from olive, almond, and tea oil, but closely resembled that from rape oil.

Free Acidity.—This was estimated as above described. 100 grammes of oil would require 0.125 gramme caustic potash. The samples of rape oil examined by Deering (loc. cit.) were found to require from 0.21 to 0.78 KOH per 100 grammes oil.

Saponification of the Oil.—Upon saponifying with alcoholic potash, it was found that 1,000 grammes of oil required 175.2 grammes of potash for complete saponification.

The number obtained by Koettstorfer for colza was 178.7, by Messrs. Stoddart for rape oil, 175-179, and by Deering for rape oil, 170.8-175.5. The only other oil of which I can find figures resembling these is castor oil, which requires 176-178 grammes per kilo (Messrs. Stoddart). The difference in specific gravity between this (cabbage) oil and castor oil and the solubility of the latter in alcohol point to a wide distinction between them. Hence I think the numbers above given conclusively demonstrate the resemblance between this oil and rape oil in composition.

The Fatty Acids.—The acids produced by adding HCl to the potash soap were almost entirely insoluble in water. The actual amount of potash required to neutralize the acid in the wash water equaled 0.20 per cent. of the oil originally taken.

The insoluble fatty acid amounted to 95.315 per cent. of the oil taken. It was evidently a mixture of two or more fatty acids. On trying to take its melting point, I found that it commenced to soften at 17 deg. C., was distinctly liquid at 19 deg., but not completely melted until 22 deg. C.

According to O. Bach (Year Book Pharm., 1884, p. 250), the fatty acids from rape seed oil melt at 20.7 deg. C., which is fairly concordant with the result obtained for cabbage oil acids.

The neutralizing power of these acids was then tested. 0.698 gramme dissolved in alcohol required 20.52 c.c. decinormal alkali. It is a singular coincidence that brassic acid (C_{22}H_{42}O_{2}), which is a characteristic acid of colza and rape oils, would have required almost exactly this quantity of alkali for neutralization, 0.698 brassic acid theoretically saturating 20.69 c.c. of decinormal alkali. I am disposed to regard this as a coincidence, since a subsequent experiment showed that the lead salts formed were partially soluble in ether, whereas the lead salt of brassic acid is said to be insoluble in this liquid.

WOOD OIL (Elaeococcus cordata).

Appearance, etc.—This oil has a decided brown color and a persistent and disagreeable odor. It is rather more fluid than castor oil. Glass vessels containing it soon show a film of apparently resinous material, which forms whenever a portion of the oil flows from the lip or edge down the outside of the vessel, and is thus exposed to the air in a thin stream. This drying power is one of its most prominent characters. If a few drops be exposed in a flat dish, in the water oven, the oil dries rapidly, so that in two hours the gain in weight will be appreciable, and in four hours the whole will have become solid.

The Specific Gravity at 60 deg. Fahr., 940.15.—This is an unusually high gravity for a fixed oil. The only two which exceed it are castor oil, which is 960, about, and croton oil, which is very similar to this, 942 to 943 (A. H. Allen). It is interesting to note that both these oils are yielded by plants of the natural order Euphorbiaceae, to which the plant yielding so-called wood oil belongs.

Exposure to Cold.—This oil is apparently unaffected by exposure to a temperature of -13.3 deg. C. (8 deg. F).

Qualitative Examination.—The action of sulphuric acid is remarkable. When a drop comes in contact with the oil, the latter apparently solidifies round the drop of acid, forming a black envelope which grows in size and gradually absorbs and acts upon so much of the surrounding oil as to assume the appearance of a large dried currant of somewhat irregular shape.

When a drop of the oil is added to nitric acid, it solidifies, and on heating very readily changes into an orange yellow solid, which appears to soften, though not to liquefy, at the temperature of boiling water. This substance is readily soluble in hot solution of potash or soda, producing a deep brown liquid, from which it is again deposited in flocks on acidifying. I have not yet found any solvent for it. The action of nitric acid with linseed oil is more similar to this than that with any other oil I have tried, but the nitro products of the two, if I may so call them, are quite different from one another. That from linseed oil produced as indicated remains liquid at ordinary temperatures, as does the oil upon its addition to the acid.

Elaidin Test.—By the action of nitric acid in presence of mercury, a semi-solid mass is produced of a much deeper color than in the preceding cases. A portion of the oil remains in the liquid state, as is usually the case with drying oils.

Free Acidity.—By the method indicated, it was found that 100 grammes of oil required 0.39 grammes caustic potash to neutralize the acid occurring in a free state.

Saponification of the Oil.—The oil saponifies readily on being heated with potash in presence of alcohol, and the amount required to convert it entirely into potash soap was 211 grammes of caustic potash per thousand grammes of oil. There are no saponification numbers for oils that can be considered close to this. I can find no record of any having been obtained between 197 and 221, so that the further examination on which I am now engaged may show this unusual number to be due to this oil containing some new fatty acid in combination.

The Fatty Acid.—The acids produced by adding acid to the potash soap formed in this case a cake on cooling, of a much deeper color than I have before obtained. After washing well they amounted to 94.10 per cent. of the oil. The amount dissolved by the water in washing was in this case also very small, the potash required for neutralizing equaling 1.02 per cent. of the weight of oil.

I found that the cakes of acids were solid at 36 deg. C., and were completely melted at 39 deg.

On solution in alcohol, and digestion for two days with animal charcoal, the color was much diminished, and on the liquid being filtered and cooled to 0 deg. C., an abundance of small white crystalline plates separated out, which, when dried, melted at 67 deg. C.

The crude fatty acids turn black with sulphuric acid, as the oil does, and yield a similar substance with nitric acid. It is similar in appearance, but differs in that it melts at about 50 deg. C., and is soluble in glacial acetic acid, which is not the case with the substance from the oil.

These fatty acids crystallize on cooling, in a most characteristic and beautiful way, forming wavy circular plates totally unlike any that I have seen before.

The above experiments may, I think, be taken as conclusive as to the nature of tea oil and cabbage oil. The former may certainly be considered a useful lubricating agent for the finer kinds of machinery. The work upon wood oil is not yet sufficiently complete to show us the nature of its proximate constituents. I am continuing the examination of this oil. Perhaps I need scarcely add that there is no connection between this "wood oil" and the Gurgun balsam, the product of Dipterocarpus turbinatus, which is also known as "wood oil."

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THE OTOSCOPE.

Prof. Leon Le Fort has recently presented to the Academy of Medicine, in the name of Dr. Rattel, a new otoscope, which we illustrate herewith.

The first person to whom the idea occurred to illuminate the ear was Fabricius d'Acquapendentus (1600). To do this he placed the patient in front of a window in such a way as to cause the luminous rays to enter the external auditory canal. It was he likewise who conceived the idea of placing a light behind a bottle filled with water, and of projecting its concentrated rays into the ear.

In 1585 Fabricius de Hilden invented the speculum auris. This instrument was employed by him for the first time under the following circumstances: A girl ten years of age had in playing introduced a small glass ball into her left ear, and four surgeons, called in successively and at different times, had been unable to extract it. Meanwhile the little patient was suffering from an earache that extended over almost the entire head, and that increased at night and especially in cold and damp weather. To these symptoms were added strokes of epilepsy and an atrophy of the left arm. Finally, in November, 1595, De Hilden, being called in, acquainted himself with the cause of the trouble, and decided to remove the foreign body. To do this, he selected, as he tells us, "a well lighted place, caused the solar light to enter the ailing ear, lubricated the sides of the auditory canal with oil of almonds, and introduced his apparatus." Then, passing a scoop with some violence between the side of the auditory canal and the glass ball, he succeeded in extracting the latter.

At the beginning of the 17th century, then, physicians had at their disposal all that was necessary for making an examination of the ear, viz.: (1) a luminous source; (2) a means of concentrating the light; and (3) an instrument which, entering the auditory canal, held its sides apart.

The improvements which succeeded were connected with each of these three points. To solar light, an artificial one has been preferred. D'Acquapendentus' bottle has given way to the convex lens, and to concave, spherical, and parabolic mirrors, etc. De Hilden's speculum has been replaced by cylindrical, conical, bivalve, and other forms of the instrument.

The apparatus that we illustrate herewith offers some arrangements that are all its own as regards the process of concentrating the light. It is lighted, in fact, by a small incandescent lamp of 2 candle-power, placed within the apparatus and supplied by an accumulator. The reflector is represented by a portion of an ellipse so calculated that one of the foci corresponds to the lamp and the other to the extremity of the instrument. A commutator, B, permits of establishing or interrupting the current at will. A rheostat added to the accumulator makes it possible to graduate the light at one's leisure and cause it to pass through all the shades comprised between cherry-red and incandescence. Finally, the orifice through which the observer looks is of such dimensions that it gives passage to all the instruments necessary for treating complaints of the middle and internal ear.



This mode of lighting and reflection may be adapted to a Brunton otoscope, utilized for examining other natural cavities, such as the nose, pharynx, etc. Elliptical reflectors do not appear to have been employed up to the present.

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STATE PROVISION FOR THE INSANE.[1]

[Footnote 1: Remarks following "Definition of Insanity," published in the October number of The Alienist and Neurologist, and read before the Association of Charities and Corrections at St. Louis, Oct. 15, 1884.]

By C. H. HUGHES, M.D.

We live in an age when every uttered sentiment of charity toward the insane is applauded to its remotest echo; an age in which the chains and locks and bars and dismal dungeon cells and flagellations and manifold tortures of the less humane and less enlightened past are justly abhorrent; an age which measures its magnificent philanthropy by munificent millions, bestowed without stint upon monumental mansions for the indwelling of the most pitiable and afflicted of the children of men, safe from the pitiless storms of adverse environment without which are so harshly violent to the morbidly sensitive and unstable insane mind; an age in which he who strikes a needless shackle from human form or heart, or removes a cause of human torture, psychical or physical, is regarded as a greater moral hero than he who, by storm or strategy of war taketh a resisting fortress; an age when the Chiarugis and Pinels, the Yorks and Tukes, of not remotely past history, and the Florence Nightingales and Dorothea Dixes of our own time, are enshrined in the hearts of a philanthropic world with greater than monumental memory.

Noble, Christlike sentiment of human charity! Let it be cherished and fostered still, toward the least of the children of affliction and misfortune, as man in his immortal aspirations moves nearer and nearer to the loving, charitable heart of God, imaging in his work the example of the divinely incarnate Master!

But let us always couple this exalted sentimentality with the stern logic of fact, and never misdirect or misapply it in any of our charitable work. Imperfect knowledge perverts the noblest sentiments; widened and perfected knowledge strengthens their power. A truly philanthropic sentiment is most potent for good in the power of knowledge, and may be made most powerful for evil through misconception of or inadequate comprehension of facts. As we grow in aspirations after the highest welfare of the insane, let us widen our knowledge of the real nature of insanity and the necessities for its amelioration, prevention, and cure.

It is a long time since Grotius wrote, "The study of the human mind is the noblest branch of medicine;" and we realize to-day that it is the noblest study of man, regardless of vocation. Aye! it is the imperative study of our generation and of those who are to follow us, if we would continue, as we wish to be, the conservators of the good and great, and promoters of advancing capability for great and good deeds in our humanity.

One known and acknowledged insane person to every five hundred sane persons, and among those are unreckoned numbers of unstably endowed and too mildly mannered lunatics to require public restraint, but none the less dangerous to the perpetuation of the mental stability of the race, is an appalling picture of fact for philanthropic conservators of the race to contemplate.

The insane temperament and its pathological twin brother, the neuropathic diathesis, roams at large unrestrained from without or that self-restraint which, bred of adequate self-knowledge, might come from within, and contaminates with neurotic and mental instability the innocent unborn, furnishing histogenic factors which the future will formulate in minds dethroned to become helpless wards of the state or family.

The insane temperament is more enduringly fatal to the welfare of humanity than the deadly comma bacillus which is supposed to convey the scourge of Asia to our shores. The latter comes at stated periods, and disappears after a season or two of devastation, in which the least fit to survive of our population, by reason of feeble organic resisting power, are destroyed; while resisting tolerance is established in the remainder. But this scourge is with us always, transmitting weakness unto coming generations.

It is the insanity in chronic form which escapes asylum care and custody except in its exacerbations; it is the insanity of organism which gives so much of the erratic and unstable to society, in its manifestations of mind and morals; it is the form of unstable mental organism which, like an unstrung instrument jangling out of tune and harsh, when touched in a manner to elicit in men of stable organisms only concord of sweet, harmonious sounds; it is the form of mental organism out of which, by slight exciting causes largely imaginary, the Guiteaus and Joan d'Arcs of history are made, the Hawisons and Passanantis and Freemans, and names innumerable, whose deeds of blood have stained the pages of history, and whose doings in our day contribute so largely to the awful calendar of crime which blackens and spreads with gore the pages of our public press.

We may cherish the sentiment that it were base cowardice to lay hand upon the lunatic save in kindness; and yet restrain him from himself and the community from him. We may couple his restraints with the largest liberty compatible with his welfare and ours; we may not always abolish the bolts and bars, indeed we cannot, either to his absolute personal liberty in asylums or to his entire moral freedom without their walls, yet we may keep them largely out of sight. Let him be manacled when he must and only when he must, and then only with silken cords bound by affectionate hands, and not by chains. We may not open all the doors, indeed we cannot, but we can and do, thanks to the humanitarian spirit of the age in which we live, open many of them and so shut them, when it must need be done, that they close for his welfare and ours only; that he may not feel that hope is gone or humanity barred out with the shutting of the door that separates him from the world.

We may not always swing the door of the lunatic as facilely outward as inward—the nature of his malady will not always admit of this—but we should do it whenever we can, and never, when we must, should we close it harshly. And while we must needs narrow his liberty among ourselves, we should enlarge it in the community to which his affliction assigns him, to the fullest extent permissible by the nature of his malady.

Liberty need not necessarily be denied him; and to the glory of our age it is not in the majority of American asylums for the insane, because the conditions under which he may safely enjoy liberty, to his own and the community's welfare, are changed by disease. The free sunlight and the fresh air belong as much to him in his changed mental estate as to you or me, and more, because his affliction needs their invigorating power, and the man who would chain, in this enlightened age, an insane man in a dungeon, because he is diseased and troublesome or dangerous, would be unworthy the name of human. Effective restraint may be employed without the use of either iron manacles or dismal light and air excluding dungeons.

The insane man is one of our comrades who has fallen mentally maimed in the battle of life. It may be our turn next to follow him to the rear; but because we must carry him from the battlefield, where he may have fought even more valiantly than ourselves, we need not forget or neglect him. The duty is all the more imperative that we care for him, and in such a manner that he may, if possible, be restored. Simple sequestration of the insane man is an outrage upon him and upon our humanity. "Whatsoever ye would that men should do unto you, do ye even so to them," is the divine precept, which, if we follow it as we ought, will lead us to search for our fallen comrades in the alms-houses and penal institutions and reformatories, and sometimes in the outhouses or cellars of private homes, to our shame, where errors of judgment or cruelty have placed them, and to transfer them to places of larger liberty and hopes of happiness and recovery. The chronic insane are entitled to our care, not to our neglect, and to all the comforts they earned while battling with us, when in their best mental estate, for their common welfare and ours.

Almshouses and neglected outhouses are not proper places for them. They are entitled to our protection and to be so cared for, if we cannot cure them, as that they may not do those things, to their own harm or the harm of the race, which they would not do if they were sound in mind. Society must be protected against the spread of hereditary insanity, hence such kindly surveillance, coupled with the largest possible liberty, should be exercised over them as will save posterity, so far as practicable, from the entailment of a heritage more fatal than cancer or consumption.

The insane man is a changed man, and his life is more or less delusional. In view of this fact, we should endeavor always to so surround him that his environments may not augment the morbid change in him and intensify his perverted, delusioned character.

Realizing the fact that mind in insanity is rather perverted than lost, we should so deport ourselves toward the victims of this disease as in no wise to intensify or augment the malady, but always, if possible, so as to ameliorate or remove it.

Realizing that the insane man in his best estate may have walked the earth a king, and in this free country of ours have been an honored sovereign weighted with the welfare of his people, and contributing of his substance toward our charities, we should, with unstinting hand, cater to his comfort when this affliction comes upon him.

We should give him a home worthy of our own sovereign selves, and such as would suit us were we providing for ourselves, with the knowledge we have of the needs of this affliction, pending its approach to us.

That his home should be as unirritating and restful to him as possible it should be unprison-like always, and only be an imprisonment when the violent phases of his malady imperatively demand restraint. An hour of maniacal excitement does not justify a month of chains. Mechanical restraint is a remedy of easy resort, but the fettered man frets away strength essential to his recovery. Outside of asylums direct restraint is often a stern necessity. It is sometimes so in them, but in many of them and outside of all of them it may be greatly diminished, and asylums may be so constructed as to make the reduction of direct restraint practicable to the smallest minimum. Direct mechanical restraint for the insane, save to avert an act of violence not otherwise preventable, is never justifiable. The hand should never be manacled if the head can be so influenced as to stay it, and we should try to stay the hand through steadying the head.

Every place for these unfortunates should provide for them ample room and congenial employment, whether profitable to the State or not, and the labor should be induced, not enforced, and always timed and suited to their malady. A variety of interesting occupations tends to divert from delusional introspection.

Most institutions attempt to give their patients some occupation, but State policy should be liberal in this direction.

Deductions are obvious: Every insane community of mixed recent and long standing cases, or of chronic cases exclusively, should be a home, and not a mere place of detention. It should be as unprison-like and attractive as any residence for the non-criminal. It should have for any considerable number of insane persons at least a section (640 acres) of ground. It should be in the country, of course, but accessible to the supplies of a large city. It should have a central main building, as architecturally beautiful and substantial as the State may choose to make it, provided with places of security for such as require them in times of excitement, with a chapel, amusement hall, and hospital in easy covered reach of the feeble and decrepit, and accessible, without risk to health, in bad weather.

Outhouses should be built with rooms attached, and set apart from the residence of trustworthy patients, for farmer, gardener, dairyman, herdsman, shepherd, and engineer, that those who desired to be employed with them, and might safely be intrusted, and were physically able, could have opportunity of work.

Cottages should be scattered about the ground for the use and benefit of such as might enjoy a segregate life, which could be used for isolation in case of epidemic visitation. Recreation, games, drives, and walks should be liberally provided.

A perfect, but not direct and offensive, surveillance should be exercised over all the patients, with a view to securing them the largest possible liberty compatible with the singular nature of their malady.

In short, the hospital home for the chronic insane, or when acute and chronic insane are domiciled together, should be a colonial home, with the living arrangements as nearly those which would be most congenial to a large body of sane people as the condition of the insane, changed by disease, will allow.

It is as obvious as that experience demonstrates it, that the reigning head or heads of such a community should be medical, and not that medical mediocrity either which covets and accepts political preferment without medical qualifications.

The largest personal liberty to the chronic insane may be best secured to them by provision for the sexes in widely separated establishments.

It is plain that the whole duty of man is not discharged toward his fallen insane brother when he has accomplished his sequestration from society at large, or fed and housed him well. The study of the needs of the insane and of the duty of the State in regard to them is as important and imperative a study as any subject of political economy.

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THE COURAGE OF ORIGINALITY.

Most of us are at times conscious of hearing from the lips of another, or reading from the printed page, thoughts that have existed previously in our own minds. They may have been vague and unarranged, but still they were our own, and we recognize them as old friends, though dressed in a more fitting and expressive costume than we ever gave them. Sometimes an invention or a discovery dawns upon the world to bless and improve it, and while all are engaged in extolling it some persons feel that they have had its germs floating in their minds, though from the lack of favorable conditions, or some other cause, they never took root or became vital. An act of heroism is performed, and a bystander is conscious that he has that within him by which he could have taken the same step, although he did not. Some one steps forward and practically opposes a social custom that is admitted to be evil, yet maintained, and by his influence lays the ax to its root and commences its destruction; while many, commending his courage, wonder why they had not taken the same course long ago. In numberless instances we are conscious of having had the same perceptions, the same ideas, the same powers, and the same desires to put them into practice that are shown by the one who has so successfully expressed them; yet they have, for some reason, lain dormant and inoperative within us.

When we consider the waste of human power that this involves, we may well search for its cause. Doubtless it sometimes results from the absorption (more or less needful) of each one is his individual pursuit. No one can give voice to all he thinks, or accomplish all that he sees to be desirable, while striving, as he should, to gain excellence in his own chosen work. Conscious of his own limitations, he will rejoice to see many of his vague ideas, hopes, and aspirations reached and carried out by others. But the same consciousness that reconciles him to this also reveals much that he might have said or done without violating any other obligation, but which he has allowed to slip from his hands to those of another, perhaps through lack of energy, or indolence, or procrastination. The cause, however, most operative in this direction is a strange disloyalty to our own convictions. We look to others, especially to what we call great men, for thoughts, suggestions, and opinions, and gladly adopt them on their authority. But our own thoughts we ignore or treat with indifference. We admire and honor originality in others, but we value it not in ourselves. On the contrary, we are satisfied to make poor imitations of those we revere, missing the only resemblance that is worth anything, that of a simple and sincere independent life.

We would not undervalue modesty or recommend self-sufficiency. We should always be learners, gladly welcoming every help, and respecting every personality. But we should also respect our own, and bear in mind, that "though the wide universe is full of good, no kernel of nourishing corn can come to us but through our toil bestowed on that plot of ground which is given to us to till." To undervalue our own thought because it is ours, to depreciate our own powers or faculties because some one else's are more vigorous, to shrink from doing what we can because we think we can do so little, is to hinder our own development and the progress of the world. For it is only by exercise that any faculty is strengthened, and only by each one putting his shoulder to the wheel that the world moves and humanity advances.

There is nothing more insidious than the spirit of conformity, and nothing more quickly paralyzes the best parts of a man. A gleam of truth illuminates his mind, and forthwith he proceeds to compare it with the prevailing tone of his community or his set. If it agree not with that, he distrusts and perhaps disowns it; it is left to perish, and he to that extent perishes with it. By and by, when some one more independent, more truth-loving, more courageous than himself arises to proclaim and urge the same thing that he was half ashamed to acknowledge, he will regret his inglorious fear of being in the minority. We are accustomed to think that greatness always denotes exceptional powers, yet most of the world's great men have rather been distinguished by an invincible determination to work out the best that was within them. They have acted, spoken, or thought according to their own natures and judgment, without any wavering hesitation as to the probable verdict of the world. They were loyal to the truth that was in them, and had faith in its ultimate triumph; they had a mission to fulfill, and it did not occur to them to pause or to falter. How many more great men should we have were this spirit universal, and how much greater would each one of us be if, in a simple straightforward manner, we frankly said and did the best that we knew, without fear or favor? Soon would be found gifts that none had dreamed of, powers that none had imagined, and heroism that was thought impossible. As Emerson well says, "He who knows that power is inborn, that he is weak because he has looked for good out of him and elsewhere, and so perceiving throws himself unhesitatingly on his thought, instantly rights himself, stands in the erect position, commands his limbs, works miracles, just as a man who stands on his feet is stronger than a man who stands on his head."—Phil. Ledger.

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A CIRCULAR BOWLING ALLEY.

The arcades under the elevated railroad which runs transversely through Berlin are used as storehouses, stores, saloons, restaurants, etc., and are a source of considerable income to the railway company. The owner of one of the restaurants in the arcades decided to provide his place with a bowling alley, but found that he could not command the requisite length, 75 ft., and so he had to arrange it in some other way. A civil engineer named Kiebitz constructed a circular bowling alley for him, which is shown in the annexed cut taken from the Illustrirte Zeitung. The alley is built in the shape of a horse-shoe, and the bottom or bed on which the balls roll is hollowed out on a curved line, the outer edge of the bed being raised to prevent the balls from being thrown off the alley by centrifugal force.



The balls are rolled from one end of the alley, describe a curved line, and then strike the pins placed at the opposite end of the alley. No return track for the balls is required, and all that is necessary is to roll the balls from one end of the alley to the other. A recording slate, the tables for the guests, etc., are arranged between the two shanks or legs of the alley.

It is evident that a person cannot play as accurately on an alley of this kind as on a straight alley; but if a ball is thrown with more or less force, it will roll along the inner or outer edge of the alley and strike the group of pins a greater or less distance from the middle. A room 36 ft. in length is of sufficient size for one of these alleys.

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PATENT OFFICE EXAMINATION OF INVENTIONS.

To the Editor of the Scientific American:

It is with considerable surprise that the writer has just perused the editorial article in your issue of March the 28th—"Patent Office Examinations of Novelty of Inventions" It seems to me that the ground taken therein is diametrically opposed to the views heretofore promulgated in your journal on this subject, and no less so to the interests of American inventors; and it appears difficult to understand why the abolition of examinations for novelty by the Patent Office should be recommended in face of the fact that the acknowledged small fees now exacted from inventors are sufficient to provide a much greater force of examiners than are now employed on that work. If inventors were asking the government to appropriate money for this purpose, the case would be quite different; although it may be shown, I think, that Congress would be fully justified in disposing of no inconsiderable portion of the public money in this way, should it ever become necessary.

Recognizing the fact that the patent records of all countries, as well as cognate publications, are rapidly on the increase—and particularly in this country—making an examination for novelty a continuously increasing task, and that the time must come when such an examination cannot be made at all conclusively without a vastly increased amount of labor, from the very magnitude of the operation, it is nevertheless true that this difficulty menaces the inventor to a much greater extent, if imposed upon him to make, than it can ever possibly do an institution like the Patent Office.

Dividing and subdividing patent subjects into classes and sub-classes, and systematizing examinations to the extent it may be made to reach in the Patent Office, may, for a very long time to come, place this matter within the possibility of a reasonably good and conclusive search being made without additional cost to the inventor, provided what he now pays is all devoted to the furtherance of the Patent Office business. If, however, we hereafter make no examinations for novelty, an inventor is obliged to either make such a search for himself—with all the disadvantages of unfamiliarity with the best methods, inaccessibility to records, and incurring immensely more work than is required of the Patent Office examiner, who has everything pertaining thereto at his fingers' ends—or blindly pay his fees and take his patent under the impression that he is the first inventor, and run every risk of being beaten in the courts should any one essay to contest his claims; the probabilities of his being so beaten increasing in proportion as the number of inventions increase.

The inventor pays to have this work done for him at the Patent Office in the only feasible way it can be thoroughly done; and the average inventor would, or should, be willing to have the present fees very largely increased, if necessary, rather than have the examinations for novelty abolished at the Patent Office; for, in the event of their abolition, it would cost him immensely more money to secure himself, as before the courts, by his own unaided and best attainable methods.

The inventor now, however, pays to the Patent Office, as you well know, a good deal more money every year than the present cost of examinations, including of course all other Patent Office business; seeing a part of what he pays yearly covered into the Treasury as surplus, while his application is unreasonably delayed for the lack of examiner force in the Patent Office.

Let the government first apply all the moneys received at the Patent Office to its legitimate purpose, including the making of these examinations, and, when this proves insufficient, you may depend that every inventor will cheerfully consent to the increase of fees, sufficient to insure the continuance of thorough examinations for novelty, rather than attempt to do this work himself or take the chances of his having reinvented some old device (which it is very well known occurs over and over again every day), and being beaten upon the very first contest in the courts, after, perhaps, investing large amounts of money, time, and anxiety over something which he thus discovers was invented, perhaps, before he was born.

For an inventor to obtain a patent worth having, and one that is not more likely to be a source of expenditure than income to him, if contested, it goes without saying that examination for novelty must be made either by himself or some competent person or persons for him; and it is strictly proper and just that the inventor should pay for it; and it is too self-evident a proposition to admit of argument that the organized and systematized methods of the Patent Office can do it at a tithe of the expense which would be incurred in doing it in any other way; in point of fact, it would be impossible to do it by any other means so effectually or so well within any reasonable amount of cost.

Your summing up of the case should, instead of the way you put it, read: The Commissioner of Patents attempts to perform for two-thirds the sum paid as fees by inventors what he is paid three-thirds to accomplish, so that one-third of it may go to swell the surplus of the United States Treasury, and finds it an impracticable task to ascertain the novelty of an invention in a reasonable time for such a sum. To perform it, however imperfectly, he feels authorized to delay the granting; of patents, sometimes for several months, simply because Congress will not allow him to apply the moneys paid by inventors to their legitimate purpose.

I have had, for several years, always more or less applications on file at the Patent Office for inventions in my particular line, and now have several pending; and probably there are few, if any, who have suffered more from the great delays lately obtaining at that institution than myself, particularly in connection with taking out foreign patents for the same inventions, and so timing the issue of them here and abroad as not to prejudice either one. But great as the annoyance and cost have been in consequence of these delays, I would infinitely prefer that it were ten times as great, rather than see the examinations for novelty abolished by the United States Patent Office; and, so far as I know and believe, in this preference I most completely voice that of inventors in general.