 |
Of course, my first visit the next morning was to Mr. McLane to make my report. By this time I had become almost as enthusiastic as Mr. Morse himself, and repeated what had passed between us. I soon saw that Mr. McLane was becoming as eager for the construction of the line to Washington as Mr. Morse could desire. He entered warmly into the spirit of the thing, and laughed heartily, if not incredulously, when I told him that although he had been Minister to England, Secretary of State, and Secretary of the Treasury, his name would be forgotten, while that of Morse would never cease to be remembered with gratitude and praise. We then considered the question as to the right of the company to permit the line to be laid in the bed of the road—the plan of construction at that time being to bury in a trench some eight or ten inches deep a half inch leaden tube containing the wrapped wire that was to form the electric circuit. About this there was, in my opinion, no doubt, and it was not long after that the work of construction commenced. I met Mr. Morse from time to time while he lived, and often recurred to the evening's discussion at my house in Baltimore.
The above is the substance of what I have more than once related to other persons. I hope you will persist in your design of putting on paper your own very interesting recollections in this connection, and if what I have contributed of mine is of service to you, I shall be much pleased.
Most truly yours, JOHN H.B. LATROBE. March 3, 1881.
* * * * *
THE KRAVOGL ELECTRIC MOTOR.
At the origin of every science, of whatever nature it may be, there is always a fruitless period, of greater or less length, characterized by the warfare of a few superior minds against general apathy. The finest discoveries pass unperceived, so to speak, since they cannot cross the limits of a narrow circle; and it often happens that they fall into oblivion before they have been seriously judged. Meanwhile, a slow progress is imperceptibly made, and, in measure as theoretical principles more clearly disengage themselves, a few industrial applications spring up and have the effect of awakening curiosity. An impulse is thus given, and from this moment a movement in advance goes on increasing at a headlong pace from day to day.
With electricity this period has been of comparatively short duration, since scarcely a century and a half separate us from the first experiments made in this line of research. Now that it has truly taken its place in a rank with the other sciences, we like to go back to the hesitations of the first hour, and trace, step by step, the history of the progress made, so as to assign to each one that portion of the merit that belongs to him in the common work. When we thus cast a retrospective glance we find ourselves in the presence of one strange fact, and that is the simultaneousness of discoveries. That an absolutely original idea, fertile in practical consequences, should rise at a given moment in a fine brain is well; we admire the discovery, and, in spite of us, a little surprise mingles with our admiration. But is it not a truly curious thing that several individuals should have had at nearly the same time that idea that was so astonishing in one? This, however, is a fact that the history of electrical inventions offers more than one example of. No one ignores the fact that the invention of the telephone gave rise to a notorious lawsuit, two inventors having had this ingenious apparatus patented on the same day and at nearly the same hour. This is one example among a thousand. In the history of dynamo-electric machines it is an equally delicate matter to fix upon the one to whom belongs the honor of having first clearly conceived the possibility of engendering continuous currents.
We do not wish to take up this debate nor to go over the history of the question again. Every one knows that the first continuous current electric generator whose form was practical is due to Zenobius Gramme, and dates back to July, 1871, an epoch at which appeared a memoir (entitled "Note upon a magneto-electric machine that produces continuous currents") that was read to the Academy of Sciences by Mr. Jamin. Ten years previous, Pacinotti had had a glimpse of the phenomenon, and of its practical realization, but was unfortunately unable to appreciate the importance of his discovery and the benefit that might be reaped from it. It is of slight consequence whether Gramme knew of this experiment or not, for the glory that attaches to his name could not be diminished for all that. But an interesting fact that we propose to dwell upon now has recently been brought to light in an electrical review published at Vienna.[1] It results from documents whose authenticity cannot be doubted that, as far back as 1867, Mr. L. Pfaundler, a professor at Innsbruck, very clearly announced the reversibility of a magneto-electric motor constructed by Kravogl, a mechanician of the same place, and that he succeeded some time before Gramme in obtaining continuous currents.
[Footnote 1: Zeitschrift des Electrotechnischen Vereines in Wien, July, 1883.]
The Kravogl motor that figured at the Universal Exhibition of 1867 is but little known, and it is now very difficult to obtain drawings of it. What is certain is that this motor is an application of the properties of the solenoid, and, from this standpoint, resembles the Bessolo motor that was patented in 1855. We may figure the apparatus to our mind very well if we suppose that in the Gramme ring a half and almost two-thirds of the core are removed, and the spirals are movable around the said core. If a current be sent into a portion of the spirals only, and in such a way that only half of the core be exposed, the latter will move with respect to the bobbin or the bobbin with respect to the core, according as we suppose the solenoid or the bobbin fixed. In the first case we have a Bessolo motor, and in the second a Kravogl one.
In order to obtain a continuous motion it is only necessary to allow the current to circulate successively in the different portions of the solenoid. It is difficult to keep the core in place, since it is unreachable, being placed in the interior of the bobbin. Kravogl solved this difficulty by constructing a hollow core into which he poured melted lead. This heavy piece, mounted upon rollers, assumed a position of equilibrium that resulted from its weight, from friction, and from magnetic attraction. But for a current of given intensity this position, once reached, did not vary, and so necessitated a simple adjustment of the rubbers. Under such circumstances, with a somewhat large number of sections, the polarity of the core was nearly constant. The spirals as a whole were attached to a soft iron armature that had the effect of closing up the lines of forces and forming a shell, so to speak.
Like Bessolo, Kravogl never thought of making anything but a motor, and did not perceive that his machine was reversible. It results from some correspondence between Dr. A. Von Waltenhofen and Mr. L. Pfaundler at this epoch that the latter clearly saw the possibility of utilizing this motor as a current generator. Under date of November 9, 1867, he wrote, in speaking of the Kravogl motor, which had just been taken to Innsbruck in order to send it to Paris. "I regret that I shall not be able to see it any more, for I should have liked to try to make it act in an opposite direction, that is to say, to produce a current or an electric light by means of mechanical work." A little more than two years later these experiments were carried out on a larger motor constructed by Kravogl in 1869, and Mr. Pfaundler was enabled to write as follows: "Upon running the machine by hand we obtain a current whose energy is that of one Bunsen element." This letter is dated February 11, 1870, that is to say, it is a year anterior to the note of Gramme.
In the presence of the historic interest that attaches to the question, we do not think it will be out of place to reproduce here the considerations that guided Prof. Pfaundler in the researches that led him to convert the Kravogl motor into a dynamo-electric machine. Let us consider two magnetized bars, db and bd', placed end to end and surrounded by a cylindrical armature forming a shell, this armature being likewise supposed to be a permanent magnet and to present poles of contrary direction opposite the poles of the bars. For the sake of greater simplicity this shell is represented by a part only in the figure, s n n s. If, into a magnetic field thus formed, we pass a spiral from left to right, the spiral will be traversed by a current whose direction will change according to the way in which the moving is done. It is only necessary to apply Lenz's law to see that a reversal of the currents will occur at the points, a and c, the direction of the current being represented by arrows in the figure. If we suppose a continual displacement of the spirals from left to right, we shall collect a continuous current by placing two rubbers at a and c. Either the core or the shell may be replaced by a piece of soft iron. In such a case this piece will move with the spiral and keep its poles that are developed by induction fixed in space. From this, in order to reach a dynamo-electric machine it is necessary to try to develop the energy of the magnetic field by the action of the current itself. If we suppose the core to be of soft iron, and make a closer study of the action of the current as regards the polarity that occurs under the influence of the poles, s, n, s, we shall see that from d to a and from b to c the current is contrary, while that from a to b and from c to d' it is favorable to the development of such polarity. In short, with a spiral moving from d to d' the resulting effect is nil, a fact, moreover, that is self-evident. Under such circumstances, if we suppose the shell, as well as the core, to be of soft iron, we shall obtain a feeble current due to the presence of remanent magnetism; but this magnetism will not be able to continue increasing under the influence of the current. To solve this difficulty two means present themselves: (1) to cause a, favorable magnetic current and act upon the armature, and (2) to suppress such portions of the current in the spirals as are injurious in effect. The first solution was thought of by Gramme in 1871, and is represented diagramatically in Fig. 2. The second is due to Prof. Pfaundler, and dates back to 1870. The core is cut through the center (Fig. 3), and the portion to the right is suppressed; the current is interrupted between da and cd', and is closed only between a and c (v, Fig. 1). It results from this arrangement that, under the action of the current, the polarity due to remanent magnetism does nothing but increase. It suffices then for but little remanent magnetism to prime the machine; the polarity of the shell continues to increase, and the energy of the magnetic field, and consequently of the current, has for a limit only the saturation of the soft iron. If, now, we curve the core, the spirals, and the armature into a circle, we have a Gramme or a Pfaundler machine, according as we consider Fig. 2 or Fig. 3.
This latter apparatus has in this case the form shown in Fig. 4.
The spiral, s m b, is movable, and the core, N o s, is kept in a position of equilibrium by virtue of its weight, and is provided with rollers. For the sake of greater clearness, the front part of the armature is supposed to be removed. The current does not circulate in the spirals to the right of the diameter, W O, which latter is not absolutely vertical. The position of the rubbers and armature is regulated once for all. We do not know just what were the means devised by Kravogl to suppress the current in the spheres to the right. At all events, it is probable that the system has grown old since Gramme invented his collector. In the application of the Kravogl motor to the generation of continuous currents, Professor Pfaundler now proposes to ingeniously utilize the Gramme collector. In such a case the arrangement shown in Fig. 5 would be adopted. Let us suppose an ordinary collector having as many plates as there are sections in the ring, these plates being connected as usual with the entrance and exit wires of the sections. The diametrically opposite touches that are in the line, W O, are divided, and one of the halves is connected at the entrance, c a' (Fig. 4), with the corresponding section, while the other communicates with the exit, c' a, of the neighboring section. Each of these halves is prolonged by a piece of metal bent into the form of an arc of a circle and embracing a little less than a semi-circumference. Between these prolongations there is an insulating part. In the rotary motion of the spiral, at least one of the touches is always outside of the arc comprised between the brushes, R. In order to secure a continuity of the circuit in the effective arc, W S o, it is only necessary to arrange a rubber, M, in such a way as to establish a communication between the two parts of the divided touch as soon as this latter enters the arc under consideration.
In order to produce a current in the direction of the arrows shown in Fig. 4, the spiral and axle must revolve from right to left. In this case the rubber, M, occupies the position shown in the same figure, the brushes embracing an arc of a little less than 180 deg.. As soon as the lower touch comes in contact with the brush, R, when the revolution is being effected from left to right, the rubber, M, establishes a communication between the two halves that have until now been isolated, and the current is no longer interrupted. The second touch during this time is at any point whatever of the arc, W N o, and the spirals corresponding to the latter arc outside of the circuit. In short, thanks to the rubber, M, we have an ordinary Gramme collector in that portion of the circuit comprised between the brushes, and a collector with a breakage of the circuit in the portion to the right.
This type of machine is entirely theoretical. In the apparatus used for Prof. Pfaundler's experiments in 1870, the armature revolved with the solenoid. The core and armature were of soft iron, and the core was arranged in a manner analogous to the preceding, and remained in place under the action of its weight, and the shell, forming a complete circle, revolved with poles fixed in space.
Practically, the machine that we have just described would prove inconvenient to realize, and would present serious inconveniences. In the first place, it seems to us quite difficult to transmit the motion of the solenoid to the axle, supposing the former to revolve within the armature. In the second place, considerable friction would surely occur between the spirals and core, and the axle, being submitted to a lateral stress, would be placed in a poor condition for work. It is even allowable to doubt whether such a type could be practically got up. At all events, no trial has as yet been made of it.
Compared with the Gramme machine, from an absolutely theoretical point of view, the Pfaundler apparatus presents undoubted advantages. A theoretically perfect dynamo electric machine would be one in which there was a complete reciprocity between the magnetizing action of the current and the inductive action of the magnetic field. Now, such is not the case in the Gramme machine. In this apparatus the soft iron core is at the same time a magnet through favorable induction and a disadvantageous electro-magnet. This double polarization is only remedied to a certain extent by the adjustment of the brushes. In the Pfaundler machine, on the contrary, the electro-magnetism and magnetism through induction act in the same direction, and concur in effecting a polarization that favors the production of the current. Looked at it in this light, the latter machine more nearly approaches the type of perfection than does that of Gramme.
But we must not forget that such qualities are purely theoretical. In practice the best machine is that in which the copper is best utilized, that is to say, that which with a given weight of this metal furnishes the most work. Now, this is certainly not the case in the Pfaundler machine, for here half or more than half of the ring is inert—a defect which is apparent at first sight. It results from this that as soon as we propose to obtain an electromotive force, however slight it be, we must get it with machines of large dimensions. Now, it is permissible to believe that under such circumstances (taking into consideration the complication of mechanical means that the construction of such apparatus necessitates, and the great friction that occurs) it would be impossible to obtain practical rotary velocities. Comparing his machine with Gramme's, Prof. Pfaundler expresses the idea that between them there is the same analogy as there is between a constant pressure and an expansion engine. With cylinders of equal diameters the work performed by the former of these is greater than that done by the second, but in the latter the expansive force of the steam is better utilized. This comparison seems to us to be more ingenious than exact. Would it not be coming nearer to the truth if we were to suppose a case of a hydraulic motor whose performance continued diminishing with the height of the fall, and would it not be advantageous under such circumstances to utilize only a portion of the fall for the purpose of increasing the motor's performance?
This machine, however, as before stated, has never as yet been constructed, so that experimental data relative to its mode of working are wanting. It is especially interesting as regards its origin, which dates back to an epoch at which researches on the dynamo electric machine were at their heat. It is in its historical aspect that it is proper to regard it, and it is from such a point of view that we have deemed it well to say a few words about it in this place.—La Lumiere Electrique.
* * * * *
BORNHARDT'S ELECTRIC MACHINE FOR BLASTING IN MINES.
We shall not attempt to pass in review the several apparatus that have hitherto been devised for igniting blasts in mining operations, but shall simply describe in this place a machine recently invented for this purpose by Mr. Bornhardt, an engineer to the Grand Duke of Brunswick.
This apparatus (shown in the accompanying engravings) consists essentially of two hard-rubber disks, A (Figs. 2 and 3), keyed to an iron axle, and of two rubbers, B, that are formed of skin and are held against the disks by small springs, R; motion is communicated to the axle, a, by means of a pair of gearings, a and b, and a crank, f.
Each disk revolves between two metallic rings, c, provided with points that attract and collect in Leyden jars, D, the electricity produced by the friction. For discharging the condensers there is employed a manipulator formed of a rod, mm, which can be acted upon, from the exterior, by means of a button, k. Upon bringing the ball, m, of the rod in contact with the ball, p, of the condenser, the lever (which then takes the position shown by the dotted line) continues to remain in connection with a small ring, q, through a special spring. Another ring, t, is connected in the same way with the external armature of the condenser. Upon connecting the rings, p and t, by a wire to which cartridges are attached, any number of the latter may be ignited.
The parts that we have just enumerated are inclosed in a tin box covered with a wooden casing, P. Between the two there is inserted a sheet of hard rubber in order to prevent a loss of electricity; the whole is held in place by strong springs.
In order to show the normal state of the condenser, a scale consisting of 15 metallic buttons to give the dimensions of the sparks, is arranged at X. This scale is capable of being connected with the rings, q and t, by means of chains; when the spark obtained after 15 or 20 revolutions considerably exceeds the intervals of the scale, it is a sure thing that the machine is in a proper state.
In order to prepare the apparatus for carriage, the winch is taken off and placed in the compartment, m, which is closed by means of a door, Q.
Figs. 5 and 6 show the arrangement of the dynamite cartridges and wires in the blast hole. Figs. 7 to 10 show different arrangements of the igniting wires. Figs. 11 and 12 give the general arrangement for igniting a number of cartridges simultaneously by means of the electric machine. Fig. 13 shows the arrangement where powder is employed. Fig. 14 shows the arrangement of a horizontal hole.—Annales Industrielles.
* * * * *
IMPROVED ELECTRIC FIRE ALARM.
The object of this apparatus is to close an electric circuit when the temperature of a room rises above a certain point. Many devices have been invented for effecting this object, each of which have their own advantages or disadvantages. The invention of Mr. Pritchett enables the required result to be obtained in a very satisfactory manner. The apparatus consists (as shown by the figure) of a long glass vessel containing air; connected to this vessel there is a glass tube filled with mercury. The whole is mounted on a metal cradle, which turns on pivots. According to the position which the glass vessel and its adjuncts occupy in the cradle (this position being adjustable by means of a thumb-screw, seen at the upper part of the cradle), so will the same have a tendency to rock longitudinally over to one side or the other. Now, if we suppose the position to be such that the right hand end of the glass vessel is depressed, and the left hand end raised, then if the vessel becomes subjected to an elevation of temperature, the air inside the same will become expanded, and the mercury column in the tube will be driven over to the left, and will rise in the turned up end of the tube. This will cause the left hand branch of the glass vessel, and its attachments, to become increased in weight, while the right hand branch will become proportionally lighter; the consequence of this will be that the vessel and its cradle will cant over, and by falling on an electrical contact will close a circuit and sound an alarm. It is obvious that the apparatus is equally well adapted for indicating a diminution as well as an increase of temperature, for if the electrical contact be placed under the right hand portion of the cradle, and the latter be adjusted so that in its normal position its left hand portion is depressed, then when the glass vessel becomes cooled, the air in it will contract, and the mercury will fall in the turned-up portion of the tube before referred to, and will rise in the limb connected to the vessel, consequently the cradle and glass vessel will cant over in the reverse way to that which it did in the first case.
Owing to the surface which the glass vessel exposes, the air inside quickly responds to any external change of temperature, consequently the apparatus is very sensitive. Another important feature is the fact that the cradle and vessel in canting over acquires a certain momentum, and thus the contact made becomes very certain.
Mr. Pritchett proposes that his apparatus shall give external evidence outside the house by ringing a gong, and by dropping a semaphore arm released by an electromagnet. He also proposes (as has often been suggested) that a water supply shall be automatically turned on.—Electrical Review.
* * * * *
A STANDARD THERMOPILE.
Dr. G. Gore, F.R.S., has invented an improved thermopile for measuring small electromotive forces. It consists of about 300 pairs of horizontal, slender, parallel wires of iron and German silver, the former being covered with cotton. They are mounted on a wooden frame. About 11/2 in. of the opposite ends of the wires are bent downward to a vertical position to enable them to dip into liquids at different temperatures contained in long narrow troughs; the liquids being non-conductors, such as melted paraffin for the hot junctions, and the non-volatile petroleum, known as thin machinery oil. The electromotive force obtained varies with the temperature; a pile of 295 pairs having a resistance of 95.6 ohms at 16 deg. Cent. gave with a difference of temperature of 100 deg. Cent. an electromotive force of 0.7729 volts, or with 130 deg. Cent. an electromotive force of 1.005 volt. Each element, therefore, equaled 0.0000262 volt for each degree Cent. difference of temperature. On having been verified with a standard voltaic cell the apparatus becomes itself a standard, especially for small electromotive forces. It is capable of measuring the 1/34861 part of a volt. For higher electromotive forces than a volt, several of these piles would have to be connected in series. The fractional electromotive force is obtained by means of a sliding contact which cuts out so many pairs as is required.
* * * * *
TELEPHONIC TRANSMISSION WITHOUT RECEIVERS.
The annual meeting of the French Society of Physics, the success of which is continually increasing, took place this year in the salons of the Observatory, which were kindly placed at the Society's disposal by Admiral Mouchez.
There were three consecutive sessions, the one of Tuesday, April 15, being set apart for the members of the Association, the one of the 16th for the invited guests of Admiral Mouchez, and that of the 17th for the invited guests of the Society. The salons were partially lighted by the Siemens differential arc, continuous current lamps, and partially by the Swan incandescent lamp supplied by a distributing machine that permitted of the lamps being lighted and extinguished at will without changing the normal operation of all the rest. Many apparatus figured at this exhibition, but we shall on the present occasion merely call attention to those that presented a certain character of novelty or of originality.
Among the apparatus that we shall reserve a description of for the present was Messrs. Richard Bros.' registering thermometer designed for the Concarneau laboratory, an instrument which, when sunk at one mile from the coast, and to a depth of 40 meters, will give a diagram of the temperature of the ocean at that depth; and Mr. Hospitalier's continuous electrical indicators, designed for making known from a distance such mechanical or physical phenomena as velocities, levels, temperatures, pressures, etc.
Among the most important of the apparatus exhibited we must reckon Mr. Cailletet's devices for liquefying gases, and those of Mr. Mascart for determining the ohm. The results obtained by Mr. Mascart (which have been submitted to the Committee on Unities of the Congress of Electricians now in session at Paris), are sensibly concordant with those obtained independently in England by Lord Rayleigh. Everything leads to the hope, then, that a rapid and definite solution will be given of this important question of electric unities, and that nothing further will prevent the international development of the C.G.S. system.
Mr. Jules Duboscq made a number of very successful projections, and we particularly remarked the peculiar experiment made in conjunction with Mr. Parinaud, that gave in projection two like spectra produced by the same prism, and which, through superposition, were capable of increasing the intensity of the colors, or, on the contrary, of reconstituting white light.
Among the optical applications we may cite Mr. Leon Laurent's apparatus for controlling plane, parallel, perpendicular, and oblique surfaces, and magic mirrors obtained with an ordinary light; Mr. S.P. Thompson's apparatus for demonstrating the propagation of electro-magnetic waves in ether (according to Maxwell's theory), as well as some new polarizing prisms; and a mode of lighting the microscope (presented by Mr. Yvon), that was quite analogous to the one employed more than a year ago by Dr. Van Heurck, director of the Botanical Garden of Anvers.
Acoustics were represented by an electro-magnetic brake siren of Mr. Bourbouze; Konig's apparatus for the synthesis of sounds; and Mr. S.P. Thompson's cymatograph—a pendulum apparatus for demonstrating the phenomena of beats.
It was electricity again that occupied the largest space in the programme of the session.
Apparatus for teaching are assuming greater and greater importance every day, and the exhibit of Mr. Ducretet included a large number of the most interesting of these. The house of Breguet exhibited on a reduced scale the magnificent experiments of Gaston Plante, wherein 320 leaden wire secondary elements charged for quantity with 3 Daniell elements, and afterward coupled for tension, served to charge a rheostatic machine formed of 50 condensers coupled for quantity. These latter, coupled anew for tension, furnished upon being discharged a spark due to a difference of potential of about 32,000 volts that presented all the characters of the spark produced by induction coils on the machines so improperly called "static." Finally, we may cite the apparatus arranged by Mr. S.P. Thompson for studying the development of currents in magneto-electric machines. The inventor studies the influence of the forms of the inductors and armatures of machines by means of an arrangement that allows him to change the rings or armatures at will and to take out the induced bobbins in order to sound every part of the magnetic field. Upon giving the armature an angular motion limited by two stops, there develops a certain quantity of electricity that may be measured by causing it to traverse an appropriate ballistic galvanometer. Messrs. Deprez and D'Arsonval's galvanometer answers very well for this purpose, and its aperiodicity, which causes it quickly to return to zero as soon as the induced current ceases, permits of a large number of readings being taken within a very short space of time.
Measuring apparatus were represented by a new and very elegant arrangement of Sir William Thomson's reflecting galvanometers, due to Mr. J. Carpentier. The mounting adopted by Mr. Carpentier permits of an easy removal of the bobbins and of an instantaneous substitution therefor. The galvanometric part, composed of the needles and mirror, therefore remains entirely free, thus allowing of its being verified, and making it convenient to attach the silken fiber. Mr. Carpentier has, moreover, adopted for all the minor apparatus a transparent celluloid scale which simplifies them, facilitates observations, and renders the use of reflection almost industrial.
We shall complete our enumeration of the measuring apparatus by citing Ducretet's non-oscillating galvanometer, Sir William Thomson's amperemeters, voltameters, ohmmeters, and mhosmeters, constructed and exhibited by Breguet, and a new aperiodic galvanoscope of Mr. Maiche. Mr. Baudot exhibited the recent improvements that he has made in his multiplex printing telegraph, and M. Boudet of Paris showed a new system of telephone transmission by submarine cables.
Finally, we shall conclude our enumeration by referring to the curiosities. The house of Siemens exhibited a miniature electric railway actuated by a new model of Reynier accumulators; M. Maiche operated a system of musical telephonic auditions that differed only in detail from those instituted by Mr. Ader at the exhibition of 1881; and Mr. Hospitalier presented a new form of an experiment devised by Mr. Giltay, consisting of a telephonic transmission of sounds without the use of receivers. Mr. Giltay's experiment is nothing but Mr. Dunand's speaking condenser without the condenser. A glance at Fig. 1 will show how things are arranged for the experiment. The transmitting system comprises two distinct circuits, viz.: (1) one formed of a pile, P, of 2 or 3 Leclanche elements, or of 1 or 2 small sized accumulators, an Ader microphane transmitter, M, and the inducting wire of a small induction coil, B; and (2) the other formed of the induced wire of the coil, B, of a pile, P', of 10 or 12 Leclanche elements, and of a line whose extremities terminate at R, in two ordinary electro-medical handles. With this arrangement the experiment performed is as follows: When any one speaks or sings in front of the transmitter, T, while two persons, A and B, each having one hand gloved, are holding the handles in the ungloved hand, it is only necessary for A to place his gloved hand upon B's ear, or for the latter to place his hand upon A's, or for each to place his hand on the other's ear simultaneously, in order that A or B, or A and B simultaneously, may hear a voice issuing from the glove. Under these circumstances, Mr. Giltay's experiment is explained like Dunand's speaking condenser—the hand of A and the ear of B here constituting the armature of an elementary condenser in which the glove performs the role of dielectric.
Upon repeating this experiment at the laboratory of the School of Physics and Industrial Chemistry of Paris, it has been found that the glove maybe replaced by a sheet of plain or paraffined paper. In this case, when two persons are holding the handles, and have their ears applied, one against the other, if a sheet of paper be interposed, airs or words will be heard to proceed therefrom. Finally, it has been found possible to entirely suppress the paper, or dielectric, and to hear directly, by simply interposing the auditor or auditors in the circuit. One of the most curious forms of the experiment is the one shown in Fig. 2. Here a third person, C, hears the hands of A and B speak when a circuit is formed by means of three persons, A, B, and C, the two former, A and B, each holding one of the wires of the circuit and applying his free hand to the ear of C. Although the experiment is one that requires entire silence, and could not on that account be performed at the laboratory, a sort of telephonic chain can be formed in which five or six persons may hear at the same time. A, putting his hand on the ear of B, the latter putting his to that of C, and so on up to the last person, who closes the circuit by grasping one of the handles, the other one being held by A.
It is difficult in the present state of science to explain very clearly how these telephonic transmissions are effected without a receiver. All that we can conclude from it so far is that the ear is an instrument of incomparable delicacy and of exquisite sensitiveness, since it perceives vibrations in which the energy developer, particularly in the telephonic chain, is exceedingly feeble.
Without any desire to seek an application for an experiment that is simply curious, we yet believe that there is here a phenomenon of a nature to be studied by physicists. Discoveries in telephony and microphony have certainly opened up to science, as regards both theory and practice, new horizons that still promise other surprises for the future. But to return to the observatory: The success obtained by the exhibition of the French Society of Physics shows that these reunions respond to a genuine need—that of instructing in and popularizing science. While warmly congratulating the organizers of these meetings, we may express a wish that the good example set by the Society of Physics may be followed by other societies. We are convinced in advance that an equal success awaits them.—La Nature.
* * * * *
ON THE ARRANGEMENT OF GROUND CONDUCTORS.
In telegraphy, as well as in the question of lightning rods, attention has been but incidentally paid to the improvement of ground conductors, and this point has not been the object of that careful study that has been bestowed upon the establishment of aerial lines. It is only recently that the interest created by lightning rods has given rise to new forms of conductors differing from those formerly used. The publications of the Prussian Academy of Sciences of from 1876 to 1880 contain some information of special importance in regard to this. It is stated therein that the effect of ground conductors may be notably increased by the division of the earth plates and the use of metallic rods, without necessitating a greater output of material. These facts, however, have not as yet been put to profit in practice for the reason, perhaps, that the considerations, which have remained general, have not at once permitted of obtaining forms what could be employed with perfect knowledge of the results. This is what led Mr. Ulbricht, of Dresden, to make calculations for a few forms of conductors, and to test their approximate values. The results of these researches are printed in the Elektrotechnischen Zeitschrift for 1883 (p. 18).
The equations found show, in the first place, that there exist three means of obtaining a considerable effect, as regards the ground conductor, with a slight expenditure of material: The cylindrical electrode may be drawn out into the form of a bar or wire; the plate may be rendered narrow, and elongated in the form of a ribbon; and, besides, the annular plate may be enlarged in lessening the metallic surface.
Finally, a short, open cylinder with a vertical axis may be formed by curving a narrow plate or ribbon. It is not necessary to see the formula to recognize the fact that this cylinder must behave like a ribbon and a flat ring. The radius increasing, and the surface remaining constant, the resistance of the earth here likewise approaches zero.
As the resistance of the earth is inversely proportional to the diameter of the plates, the zero resistance can also be reached by dividing a plate ad infinitum. As the parts of the plate may be brought quite close to each other without perceptibly interfering with the action, a network has finally been reached by a division carried very far, yet limited, and by connecting the parts with one another by conducting cylinders.
If we seek to determine what forms of ground conductors are efficient and economical under given conditions, we shall have to begin by informing ourselves as to the choice of material to be used for the electrode, and shall then have to ascertain whether putting it in the ground will or will not necessitate much outlay. The most suitable material is copper, which may be used with advantage, in that it lasts pretty well underground, and that the facility which it may be worked permits of easily giving it more appropriate forms than those that can be obtained with cast iron, which is of itself less costly.
If the burying in the ground requires little or no labor, as when there exist ponds, rivers, and wells, or subterranean strata of water near the surface of the earth, elongated forms of conductors will be employed, such as the solid or hollow cylinder, the wire, the ribbon, the narrow ring, and the network. Plates approaching a square or circular shape are not advantageous. But if the ground has to be dug deeply in order to sink the conductor, the form of the electrode must be more condensed, and selected in such a way that the necessary action may be obtained with a minimum output of copper and labor. For great depths, and when the ground will permit of boring, an elongated and narrow cylinder will be used. Such a system, however, can only be employed when the cylinder is surrounded by spring water, since, without that, an intimate contact with earth that is only moist, cannot be obtained with certainty. In earth that is only moist and for moderate depths, preference may be given to an electrode laid down flat. The digging necessary in this case is onerous, it is true, but it permits of very accurately determining the state of the earth beneath and of obtaining a very perfect adherence of the electrode therewith. Two forms, the annular ribbon or the flat ring and the network, present themselves, according to calculations, as a substitute for copper plates, which are so expensive; and these forms are satisfactory on condition that the labor of digging be not notably increased. These forms should always have a diameter a little greater than that of the plate. The flat ring and the network, however, offer one weak point, which they possess in common with the plate, and that is, their dimensions cannot be easily adapted to the nature of the ground met with without a notable increase in the expense. Now, if the ground should offer a conductivity less than what was anticipated, and it were desired to increase the plate, say by one-third, it would be impossible to do so as a consequence of the closed form.
One important advantage is realized in this respect by combining the ring and the network in the form of a reticulated ring having a diameter of from 1 to 11/2 meters. On cutting this ring at a given place and according to a certain radius we obtain the reticulated ribbon shown in the accompanying figure. The thickness of the wires is 2.5 mm., and their weight is 0.475 kilo. per meter. L, L, and L are the points at which the conducting cable is soldered. A reticulated ribbon of copper can be made in advance of any length whatever, and, according to local exigencies, it may be easily curved and given the form of a flat or cylindrical ring of varying width. Even though the ribbon has already been cut for a ring of given diameter, it may be still further enlarged by drawing it out and leaving a bit of the ring open, so as to thus obtain a nearly corresponding diminution in the resistance. Such a resistance may be still further diminished by rendering the ring higher, that is to say, by employing an annular cylindrical form.
After assuring himself, by experiments on a small scale, that calculation and observation gave concordant results for the flat ring, the author made an experiment on a larger scale with the annular network. For practical reasons he employed for this purpose a copper wire 2.5 mm. in diameter, which may be expected to last as long as one of iron plate 2 mm. in thickness. Calculation showed that in a ribbon 160 mm. wide, meshes 40 mm. in breadth were advantageous and favorable as regards rigidity. A reticulated ribbon like this, 4 meters in length, was made and formed into a flat ring having an external diameter of 1.42 m. and an internal one of 1.10 m. The resistance of this ring was found to be W = 0.3485 (1/k), and that of a plate one meter square, W0 = 0.368 (1/k).
As the conductivity of the earth is very variable, and as we cannot have an absolute guarantee that the ramming will be uniform, it seemed proper to make the measurements of the resistance by fixing the plate and the ring in succession to the lower surface of a small raft, in such a way that the contact with the water should correspond as well as possible to the suppositions made for the calculation. As a second ground conductor, a system of water pipes was used, and, after this, a lightning rod conductor, etc.
Repeated and varied experiments gave, for the calculation of the values of the resistances, equations so concordant that the following results may be considered very approximate.
The square plate had a resistance of 35.5 Siemens units, and the reticulated ring one of 32.5. From the first figure we deduce k = 1/91.12, that is to say, the specific conductivity of river-water is 1:91120000. Calculation, then, gives as the resistance of the earth in Siemens units:
Calculated. Observed. Square plate. 33.5 33.5 Annular ring. 31.76 32.5
These figures prove the accuracy of the calculations that had been made in an approximate way.
The experiments were performed upon the Elba, above Dresden. Other experiments still had reference to the influence of immersion. In order to diminish polarization, only instantaneous currents from the measuring pile were employed. It was to be supposed that the current of water through which the bubbles of gas were removed from the electrodes would not have permitted of a notable resistance of polarization. Later measurements, made upon a ribbon buried, like the plates, in the earth, gave likewise most favorable results.
As a result of these experiments, the State railways of Saxony have, in such cases as were practicable, introduced the annular network of copper. There are some manufacturers, too, who seem desirous of adopting this system, although it has hardly emerged from the period of experiment. The pecuniary advantages that will result from an application of it ought, it would seem, to dispel a large proportion of the criticisms directed against the erection of lightning rods, from the standpoint of expense, and contribute to extend an arrangement which may be considered as a very happy one.
If we compare the square plate with the equivalent annular network, constructed as above indicated, and which should possess, according to the author an external diameter of 1.26 m. and of 3.45 m., we find that:
The square plate, 1 mm. thick weighs 8.9 kilos. " 2 " " " 17.8 " The annular network " 1.64 "
The cost of reticulated ribbon per meter amounts to about 4.4 francs, supposing it to be arranged as shown in the cut.
As term of comparison, we may admit that the following forms are nearly the equivalent of a horizontal, unburied plate one meter square.
Length. Diameter. Vertical cylinder buried 1.40 m. 0.13 m. " " " 1.80 m. 0.06 m. Vertical bar " 2.60 m. 0.013 m. Horizontal bar " 5.20 m. 0.013 m.
Horizontal flat ring 1.32 m. in external diameter, and 1.08 m. internal.
Horizontal network 1.01 m. square, and having meshes of the same size as those of the reticulated ribbon.
Horizontal reticulated ribbon 3 m. in length and of the structure described.
Horizontal annular ring 1.26 m. in external diameter, 0.94 m. internal.
In conclusion, let us meet an objection that might be made to the accuracy of the hypotheses that serve as a base to the preceding calculations, in cases where ground plates for lightning rods and not for telegraphs are concerned. Between the two ground plates of a telegraph line there is generally a distance such that the curves of the current undergo no deviation in the vicinity of one of the electrodes (the only part important for integrations) through the influence of the other. But it might be admitted that such would prove the case with a lightning rod in a storm, at the time of the passage of the fluid into the earth. The ground plate here is one of the electrodes, and the other is replaced by the surface of the earth strongly charged to a great distance under the storm clouds. If we suppose (what may be admitted in a good lightning rod) that there no longer occurs any spark from the point downward, the curves of the current, in starting perpendicularly from the ground plate, would be obliged to leave their rectilinear trajectory and strike the surface of the earth at right angles. When the electricity flows through a plane surface into an infinite body, it is only when such surface presents a very great development that the respective potentials decrease very slowly in the vicinity of the said surface. No notable modification occurs, then, in the curves of equal potential, in the vicinity of the ground plate through the action of this extended charge, nor consequently any modification in the curves of the current; but the electricity which spreads has but a short distance to travel in order to overcome the most important resistances.
The calculations of resistances given above have, then, the same value for discharges of atmospheric electricity.—Bull. du Musee de l'Industrie.
* * * * *
ON ELECTROLYSIS.
By H. SCHUCHT.
Concerning the separations which take place at the positive pole, the composition of the peroxides, and the manner of their determination, relatively little has been done.
If solutions of the salts of lead, thallium, silver, bismuth, nickel, and cobalt are decomposed by the current between platinum electrodes, metal is deposited at the negative, and oxide at the positive electrode. Manganese is precipitated only as peroxide. The formation of peroxide is, of course, effected by the ozone found in the electrolytic oxygen at the positive pole; the oxide existing in solution is brought to a higher degree of oxidation, and is separated out. Its formation may be decreased or entirely prevented by the addition of readily oxidizible bodies, such as organic acids, lactose, glycerine, and preferably by an excess of oxalic acid; but only until the organic matter is transformed into carbonic acid. In this manner Classen separates other metals from manganese in order to prevent the saline solutions from being retained by the peroxide.
With solutions of silver, bismuth, nickel, and cobalt, it is often practicable to prevent the separation of oxide by giving the current a greater resistance—increasing the distance between the electrodes.
The proportion between the quantities of metal and of peroxide deposited is not constant, and even if we disregard the concentration of the solution, the strength of the current and secondary influences (action of nascent hydrogen) is different in acid and in alkaline solutions. In acid solutions much peroxide is formed; in alkaline liquids, little or none. The reason of the difference is that ozone is evolved principally in acid solutions, but appears in small quantities only in alkaline liquids, or under certain circumstances not at all. The quantity of peroxide deposited depends also on the temperature of the saline solution; at ordinary temperatures the author obtained more peroxide—the solution, the time, and the strength of current being equal—than from a heated liquid. The cause is that ozone is destroyed by heat and converted into ordinary oxygen. With the exception of lead and thallium the quantity of metal deposited from an acid solution is always greater than that of the peroxide.
Lead.—Luckow has shown that from acid solutions—no matter what may be the acid—lead is deposited at the anode as a mixture of anhydrous and hydrated peroxide of variable composition. Only very strongly acid solutions let all their lead fall down as peroxide; the precipitation is rapid immediately on closing the circuit, and complete separation is effected only in presence of at least 10 per cent. of free nitric acid. As the current becomes stronger with the increase of free acid, there is deposited upon the first compact layer a new stratum of loosely adhering peroxide.
In presence of small quantities of other metals which are thrown down by the current in the metallic state, such as copper, mercury, etc., peroxide alone is deposited from a solution of lead containing small quantities only of free nitric acid.
The lead peroxide deposited is at first light brown or dark red, and becomes constantly darker and finally taking a velvet-black. As its stratification upon the platinum is unequal, it forms beautifully colored rings.
Experiments show that the quantity of peroxide deposited depends on the nature of the solution and the strength of the current. In case of very feeble currents and slight acidity, its quantity is so small that it does not need to be taken into consideration. If the lead solution is very dilute scarcely any current is observed, lead solutions per se being very bad conductors of electricity.
Faintly acid concentrated lead solutions give loose peroxide along with much spongy metallic lead. Free alkali decreases the separation of peroxide; feebly alkaline solutions, concentrated and dilute, yield relatively much peroxide along with metallic lead, while strongly alkaline solutions deposit no peroxide.
Dried lead peroxide is so sparingly hygroscopic that it may be weighed as such; its weight remains constant upon the balance for a long time. In order to apply the peroxide for quantitative determinations, a large surface must be exposed to action. As positive electrode a platinum capsule is convenient, and a platinum disk as negative pole. The capsule shape is necessary because the peroxide when deposited in large quantities adheres only partially, and falls in part in thin loose scales. It is necessary to siphon off the nitric solution, since, like all peroxides, that of lead is not absolutely insoluble in nitric acid. The methods of Riche and May give results which are always too high, since portions of saline solution are retained by the spongy deposit and can be but very imperfectly removed by washing. This is especially the case in presence of free alkali.
The author has proceeded as follows: The lead peroxide is dried in the capsule, and there is passed over it pure dry gaseous sulphurous acid in a strong current from a rather narrow delivery tube. Lead sulphate is formed with evolution of heat; it is let cool under the exsiccator, and weighed as such. Or he ignites the peroxide along with finely pulverized ammonium sulphite; the mass must have a pure white color. After the conclusion of the reaction it is ignited for about 20 minutes. The results are too high. The proportion of actual lead peroxide in the deposit ranges from 94 to 94.76 per cent. The peroxide precipitated from a nitric solution may, under certain circumstances, be anhydrous. This result is due to the secondary influences at the positive pole, where the free acid gradually withdraws water from the peroxide.
The peroxide thrown down from alkaline solutions retains alkali so obstinately that it cannot be removed by washing; the peroxide plays here the part of an acid. The lead nitrate mechanically inclosed in the peroxide is resolved by ignition into oxide, hyponitric acid, and oxygen; this small proportion of lead oxide does not exert an important influence on the final result. The quantity of matter mechanically inclosed is relatively high, as in the precipitation of much lead peroxide there is relatively more saline matter occluded than when a few centigrammes are deposited. The peroxide incloses also more foreign matter if it is thrown down upon a small surface than if it is deposited in a thin layer over a broad surface. From numerous analyses the author concludes that in presence of much free nitric acid the proportion of water is increased; with free alkali the reverse holds good.
Thallium behaves similarly to lead. From a nitric acid solution it is thrown down, according to the proportion of free acid, either as sesquioxide only or in small quantities as silvery, metallic leaflets; from alkaline solutions it is deposited as sesquioxide and metal, the latter of a lead-gray color. Thallium solutions conduct the electric current badly. Thallium oxide resembles lead peroxide in color; at a strong heat it melts, becomes darker, and is converted into peroxide, in which state it can be weighed.
Silver.—All solutions of silver salts, except the nitrate, and those containing a very large quantity of free nitric acid or nitrates, deposit electrolytically merely metallic silver. In the above mentioned exceptional cases there is formed a small quantity of peroxide which adheres to the anode as a blackish-gray deposit. The greatest quantity of peroxide is obtained on employing a concentrated, strongly acid solution of the nitrate, and a strong current. If the solution is very dilute we obtain no peroxide, or mere traces which disappear again toward the end of the process. The peroxide is deposited at first in small, dark, shining octahedral crystals; subsequently, in an amorphous state. At 110 deg. it evolves oxygen suddenly, and is converted into metallic silver. It dissolves in ammonia with a violent escape of nitrogen. In nitric acid it dissolves without decomposition and with a red color.
The author uses a galvanic current for reducing silver residues, consisting of sulphocyanide. The salt is mixed with sulphuric acid in a roomy platinum capsule, and a fine platinum wire gauze is used as positive electrode.
Bismuth.—The current resolves bismuth solutions into metal and bismutic acid. The latter is deposited at the positive pole, and in thin layers appears of a golden-yellow, but in thick strata is darker, approaching to red. Its formation is very gradual, and in time it disappears again, owing to secondary actions of the current. On ignition it becomes lemon yellow, and transitorily darker, even brown, and passes into the sexquioxide.
Nickel and Cobalt.—On the electrolysis of the ammonical solution the sesquioxide appears at the positive pole. Its formation is prevented by an excess of ammonia. The author never obtains more than 31/2 per cent. of the quantity of the metal. The sesquioxides dissolve in ammonia without escape of nitrogen, and are usually anhydrous.
Manganese.—Manganese is the only metal which is precipitated only as peroxide. It is deposited at once on closing the circuit, and is at first brown, then black and shining. Organic acids, ferrous oxide, chromic oxide, ammonium salts, etc., prevent the formation of peroxide and the red color produced by permanganic acid. In very dilute strongly acid nitric solutions there is formed only permanganic acid, which according to Riche is plainly visible in solutions containing 1/1000000 grm. manganese. On electrolyzing a manganiferous solution of copper nitrate, red permanganic acid appeared in a stratum floating above the platinum disk coated with brown peroxide. No manganese peroxide was deposited. The peroxide adheres firmly to the platinum when the proportion of free acid is small, not exceeding 3 per cent., and the current is not too strong. If the action of the current is prolonged after the peroxide is thrown down, it falls off in laminae. According to Riche, in a nitric solution the manganese is deposited as peroxide, also at the negative pole. This formation is not directly due to the current, but is a precipitate occasioned by the production of ammonia by the reduction of nitric acid. To determine the manganese in peroxide electrolytically precipitated, it is heated to bright redness in the platinum capsule until the weight becomes constant. The results are too high.
Selenium and Tellurium.—Both these bodies are readily and completely reduced by the current either in acid or alkaline solutions. Selenium is thrown down at first of a fine brownish red, which gradually becomes darker. The deposit of tellurium is of a bluish black color. If the current is feeble, the deposit of selenium is moderately compact; that of tellurium is always loose, and it often floats on the liquid. A strong current precipitates both as powders. The positive pole is coated during electrolysis with a film of a dark color in case of selenium, but of a lemon yellow with tellurium. As in case of arsenic and antimony, the hydrogen evolved at the negative pole combines with the reduced substances, forming hydrogen, selenide, or telluride, which remain in part in solution in the liquid. The reduced metal separates out at the anode in a friable condition.—Zeitschrift fur Analytische Chemie, and Chemical News.
* * * * *
THE ELECTRO-CHEMICAL EQUIVALENT OF SILVER.
A very careful and important determination of the electrochemical equivalent of silver has been made at the observatory of the Physical Institute of Wuerzbourg, and the results are that an ampere current flowing for a second, or a coulomb of electricity deposits 1.1183 milligrammes of silver or 0.3281 milligramme of copper, and decomposes 0.09328 milligramme of water, a result agreeing closely with that of Lord Rayleigh recently communicated to the Physical Society. An ampere therefore deposits 4.0259 grammes of silver per hour; Kohlrausch's value is 4.0824, a value hitherto accepted universally. This value is so useful in measuring electric currents with accuracy, and free from the disturbances of magnetism, etc., that it is eminently satisfactory to find the German value agree with that of Lord Rayleigh, which will probably be adopted by English electricians.
* * * * *
A NEW STANDARD LIGHT.
Herr Hefner-Alteneck has suggested a new standard light for photometric purposes, which promises to be very simple and effective in operation. The light is produced by an open flame of amyl-acetate burning from a wick of cotton fiber which fills a tube of German silver 1 in. long and 316 mils. internal diameter; the external diameter being 324 mils. The flame is 1.58 in. high from top to bottom; and it should be lighted at least ten minutes before using the light for testing. A cylindrical glass chimney surrounds it to ward off air currents. About 2 per cent. of the light is absorbed by the glass. The power of the flame is that of a standard English candle; and experiments have shown that amyl acetate, which besides is not expensive, is the best fuel for steadiness and brilliance. Neither the substitution of commercial amyl-acetate for pure nor the use of a wick of cotton thread for loose cotton fiber alters the illuminating power; but the wick should be trimmed square across the mouth of the tube, for if it project and droop the illuminating power is increased.
* * * * *
[NATURE.]
DR. FEUSSNER'S NEW POLARIZING PRISM.
In a recent number of the Zeitschrift fur Instrumentenkunde (iv., 42-50, February, 1884), Dr. K. Feussner of Karlsruhe has given a detailed description of a polarizing prism lately devised by him, which presents several points of novelty, and for which certain advantages are claimed. The paper also contains an account, although not an exhaustive one, of the various polarizing prisms which have from time to time been constructed by means of different combinations of Iceland spar. The literature of this subject is scattered and somewhat difficult of access, and moreover only a small part of it has hitherto been translated into English; and it would appear therefore that a brief abstract of the paper may not be without service to those among the readers of Nature who may be unacquainted with the original memoirs, or who may not have the necessary references at hand.
Following the order adopted by Dr. Feussner, the subject may be divided into two parts:
I.—OLDER FORMS OF POLARIZING PRISMS.
In comparing the various forms of polarizing prisms, the main points which need attention are—the angular extent of the field of view, the direction of the emergent polarized ray, whether it is shifted to one side of, or remains symmetrical to the long axis of the prism; the proportion which the length of the prism bears to its breadth; and lastly, the position of the terminal faces, whether perpendicular or inclined to the long axis. These requirements are fulfilled in different degrees by the following methods of construction:
1. The Nicol Prism (Edin. New Phil. Journal, 1828, vi., 83).—This (Fig. 1), as is well known, is constructed from a rhombohedron of Iceland spar, the length of which must be fully three times as great as the width. The end faces are cut off in such a manner that the angle of 72 deg. which they originally form with the lateral edge of the rhombohedron is reduced to 68 deg.. The prism is then cut in two in a plane perpendicular to the new end surfaces, the section being carried obliquely from one obtuse corner of the prism to the other, in the direction of its length. The surfaces of this section, after having been carefully polished, are cemented together again by means of Canada balsam. A ray of light, on entering the prism, is separated by the double refraction of the calc-spar into an ordinary and an extraordinary ray; the former undergoes total reflection at the layer of balsam at an incidence which allows the extraordinary ray to be transmitted; the latter, therefore, passes through unchanged. This principle of obtaining a single polarized ray by means of total reflection of the other is common to all the forms of prism now to be described.
Dr. Feussner gives a mathematical analysis of the paths taken by the two polarized rays within the Nicol prism, and finds that the emergent extraordinary ray can include an angular field of 29 deg., but that this extreme value holds good only for rays incident upon that portion of the end surface which is near to the obtuse corner, and that from thence it gradually decreases until the field includes an angle of only about half the previous amount. He finds, moreover, that, although of course the ray emerges parallel to its direction of incidence, yet that the zone of polarized light is shifted to one side of the central line. Also that the great length of the Nicol—3.28 times its breadth—is not only an inconvenience, but owing to the large pieces of spar thus required for its construction, prisms of any but small size become very expensive. To this it may be added that there is a considerable loss of light by reflection from the first surface, owing to its inclined position in regard to the long axis of the prism.
It is with the view of obviating these defects that the modifications represented in Figs. 2 to 6 have been devised.
2. The Shortened Nicol Prism.—This arrangement of the Nicol prism is constructed by Dr. Steeg and Reuter of Homburg v.d.H. For the sake of facility of manufacture, the end surfaces are cleavage planes, and the oblique cut, instead of being perpendicular, makes with these an angle of about 84 deg.. By this alteration the prism becomes shorter, and is now only 2.83 times its breadth; but if Canada balsam is still used as the cement, the field will occupy a very unsymmetrical position in regard to the long axis. If balsam of copaiba is made use of, the index of refraction of which is 1.50, a symmetrical field of about 24 deg. will be obtained. A prism of this kind has also been designed by Prof. B. Hasert of Eisenach (Pogg. Ann., cxiii., 189), but its performance appears to be inferior to the above.
3. The Nicol Prism with Perpendicular Ends.—The terminal surfaces in this prism are perpendicular to the long axis, and the sectional cut makes with them an angle of about 75 deg.. The length of the prism is 3.75 times its breadth, and if the cement has an index of refraction of 1.525, the field is symmetrically disposed, and includes an angle of 27 deg.. Prisms of this kind have been manufactured by Dr. Steeg, Mr. C.D. Ahrens, and others.
4. The Foucault Prism (Comptes Rendus, 1857, xlv., 238).—This construction differs from all those hitherto mentioned, in that a film of air is employed between the two cut surfaces as the totally reflecting medium instead of a layer of cement. The two halves of the prism are kept in position, without touching each other, by means of the mounting. The length of the prism is in this way much reduced, and amounts to only 1.528 times its breadth. The end surfaces are cleavage planes, and the sectional cut makes with them an angle of 59 deg.. The field, however, includes not more than about 8 deg., so that this prism can be used only in the case of nearly parallel rays; and in addition to this the pictures which may be seen through it are to some extent veiled and indistinct, owing to repeated internal reflection.
5. The Hartnack Prism (Ann. de Ch. et de Physique, ser. iv., vii., 181).—This form of prism was devised in 1866 by MM. Hartnack and Prazmowiski; the original memoir is a valuable one; a translation of it, with some additions, has lately been published (Journ. of the R. Microscopical Soc., June, 1883, 428). It is considered by Dr. Feussner to be the most perfect prism capable of being prepared from calc-spar. The ends of the prism are perpendicular to its length; the section carried through it is in a plane perpendicular to the principal axis of the crystal. The cementing medium is linseed oil, the index of refraction of which is 1.485. This form of prism is certainly not so well known in this country as it deserves to be; a very excellent one, supplied to the present writer by Dr. Steeg is of rectangular form throughout, the terminal surfaces are 19 x 15 mm., and the length 41 mm. The lateral shifting of the field is scarcely perceptible, the prism is perfectly colorless and transparent, and its performance is far superior to that of the ordinary Nicol. The field of view afforded by this construction depends upon the cementing substance used, and also upon the inclination of the sectional cut in regard to the end of the prism; it may vary from 20 deg. to 41 deg.. If the utmost extent of field is not required, the prism may be shortened by lessening the angle of the section, at the expense, however, of interfering with the symmetrical disposition of the field.
6. The Glan Prism (Carl's "Repertorium," xvi., 570, and xvii., 195).—This is a modification of the Foucault, and in a similar manner includes a film of air between the sectional surfaces. The end surfaces and also the cut carried through the prism are parallel to the principal axis of the calc-spar. The ends are normal to the length, and the field includes about 8 deg.. This prism is very short, and may indeed be even shorter than it is broad. It is subject to the same defect as that mentioned in the case of the Foucault, although perhaps not quite to the same extent.
II.—THE NEW POLARIZING PRISM.
This prism differs very considerably from the preceding forms, and consists of a thin plate of a doubly refracting crystal cemented between two wedge-shaped pieces of glass, the terminal faces of which are normal to the length. The external form of the prism may thus be similar to the Hartnack, the calc-spar being replaced by glass. The indices of refraction of the glass and of the cementing medium should correspond with the greater index of refraction of the crystal, and the directions of greatest and least elasticity in the latter must stand in a plane perpendicular to the direction of the section. One of the advantages claimed for the new prism is that, it dispenses with the large and valuable pieces of spar hitherto found necessary; a further advantage being that other crystalline substances may be used in this prism instead of calc-spar. The latter advantage, however, occurs only when the difference between the indices of refraction for the ordinary and extraordinary rays in the particular crystal made use of is greater than in calc-spar. When this is the case, the field becomes enlarged, and the length of the prism is reduced.
The substance which Dr. Feussner has employed as being most suitable for the separating crystal plate is nitrate of soda (natronsalpeter), in which the above-mentioned values are [omega] = 1.587 and [eta] = 1.336. It crystallizes in similar form to calcite, and in both cases thin plates obtained by cleavage may be used.
As the cementing substance for the nitrate of soda, a mixture of gum dammar with monobromonaphthalene was used, which afforded an index of refraction of 1.58. In the case of thin plates of calcite, a solid cementing substance of sufficiently high refractive power was not available, and a fluid medium was therefore employed. For this purpose the whole prism was inclosed in a short glass tube with airtight ends, which was filled with monobromonaphthalene. In an experimental prism a mixture of balsam of tolu was made use of, giving a cement with an index of refraction of 1.62, but the low refractive power resulted in a very considerable reduction of the field. The extent and disposition of the field may be varied by altering the inclination at which the crystal lamina is inserted (Fig. 7), and thereby reducing the length of the prism, as in the case of the Hartnack.
In order to obviate the effects of reflection from the internal side surfaces if the prism, the wedge-shaped blocks of glass of which it is built up may be made much broader than would otherwise be necessary; the edges of this extra width are cut obliquely and suitably blackened.
The accompanying diagram (Fig. 8) represents a prism of cylindrical external form constructed in this manner, the lower surface being that of the incident light. In this the field amounts to 30 deg., and the breadth is about double the length.
Dr. Feussner remarks that a prism similar in some respects to his new arrangement was devised in 1869 by M. Jamin (Comptes Rendus, lxviii., 221), who used a thin plate of calc-spar inclosed in a cell filled with bisulphide of carbon; and also by Dr. Zenker, who replaced the liquid in M. Jamin's construction by wedges of flint glass.
Among others, the carefully considered modifications of the Nicol prism which have recently been devised by Prof. S.P. Thompson (Phil. Mag., November, 1881, 349, and Jour. R. Micros. Soc., August, 1883, 575), and by Mr. R.T. Glazebrook (Phil. Mag., May, 1883, 352), do not appear to have been known to Dr. Feussner.
The following tabular view of different forms of polarizing prisms is taken from the conclusion of Dr. Feussner's paper:
- - Inclina- Ratio tion of of section length in regard to to long clear Field. axis. width. Fig. - - I. THE OLD POLARISING PRISMS. deg. deg. 1. Nicol's prism. 29 22 3.28 1 2. Shortened Nicol prism a. Cemented with Canada balsam. 13 25 2.83 2 b. Cemented with copaiba " 24 25 2.83 2 3. Nicol with perpendicular ends a. With Canada balsam. 20 15 3.73 3 b. With cement of index of refraction of 1.525. 27 15 3.73 3 4. Foucault's prism. 8 40 1.528 4 5. Hartnack's prism a. Original form. 35 15.9 3.51 5 a b b. With largest field. 41.9 13.9 4.04 5 a a c. With field of 30 deg.. 30 17.4 3.19 5 a c d. With field of 20 deg.. 20 20.3 2.70 5 a d 6. Glan's prism. 7.9 50.3 0.831 6 II. THE NEW POLARISING PRISM. 1. With calc-spar: largest field. 44 13.2 4.26 5 a a 2. " field of 30 deg.. 30 17.4 3.19 5 a c 3. " field of 20 deg.. 20 20.3 2.70 5 a d 4. With nitrate of soda: " largest field. 54 16.7 3.53 7 a a 5. " field of 30 deg.. 30 24 2.25 7 a b 6. " field of 20 deg.. 20 27 1.96 7 a c - -
As an analyzing prism of about 6 mm. clear width, and 13.5 mm. long, the new prism is stated by its inventor to be of the most essential service, and it would certainly appear that the arrangement is rather better adapted for small prisms than for those of considerable size. Any means by which a beam of polarized light of large diameter—say 3 to 31/2 inches—could be obtained with all the convenience of a Nicol would be a real advance, for spar of sufficient size and purity for such a purpose has become so scarce and therefore so valuable that large prisms are difficult to procure at all. So far as an analyzer is concerned, the experience of the writer of this notice would lead to the opinion that improvements are to be looked for rather in the way of the discovery of an artificial crystal which absorbs one of the polarized rays than by further modifications depending upon total reflection. The researches of Dr. Herapath on iodosulphate of quinine (Phil. Mag., March, 1852, 161, and November, 1853, 346) are in this direction; but crystals of the so-called herapathite require great manipulative skill for their production. If these could be readily obtained of sufficient size, they would be invaluable as analyzers.
This opinion is supported by the existence of an inconvenience which attends every form of analyzing prism. It is frequently, and especially in projecting apparatus, required to be placed at the focus of a system of lenses, so that the rays may cross in the interior of the prism. This is an unfavorable position for a prismatic analyzer, and in the case of a powerful beam of light, such as that from the electric arc, the crossing of the rays within the prism is not unattended with danger to the cementing substance, and to the surfaces in contact with it.
PHILIP R. SLEEMAN.
* * * * *
ZIRCON.
By F. STOLBA.
Finely ground zircon is quickly rendered soluble if fused with a mixture of potassium borofluoride and potassium carbonate. The author takes two parts of the former to three of the latter, and prepares an intimate, finely divided mixture, which is kept ready for use.
Of this mixture four parts are taken to one of zircon, thoroughly mixed, and melted in a platinum crucible at a red heat. The mass fuses readily, froths at first and gives off bubbles of gas, and flows then quietly, forming a very fluid melt. If the zircon is finely ground, 15 minutes are sufficient for this operation. The loss of weight is 16 per cent., and is not notably increased on prolonged fusion. It corresponds approximately to the weight of the carbonic anhydride present in the potassium carbonate.
As pungent vapors are given off during fusion, the operation should be conducted under a draught hood. The activity of the mixture in attacking zircon appears from the following experiment: Two zircon crystals, each weighing 1/2 grm., were introduced into the melted mixture and subjected to prolonged heat. In a short time they decreased perceptibly in size; each of them broke up into two fragments, and within an hour they were entirely dissolved. The melted mass is poured upon a dry metal plate, and when congealed is thrown into water. It is at once intersected with a number of fissures, which facilitate pulverization. This process is the more necessary as the unbroken mass is very slowly attacked by water even on prolonged boiling. The powder is boiled in a large quantity of water so as to remove everything soluble. There is obtained a faintly alkaline solution and a sediment insoluble in water. From the filtrate alkalies throw down zirconium hydroxide, free from iron.
The portion insoluble in water is readily dissolved in hydrofluoric acid, and is converted into zircon potassium fluoride. The chief bulk of the zirconium is found in the aqueous solution in the state of double fluorides. The platinum crucible is not in the least attacked during melting. On the contrary, dirty platinum crucibles may be advantageously cleaned by melting in them a little of the above mentioned mixture.
If finely divided zircon is boiled for a long time with caustic lye, it is perceptibly attacked. It is very probable that in this manner zircon might be entirely dissolved under a pressure of 10 atmospheres.
Potassium borofluoride may be readily prepared from cryolite. Crucibles of nickel seem especially well adapted for the fusion of zircon in caustic alkalies.—Ber. Boehm. Gesell. Wissenschaft; Chem. News.
* * * * *
A PROCESS FOR MAKING WROUGHT IRON DIRECT FROM THE ORE.[1]
[Footnote 1: A paper read at the Cincinnati Meeting of the American Institute of Mining Engineers, by Willard P. Ward, A.M., M.E., February, 1884.]
The numerous direct processes which have been patented and brought before the iron masters of the world, differ materially from that now introduced by Mr. Wilson. After a careful examination of his process, I am convinced that Mr. Wilson has succeeded in producing good blooms from iron ore, and I think that I am able to point out theoretically the chief reasons of the success of his method.
Without going deeply into the history of the metal, I may mention the well known fact that wrought iron was extensively used in almost all quarters of the globe, before pig or cast iron was ever produced. Without entering into the details of the processes by which this wrought iron was made, it suffices for my present purpose to say that they were crude, wasteful, and expensive, so that they can be employed to-day only in a very few localities favored with good and cheap ore, fuel, and labor.
The construction of larger furnaces and the employment of higher temperatures led to the production of a highly carbonized, fusible metal, without any special design on the part of the manufacturers in producing it. This pig iron, however, could be used only for a few purposes for which metallic iron was needed; but it was produced cheaply and with little loss of metal, and the attempt to decarbonize this product and bring it into a state in which it could be hammered and welded was soon successfully made. This process of decarbonization, or some modification of it, has successfully held the field against all so-called, direct processes up to the present time. Why? Because the old fashioned bloomeries and Catalan forges could produce blooms only at a high cost, and because the new processes introduced failed to turn out good blooms. Those produced were invariably "red short," that is, they contained unreduced oxide of iron, which prevented the contact of the metallic particles, and rendered the welding together of these particles to form a solid bloom impossible.
The process of puddling cast iron, and transforming it by decarbonization into wrought iron, has, as everybody knows, been in successful practical operation for many years, and the direct process referred to so closely resembles this, that a short description of the theory of puddling is not out of place here.
The material operated on in puddling is iron containing from 21/2 to 4 per cent. of carbon. During the first stage of the process this iron is melted down to a fluid bath in the bottom of a reverberatory furnace. Then the oxidation of the carbon contained in the iron commences, and at the same time a fluid, basic cinder, or slag, is produced, which covers a portion of the surface of the metal bath, and prevents too hasty oxidation. This slag results from the union of oxides of iron with the sand adhering to the pigs, and the silica resulting from the oxidation of the silicon contained in the iron.
This cinder now plays a very important part in the process. It takes up the oxides of iron formed by the contact of the oxidizing flame with the exposed portion of the metal bath, and at the same time the carbon of the iron, coming in contact with the under surface of the cinder covering, where it is protected from oxidizing influences, reduces these oxides from the cinder and restores them to the bath in metallic form. This alternate oxidation of exposed metal, and its reduction by the carbon of the cast iron, continues till the carbon is nearly exhausted, when the iron assumes a pasty condition, or "comes to nature," as the puddlers call this change. The charge is then worked up into balls, and removed for treatment in the squeezer, and then hammered or rolled. In the Wilson process the conditions which we have noted in the puddling operation are very closely approximated. Iron ore reduced to a coarse sand is mixed with the proper proportion of charcoal or coke dust, and the mixture fed into upright retorts placed in the chimney of the puddling furnace. By exposure for 24 hours to the heat of the waste gases from the furnace, in the presence of solid carbon, a considerable portion of the oxygen of the ore is removed, but little or no metallic iron is formed. The ore is then drawn from the deoxidizer into the rear or second hearth of the puddling furnace, situated below it, where it is exposed for 20 minutes to a much higher temperature than that of the deoxidizer. Here the presence of the solid carbon, mixed with the ore, prevents any oxidizing action, and the temperature of the mass is raised to a point at which the cinder begins to form. Then the charge is carried forward by the workmen to the front hearth, in which the temperature of a puddling furnace prevails. Here the cinder melts, and at the same time the solid carbon reacts on the oxygen remaining combined with the ore, and forms metallic iron; but by this time the molten cinder is present to prevent undue oxidation of the metal formed, and solid carbon is still present in the mixture to play the same role, of reducing protoxide of iron from the cinder, as the carbon of the cast iron does in the ordinary puddling process. I have said that the cast iron used as the material for puddling contains about 3 per cent. of carbon; but in this process sufficient carbon is added to effect the reduction of the ore to a metallic state, and leave enough in the mass to play the part of the carbon of the cast iron when the metallic stage has been reached.
It would be interesting to compare the Wilson with the numerous other direct processes to which allusion has already been made, but there have been so many of them, and the data concerning them are so incomplete, that this is impossible. Two processes, however, the Blair and the Siemens, have attracted sufficient attention, and are sufficiently modern to deserve notice. In the Blair process a metallic iron sponge was made from the ore in a closed retort, this sponge cooled down in receptacles from which the air was excluded, to the temperature of the atmosphere, then charged into a puddling furnace and heated for working. In this way (and the same plan essentially has been followed by other inventors), the metallic iron, in the finest possible state of subdivision, is subjected to the more or less oxidizing influences of the flame, without liquid slag to save it from oxidation, and with no carbon present to again reduce the iron oxides from the cinder after it is formed. The loss of metal is consequently very large, but oxides of iron being left in the metal the blooms are invariably "red short."
In the Siemens process pieces of ore of the size of beans or peas, mixed with lime or other fluxing material, form the charge, which is introduced into a rotating furnace; and when this charge has become heated to a bright-red heat, small coal of uniform size is added in sufficient quantity to effect the reduction of the ore.
The size of the pieces of the material employed prevents the intimate mixture of the particles of iron with the particles of carbon, and hence we would, on theoretical grounds, anticipate just what practice has proved, viz., that the reduction is incomplete, and the resulting metal being charged with oxides is red-short. In practice, blooms made by this process have been so red-short that they could not be hammered at all.
It would be impracticable in this process to employ ore and carbon in as fine particles as Wilson does, as a very large portion of the charge would be carried off by the draught, and a sticking of the material to the sides of the rotating furnace could scarcely be avoided. I do not imagine that a division of the material into anything like the supposed size of molecules is necessary; we know that the graphitic carbon in the pig-iron employed in puddling is not so finely divided, but it is much smaller particles than bean or pea size, and by approximating the size of the graphite particles in pig iron, Wilson has succeeded in obtaining good results.
If we examine the utilization of the heat developed by the combustion of a given quantity of coal in this process, and compare it with the result of the combustion of an equivalent amount of fuel in a blast furnace, we shall soon see the theoretical economy of the process. The coal is burned on the grate of the puddling-furnace, to carbonic acid, and the flame is more fully utilized than in an ordinary puddling-furnace, for besides the ordinary hearth there is the second or rear hearth, where additional heat is taken up, and then the products of combustion are further utilized in heating the retorts in which the ore is partly reduced. After this the heat is still further utilized by passing it under the boilers for the generation of steam, and the heat lost in the gases, when they finally escape, is very small. In a blast furnace the carbon is at first burned only to carbonic oxide, and the products of combustion issue mainly in this form from the top of the furnace. Then a portion of the heat resulting from the subsequent burning of these gases is pretty well utilized in making steam to supply the power required about the works, but the rest of the gas can only be utilized for heating the blast, and here there is an enormous waste, the amount of heat returned to the furnace by the heated blast being very small in proportion to the amount generated by the burning of that portion of carbonic oxide expended in heating it, and the gases escape from both the hot-blast and the boilers at a high temperature.
In the direct process under consideration the fuel burned is more completely utilized than in the puddling process, to which the cast iron from the blast furnace is subjected to convert it into wrought iron.
The economy claimed for this process, over the blast furnace and puddling practice for the production of wrought iron, is that nearly all the fuel used in the puddling operation is saved, and that with about the same amount of fuel used in the blast furnace to produce a ton of pig iron, a ton of wrought iron blooms can be made. I had no opportunity of weighing the charges of ore and coal used, but I saw the process in actual operation at Rockaway, N.J. The iron produced was hammered up into good solid blooms, containing but little cinder. The muck-bar made from the blooms was fibrous in fracture, and showed every appearance of good iron. I am informed by the manager of the Sanderson Brothers' steel works, at Syracuse, N.Y., that they purchased blooms made by the Wilson process in 1881-1882, that none of them showed red-shortness, and that they discontinued their use only on account of the injurious action of the titanium they contained on the melting pots. These blooms were made from magnetic sands from the Long Island and Connecticut coasts.
The drawing given shows the construction of the furnace employed. I quote from the published description:
"The upper part, or deoxidizer, is supported on a strong mantel plate resting on four cast iron columns.
"The retorts and flues are made entirely of fire-brick, from special patterns. The outside is protected by a wrought iron jacket made of No. 14 iron. The puddling furnace is of the ordinary construction, except in the working bottom, which is made longer to accommodate two charges of ore, and thus utilize more of the waste heat in reducing the ore to metallic iron.
"The operation of the furnace is as follows: The pulverized ore is mixed with 20 per cent. of pulverized charcoal or coke, and is fed into an elevator which discharges into the hopper on the deoxidizer leading into the retorts marked C. These retorts are proportioned so that they will hold ore enough to run the puddling furnace 24 hours, the time required for perfect deoxidation. After the retorts are filled, a fire is started in the furnace, and the products of combustion pass up through the main flue, or well, B, where they are deflected by the arch, and pass out through suitable openings, as indicated by arrows, into the down-takes marked E, and out through an annular flue, where they are passed under a boiler.
"It will be noticed that the ore is exposed to the waste heat on three sides of the retorts, and owing to the great surface so exposed, the ore is very thoroughly deoxidized, and reduced in the retorts before it is introduced into the puddling furnace for final reduction. The curved cast iron pipes marked D are provided with slides, and are for the purpose of introducing the deoxidized ore into the second bottom of the furnace. As before stated, the furnace is intended to accommodate two charges of ore, and as fast as it is balled up and taken out of the working bottom, the charge remaining in the second bottom is worked up in the place occupied by the first charge, and a new charge is introduced. As fast as the ore is drawn out from the retorts the elevator supplies a new lot, so that the retorts are always filled, thus making the process continuous."
The temperature of the charge in the deoxidizer is from 800 deg. to 1,000 deg. F.—Amer. Engineer.
* * * * *
SOME REMARKS ON THE DETERMINATION OF HARDNESS IN WATERS.
By HERBERT JACKSON.
Having had occasion some short time ago to examine a hard water which owed half its hardness to salts of magnesium, I noticed that the soap test, applied in the usual way, gave a result which differed very much from that obtained by the quantitative estimation of calcium and magnesium. A perfectly normal lather was obtained when soap had been added in quantities sufficient to neutralize 14 deg. of hardness, whereas the water contained salts of calcium and magnesium equivalent, on Clark's scale, to a hardness of 27 deg..
Although I was aware that similar observations had been made before, I thought that it might be useful to determine the conditions under which the soap test could not be depended upon for reliable results.
I found with waters containing calcium or magnesium alone that, whenever salts of either of these metals were in solution in quantities sufficient to give 23 deg. of hardness on Clark's scale, no dependence could be placed upon the results given by the soap test. In the case of waters containing salts of both calcium and magnesium, I found that if the salts of the latter metal were in solution in quantities sufficient to give more than 10 deg. of hardness, no evidence could be obtained of their presence so long as the salts of calcium in the same water exceeded 6 deg.; in such a case a perfect and permanent lather was produced when soap had been added equivalent to 7 deg. of hardness.
If any water be diluted so as to reduce the proportions of the salts of calcium and magnesium below those stated above, perfectly reliable results will of course be obtained.
Instead of dilution I found that heating the water to about 70 deg. C. was sufficient to cause a complete reaction between the soap and the salts of calcium and magnesium, even if these were present in far larger quantities than any given here.
The experiments so far had all been made with a solution of Castile soap of the strength suggested by Mr. Wanklyn in his book on "Water Analysis." My attention was next directed to the use of any one of the compounds of which such a soap is composed. I commenced with sodium oleate, and found that by employing this substance in a moderately pure condition, perfectly reliable results could be obtained in very hard waters without the trouble of either diluting or heating. I was unable to try sodium stearate directly because of the slight solubility of this substance in cold water or dilute alcohol; but I found that a mixture of sodium oleate and stearate behaved in exactly the same manner as the Castile soap.
I am not prepared at present to state the exact reaction which takes place between salts of calcium and magnesium and a compound soap containing sodium oleate and stearate. I publish these results because I have not noticed anywhere the fact that some waters show a greater hardness with soap when their temperatures approach the boiling point than they do at the average temperature of the air, it being, I believe, the ordinary impression that cold water wastes more soap than hot water before a good and useful lather can be obtained, whereas with very many waters the case is quite the reverse. Neither am I aware at present whether it is well known that the use of sodium oleate unmixed with sodium stearate dispenses with the process of dilution even in very hard waters.—Chem. News. |
|
