Experiments of a very definite kind have not yet been made as to the nature of the arc produced by induced currents developed in alternating current machines; but, from the experiments made with electric candles, we are forced to admit that the current reacts as if it were alternately reversed through the arc, since the carbons are used up to an equal degree; and, moreover, Mr. Pilleux's experiments show that effects analogous to those of induction coils are produced by the reaction of magnets upon the arc. There is, then, here a doubtful point that it would be interesting to clear up; and we believe that it is consequently proper to introduce in this place Mr. Pilleux's note:

"Having at my disposal," says he, "a powerful vertical voltaic arc of 12 centimeters in length, kept up by alternately reversed currents, and one of the most powerful permanent magnets that Mr. De Meritens employs for magneto-electric machines, I have been enabled to make the following experiments:

"1. When I caused one of the poles of my magnet to slowly approach the voltaic arc, I ascertained that, at a distance of 10 centimeters, the arc became flattened so as to assume the appearance of those gas jets called 'butterfly.' The plane of the 'butterfly' was parallel with the pole that I presented, or, in other words, with the section of the magnet. At the same time, the arc began to emit a strident noise, which became deafening when the pole of the magnet was brought to within a distance of about 2 millimeters. At this moment, the butterfly form produced by the arc was greatly spread out, and reduced to the thickness of a sheet of paper; and then it burst with violence, and projected to a distance a great number of particles of incandescent carbon.

"2. The magnet employed being a horseshoe one, when I directed it laterally so as to present successively, now the north and then the south pole to the arc, the 'butterfly' pivoted upon itself so as not to present the same surface to each pole of the magnet."

By referring to the accompanying figure, which we extract from our note on the Ruhmkorff apparatus, it will be seen that the aureola which developed as a circular film from right to left at D, on the north pole of the magnet, N.S. (Fig. 1), projected itself in an opposite direction at C, upon the south pole, S, of the same magnet; but, between the two poles, these two contrary actions being obliged to unite, they gave rise in doing so to a very characteristic helicoid spiral whose direction depended upon that of the current of discharge through the aureola, or upon the polarity of the magnetic poles. On the contrary, when the discharge took place in the direction of the equatorial line, as in Fig. 2, the circular film developed itself in the plane of the neutral line above or below the line of discharge, according to the direction of the current and the magnetic polarity of the magnet.

There is, then, between Mr. Pilleux's experiments and my own so great an analogy that we might draw the deduction therefrom that induced currents in alternating machines have, like those of the Ruhmkorff coil, a definite direction, which would be that of currents having the greatest tension, that is to say, that of direct currents. This hypothesis seems to us the more plausible in that Mr. J. Van Malderem has demonstrated that the attraction of solenoids with the currents, not straight, of magneto-electric machines is almost as great as that of the same solenoids with straight currents; and it is very likely that the difference which may then exist should be so much the less in proportion as the induced currents have more tension. We might, then, perhaps explain the different effects of the wear of the carbons serving as rheophores, according as the currents are continuous or alternating, by the different calorific effects produced on these carbons, and by the effects of electric conveyance which are a consequence of the passage of the current through the arc.

We know that with continuous currents the positive carbon possesses a much higher temperature than the negative, and that its wear is about twice greater than that of the latter. But such greater wear of the positive carbon is especially due to the fact that combustion is greater on it than on the negative, and also to the fact that the carbonaceous particles carried along by the current to the positive pole are deposited in part upon the other pole. Supposing that these polarities of the carbons were being constantly alternately reversed, the effects might be symmetrical from all quarters, although the only current traversing the break were of the same direction; for, admitting that the reverse currents could not traverse the break, they would exist none the less for all that, and they might give rise (as has been demonstrated by Mr. Gaugain with regard to the discharges of the induction spark intercepted by the insulating plate of a condenser) to return discharges through the generator, which would then have, in the metallic part of the circuit, the same direction as the direct currents succeeding, although they had momentarily brought about opposite polarities in the electrodes. What might make us suppose such an interpretation of the phenomenon to have its raison d'etre, is that with the induced currents of the Ruhmkorff coil, it is not the positive pole that is the hottest, but rather the negative; from whence we might draw the deduction that it is not so much the direction of the current that determines the calorific effect in the electrodes, as the conditions of such current with respect to the generator. I should not be surprised, then, if, in the arc formed by the alternating currents of magneto-electric machines, there should pass only one current of the same direction, and which would be the one formed by the superposition of direct currents, and if the reverse currents should cause return discharges in the midst of the generating bobbins at the moment the direct currents were generated.—Th. Du Moncel.

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VOLCKMAR'S SECONDARY BATTERIES.

The inventive genius of the country is now directed to these important accessories of electric enterprise, and no wonder, for as far as can at present be seen, the secret of electric motion lies in these secondary batteries. Among other contributions of this kind is the following, by Ernest Volckmar, electrician, Paris:

The object of this invention is to render unnecessary the use in secondary batteries of a porous pot which creates useless resistance to the electric current, and to store in an apparatus of comparatively small weight and bulk considerable electric force. To this end two reticulated or perforated plates of lead of similar proportions are prepared, and their interstices are filled with granules or filaments of lead, by preference chemically pure. These plates are then submitted to pressure, and placed together, with strips of nonconducting material interposed between them, in a suitable vessel containing a bath of acidulated water. The plates being connected with wires from an electric generator are brought for a while under the action of the current, to peroxidize and reduce the whole of the finely divided lead exposed to the acidulated water. The secondary battery is then complete. It will be understood that any number of these pairs of plates may be combined to form a secondary battery, their number being determined by the amount of storage required. The perforated plates of lead may be prepared by drilling, casting, or in other convenient manner, but the apertures, of whatever form, should be placed as closely together as possible, and the finely divided lead to be peroxidized is pressed into the cells or cavities so as to fill their interiors only.

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THE MINERALOGICAL LOCALITIES IN AND AROUND NEW YORK CITY, AND THE MINERALS OCCURRING THEREIN.

By NELSON H. DARTON.

There will be many persons in the city of New York and its suburbs who will not have the time or facilities for leaving town during the summer, to spend a part of their time enjoying the country, but would have sufficient time to take occasional recreation for short periods. I have sought by this paper to show a pleasurable, and at the same time very instructive use for the time of this latter class, and that is in mineralogy. In the surrounding parts of New York are many mineralogical localities, known to no others than a few professional mineralogists, etc., and from which an excellent assortment of minerals may be obtained, which would well grace a cabinet and afford considerable instruction and entertainment to their owner and friends, besides acting as an incentive to a further study of this and the other sciences. These localities which I will discuss are all within an hour's ride from New York, and the expenses inside of a half dollar, and generally very much less. I could detail many other places further off, but will reserve that for another paper.

The course which I will pursue in my explanations I have purposely made very simple, avoiding—or when using, explaining—all technical terms. The apparatus and tests noticed are of the most rudimentary style consistent with that which is necessary to attain the simple purpose of distinguishment, and altogether I have prepared this paper for those having at the present time little or no knowledge or practice in mineralogy, while those having it can be led perhaps by the details of the localities noticed. Another reason why I have written so in detail of this last subject is, because the experiences of most amateur mineralogists are generally so very discouraging in their endeavors to find the minerals, and there is everything in giving a good start to properly fix the interest on the subject. The reason of these discouragements is simple, and generally because they do not know the portion of the locality, say, for instance, a certain township, in which the minerals occur. And if they do succeed in finding this, it is seldom that the portion in which the mineral occurs, which is generally some small inconspicuous vein or fissure, is found; and even in this it is generally difficult to recognize and isolate the mineral from the extraneous matter holding it. As an instance of this I might cite thus: Dana, in his text book on mineralogy, will mention the locality for a certain species, as Bergen Hill—say for this instance, dogtooth calespar. When we consider that Bergen Hill, in the limited sense of the expression, is ten miles long and fully one mile wide, and as the rock outcrops nearly all over it, and it is also covered with quarries, cuttings, etc., it may be seen that this direction is rather indefinite. To the professional mineralogist it is but an index, however, and he may consult the authority it is quoted from—the American Journal of Science, etc.—and thus find the part referred to, or by consulting other mineralogists who happen to know. Again, the person having found by inquiry that the part referred to is the Pennsylvania Railroad, and as this is fully a mile long and interspersed with various prominent looking, but veins of a mineral of little value, at any rate not the one in question, they are few who could suppose that it occurred in that. Apparently a vein of it would not be noticed at all from the surrounding rock of gravelly earth, but there it is, and in a vein of chlorite. This is so throughout the long and more or less complete stated lists of mineralogical localities. Thus I will, in describing the mineral, after explaining the conditions under which it occurs, give almost the exact spot where I have found the same mineral myself, and have left sufficiently fine specimens to carry away, and thus no time will be lost in going over fruitless ground, and further, this paper is written up to the date given at its end, insuring a necessary presence of them.

In order that one not familiar with mineral specimens should not carry off from the various localities a variety of worthless stones, etc., which are frequently more or less attractive to an inexperienced eye, the following hints may be salutary.

There are the varieties of three minerals, which are very commonly met with in greater or less abundance in mineralogical trips: they are of calcite, steatite, and quartz. They occur in so many modifications of form, color, and condition that one might speedily form a cabinet of these, if they were taken when met with, and imagine it to be of great value. The first of these is calcite. It occurs as marble, limestone; calcspar, dogtooth spar, nail head spar, stalactites, and a number of other forms, which are only valuable when occurring in perfect crystals or uniquely set upon the rock holding it. The calcspar is extremely abundant at Bergen Hill, where it might be mistaken for many of the other minerals which I describe as occurring there, and even in preference to them, to one's great chagrin upon arriving home and testing it, to find that it is nothing but calcite. In order to avoid this and distinguish this mineral on the field, it should be tested with a single drop of acid, which on coming in contact with it bubbles up or effervesces like soda water, seidlitz powder, etc., while it does not do so with any of the minerals occurring in the same locality. This acid is prepared for use as follows: about twenty drops of muriatic acid are procured from a druggist in a half-ounce bottle, which is then filled up with water and kept tightly corked. It is applied by taking a drop out on a wisp of broom or a small minim dropper, which may be obtained at the druggist's also. I do not say that in every case this mineral should be rejected, because it is frequently very beautiful and worthy of place in a cabinet, but should be kept only under the conditions mentioned further on in this paper, under the head of "Calcite in Weehawken Tunnel."

The next mineral abundant in so many forms is quartz, and is not so readily distinguished as calcite. It is found of every color, shape, etc., possible, and that which is found in any of the localities I am about to describe, with the exception of fine crystals on Staten Island, are of no value and may be rejected, unless answering in detail to the description given under Staten Island. The method of distinguishing the quartz is by its hardness, which is generally so great that it cannot be scratched by the point of a knife, or at least with great difficulty, and a fragment of it will scratch glass readily; thus it is distinguished from the other minerals occurring in the localities discussed in this paper.

The other minerals so common are the varieties of steatite. This is especially so at Bergen Hill and Staten Island. They occur in amorphous masses generally, and may be distinguished by being so soft as to be readily cut by the finger nail. I will detail further upon the soapstone forms in discussing the localities on Staten Island, and the chloritic form under the head of "Weehawken Tunnel." The surest method of avoiding these and recognizing the others by their appearance, which is generally the only guide used by a professional mineralogist, is to copy off the lists of the various minerals I describe, and, by visiting the American Museum of Natural History on any week day except Mondays and Tuesdays, one may see and become familiar with the minerals they are going in quest of, besides others in the cases. This method is much more satisfactory than printed descriptions, and saves the labor of many of the distinguishing manipulations I am about to describe, besides saving the trouble of bringing inferior specimens of the minerals home.

In going forth on a trip one should be provided with a mineralogical hammer, or one answering its purpose, and a cold chisel with which to detach or trim the minerals from adhering rocks, the bottle of acid before referred to, and a three cornered file for testing hardness, as explained further on. As I noticed before, the better plan of distinguishing a mineral is by being familiar with its appearance, but as this is generally impracticable, I will detail the modes used in lieu of this to be applied on bringing the minerals home. These distinguishments depend on difference in specific gravity, hardness, solubility in hot acids, and the action of high heat. I will explain the application of each one separately, commencing with—

The Specific Gravity.—In ascertaining the specific gravity the following apparatus is necessary: a small pair of hand scales with a set of weights, from one grain to one ounce. These can be procured from the apparatus maker, the scales for about fifty cents, and the weights for not much over the same amount. The scales are prepared for this work by cutting two small holes in one of the scale pans, near together, with a pointed piece of metal, and tying a piece of silk thread about eight inches long into these. In a loop at the end of this thread the mineral to be examined is suspended. It should be a pure representative of the mineral it is taken from, should weigh about from one hundred grains to an ounce, and be quite dry and free from dirt. If the piece of mineral obtained is very large, this sized portion may be often taken from it without injury; but it will not do to mar the beauty of a mineral to ascertain its specific gravity, and it is generally only applicable when a small piece is at hand. With more weights, however, a piece of a quarter pound weight may be taken if necessary. The mineral is tied into the loop and weighed, the weight being set down in the note book, either in grains or decimal parts of an ounce. Call this result A. It is then weighed in some water held in a vessel containing about a quart, taking care while weighing it that it is entirely immersed, but at the same time does not touch either the sides or bottom. Both weighings should be accurate to a grain. This result we call B. The specific gravity is found by subtracting B from A, and dividing A by the remainder. For instance, if the mineral weighed eight hundred grains when weighed in the air, and in the water six hundred, giving us the equation: 800 / (800 - 600) = sp. gr., or 4, which is the specific gravity of the mineral. If the mineral whose specific gravity is sought is an incrustation on a rock, or a mixture of a number of minerals, or would break to pieces in the water, the specific gravity is by this method of course unattainable, and other data must be used.

The Comparative Hardness.—The next characteristic of the mineral to be ascertained is the comparative hardness. In mineralogy there is a scale fixed for comparison, from 1 to 10, 10 being the hardest, the diamond, and Number 1 the soft soapstone. These and the intermediate minerals fixed upon the scale are generally inaccessible to those who may use the contents of this paper, and I will give some more familiar materials for comparison. 8, 9, and 10 are the topaz, sapphire, and diamond respectively, and as these and minerals of similar hardness will probably not be found in any of the localities of which I make mention, we need not become accustomed to them for the present. 7 is of sufficient hardness to scratch glass, and is also not to be cut with the file before mentioned, which is used for these determinations. 6 is of the hardness of ordinary French glass. 5 is about the hardness of horse-shoe or similar iron; 4 of the brown stone (sandstone) of which the fronts of many city buildings, etc., are built; 3 of marble; 2 of alabaster; and 1 as French chalk, or so soft as to be readily cut with the finger nail. The method of using and applying these comparisons is by having the above matters at hand, and compare them by the relative ease with which they can be cut by running the edge of the file over their surface. One will soon become familiar with the scale, and it may of course then be discarded. As it is one of the most important characteristics of some of the minerals, it should be carefully executed, and the result carefully considered. It is of course inapplicable under those conditions with minerals that are in very small crystals or in a fibrous condition.

Action of Hot Acids.—This very important test is never, like the above, applicable upon the field, but applied when home is reached. From the body of the mineral as pure and clean as possible a portion is chipped, about the size of a small pea; this is wrapped in a piece of stiff wrapping paper, and after placing it in contact with a solid body, crushed finally by a blow from the hammer. A pinch of the powder so obtained is taken up on the point of a penknife, and transferred into a test tube. Two or more of these should be provided, about six inches long. They may be obtained in the apparatus shop for a trifle. Some hydrochloric, or, as it is generally called, muriatic acid, is poured upon it to the depth of about three quarters of an inch; the tube is then placed in some boiling water heated over a lamp in a tinned or other vessel, and allowed to boil for from ten to fifteen minutes; the tube is then removed and its contents allowed to cool, and then examined. If the powder has all disappeared, we term the mineral "soluble;" if more or less is dissolved, "partly soluble;" if none, "insoluble;" and if the contents of the tube are of a solid transparent mass like jelly, "gelatinous;" while if transparent gelatinous flakes are left, it is so termed. As this method of distinguishment is always applicable, it is very important, and its detail and result should be carefully noticed. Care should be taken that only a small portion of the mineral is used, and also but little acid; the action should be observed, and is frequently a characteristic, in the case with calcspar, which effervesces while dissolving. The acid used is hydrochloric at first, and then, if the mineral cannot he recognized, the same treatment may be repeated using nitric acid. Both of these acids should be at hand and two ounces are generally sufficient.

Action of Heat.—This is, perhaps, the most important characteristic, and, when taken with the preceding data, will identify any of the minerals found in any one locality, which I will describe, from each other. The heat is applied to the mineral by means of a candle and blowpipe. A thick wax candle answers well, and an ordinary japanned tin blowpipe, costing twenty cents, will serve the purpose. The substance to be examined is held on a loop of platinum wire about one inch to the left and just below the top of the wick, which is bent toward it. Here it is steadily held, as is shown in Fig. 1, and the flame of the candle bent over upon it, and the heat intensified by blowing a steady and strong current of air across it by means of the blowpipe held in the mouth and supported by the right hand, whose elbow is resting upon the table. The current of air is difficult to keep up by one unaccustomed to the blowpipe, the skill of using which is readily obtained; it consists in breathing through the nostrils, while the air is forced out by pressure on the air held by the inflated cheeks, and not from the lungs. This can be practiced while not using the blow-pipe, and may readily be accomplished by one's keeping his cheeks distended with air and breathing at the same time.

This heat is steadily applied until the splinter of mineral has been kept at a high red heat for a sufficient length of time to convince one of what it may do, as fuse or not, or on the edges. The first two are evident, as when it fuses it runs into a globule; the last, by inspecting it before and after the heating with a magnifying glass; sometimes it froths up when heated, and is then said to "intumesce;" or, if it flies to fragments, "decrepitates." Upon the first it is further heated; but in the latter case, a new splinter of mineral must be broken off from the mass and heated upon the wire very cautiously until quite hot, when it may then be readily heated further without fear of loss. For holding the splinter of mineral, which should well represent the mass and be quite small, is a three-inch length of platinum wire of the thickness of a cambric-needle; this may be bought for about ten cents at the apparatus shop. The ends should be looped, as is shown in Fig. 2, and the mineral placed in the loop.

Sometimes a mineral has to be fused with borax, as I mention further on in my tables. This is done by heating the wire-loop to redness, and plunging it into some borax; what adheres is fused upon it by heating. Some more is accumulated in the same manner, until the loop is filled with a fair-sized globule. A small quantity of the mineral, which had been crushed as for the acid test, is caused to adhere to it while it is molten, and then the heat of the blast directed upon it for some time until either the small fragments of mineral dissolve, or positively refuse to do so. After cooling, the aspect of the globule is noticed as to color, transparency, etc. Care must be taken that too large an amount of the mineral is not taken, a very minute amount being sufficient.

I trust by the use of these distinguishing reactions one will be able to recognize by the tables to be given the name of the mineral in hand, especially as they are from certain parts, where all the minerals occurring therein are known to us; and I have worded the characteristics so that they will serve to isolate from all that possibly could be found in that locality.

The first general locality is Bergen Hill, New Jersey. This comprises the range of bluffs of trap rock commencing at Bergen Point and running up behind Jersey City and Hoboken, etc., to the part opposite about Thirtieth Street, New York, where it comes close to the river, and from there along the river to the north for a long distance, known as the Palisades. It is about a mile wide on an average, and from a few feet to about two hundred feet in height. The mineralogical localities in and upon it are at the following parts, commencing at the south: First Pennsylvania Railroad cuts where the mining operations are just about completed; then the Erie Tunnel, in which the specimens that first made Bergen Hill noted as a mineralogical locality, and whose equals have not since been procured, were found, but which is now inaccessible to the general public. Further north is the Morris and Essex Tunnel, in which many fine specimens were secured, and is also inaccessible; and last, but far from being least, is the Ontario Tunnel at Weehawken; and, as it is the only practicable part besides the Pennsylvania Railroad and a number of surface outcrops which I will mention, I will commence with that.

The Weehawken Tunnel—This tunnel is now being cut through the trap-rock for the New York, Ontario, and Western Railroad, and will be completed in a few months, but will, probably, be available as a mineralogical locality for a year to come. It is located about half a mile south of the Weehawken Ferry from Forty-second Street, New York city, and the place where to climb upon the hill to get to the shafts leading to it is made prominent by the large body of light-colored rock on the dump, a few rods north of where the east entrance is to be. The western end is in the village of New Durham, on the New Jersey Northern Railroad, and recognized by the immense earth excavations. A pass is necessary to gain admittance down the shafts, and this can be procured from the office of the company, between the third and fourth shafts to the tunnel, in the grocery and provision store just to the north of the tramway connecting the shafts on the surface. As it will not be necessary to go down in any of the shafts besides the first and second in order to fulfill the objects of this paper, no difficulty need be encountered in procuring the pass if this is stated.

These two shafts are about eight hundred feet apart and one hundred and seventy feet deep. A platform elevator is the mode of access to the tunneled portion below, and a free shower-bath is included in the descent; consequently, a rubber-coat and water tight boots are necessary. A pair of overalls should be worn if one is to engage in any active exploration below; candles should also be provided, as the electric lights, at the face of the headings, give but little light, and remind one very forcibly of a dim flash light with a foliaged tree in front of it. The electric wires for supplying these arrangements run along the north side of the tunnel for those on the east headings, and on the south side for the west. They are excellent things to keep clear of, as they have sufficient current passing through them to knock one down; thus their position can be readily ascertained.

Modes of Occurrence of the Minerals.—In general, the greater number of the specimens which are to be found in the tunnel occur in veins generally perpendicular, and with other minerals of little or no value, as calcite, chlorite, and imperfect crystals of the same mineral. A few occur in nodules inclosed in the solid body of rock, and in which condition they are seldom of value. The greater abundance are in the veins of the dark-green soft chlorite, and some few in horizontal beds. The minerals are found in the first condition by examining all the veins running from floor to ceiling of the tunnel. The ores of calcite first mentioned are very conspicuous, they being white in the dense black rock. They may be chipped from, as there are about thirty or forty of them exposed in each shaft, and the character of the minerals examined to see if anything but calcite is in it. This is ascertained by a drop of acid, as explained before, and by the descriptions given further on. The veins of chlorite are not so conspicuous, being of a dark-green color; but by probing along the walls with a stick or hammer, they may be recognized by their softness, or by its dull glistening appearance. They are comparatively few, but from an inch to three feet wide; and minerals are found by digging it out with a stick or a three-foot drill, to be had at the headings. Where the most minerals occur in the chlorite is when plenty of veins of calcite are in its vicinity, and its edges near the trap are dry and crumbly. It is here where the minerals are found in this crumbly chlorite, and generally in geodes—that is, the faces of the minerals all point inward, formerly a spherical mass—rough and uncouth on the outside, and from half an inch to nearly a foot in diameter. These are valuable finds, and well worth digging for. The beds of minerals generally are of but one species, and will be mentioned under the head of the minerals occurring in them. Besides, in the tunnel there are generally more or less perfect minerals upon the main dump over the edge of the bluff toward the river. Here many specimens that have escaped the eyes of the miners may be found among the loose rock, being constantly strewn out by the incline of the bed; in fact, this is the only place in which quite a number of the incident minerals may be found; but I will not linger longer on this, as I shall refer to it under the minerals individually.

The minerals occurring at the tunnel are as follows, with their descriptions and locations in the order of their greatest abundance:

Calcite.—This mineral occurs in great abundance in and about the tunnel, and from all the shafts. There are two forms occurring there, the most abundant of which is the rhombohedral, after Fig. 3. It can generally be obtained, however, in excellent crystals, which, although perfect in form, are opaque, but often large and beautiful. It is always packed with a thousand or its multiple of other crystals into veins of a few inches thick; and crystals are obtained by carefully breaking with edge of the cold chisel these masses down to the fundamental form shown. As the masses are never secured by the miners, they can always be picked from the piles of dbris around the shafts and the dumps, and afford some little instruction as to the manner in which a mineral is built up by crystallization, and may be subdivided by cleavage to a crystal of the same shape exactly, but infinitesimally small. A crystal to be worth preserving should be about an inch in diameter, and as transparent as is attainable.

Another form of calcite which is to be sparingly found is what is called dogtooth spar, having the form shown in Fig. 4. They occur in clear wine-yellow-colored crystals, from a quarter to half an inch in length; they occur in the chlorite in geodes of variable sizes, but generally two and a half inches in diameter, and which, when carefully broken in half, showed beautiful grottoes of these crystals. The few of these that I have found were in the four-foot vein of chlorite down the Shaft No. 1, to the west of the shaft about one hundred and fifty feet, and on the south wall; it may be readily found by probing for it, and then the geodes by digging in. There need be no difficulty in finding this vein if these conditions are carefully considered, or if one of the miners be asked as to the soft vein. Both these forms of calcite may be distinguished from the other minerals by first effervescing on coming in contact with the acids; second, by glowing with an intense (almost unbearably so) light when heated with the blowpipe, but not fusing. Their specific gravity is 2.6, or near it, and hardness about 3, or equal to ordinary unpolished white marble.

Natrolite.—The finest specimens of this mineral that have ever been found in Bergen Hill were taken from a bed of it in this tunnel, having in its original form, before it was cut out by the tunnel passing through, over one hundred square feet, and from one-half to two and a half and even three inches in thickness; it was in all possible shapes and forms—all extremely rare and beautiful. A large part of one end of this bed still remains, and, by careful cutting, fine masses may be obtained. This bed may be readily found; it is nearly horizontal, and in its center about four feet from the floor of the tunnel, and about half an inch thick. It is down Shaft No. 2, on the north wall, and commences about eighty feet from the shaft. It is cut into in some places, but there is plenty more left, and can be obtained by cutting the rock above it and easing it out by means of the blade of a knife or similar instrument. This natrolite is a grouping of very small but perfect crystals, having the forms shown in Fig. 5; they are from a quarter to an inch long, and, if not perfectly transparent, are of a pure white color; they may be readily recognized by their form, and occurring in this bed. Its hardness, which is seldom to be ascertained owing to the delicacy of the crystals, is about 5, and the specific gravity 2.2. This is readily found, but is no distinction; its reaction before the blowpipe, however, is characteristic, it readily fusing to a transparent globule, clear and glassy, and by forming a jelly when heated with acids. The bed holding the upright crystals is also natrolite in confused matted masses. This mineral has also been found in other parts of the shaft, but only in small druses. There is a prospect at present that another bed will be uncovered soon, and some more fine specimens to be easily obtained.

Pectolite, or as it is termed by the miners, "silky spar."—This mineral is quite abundant and in fine masses, not of the great beauty and size of those taken from the Erie Tunnel, but still of great uniqueness. The mineral is recognized by its peculiar appearance, as is shown in Fig. 6, where it may be seen that it is in groups of fine delicate fibers about an inch long, diverging from a point into fan-shaped groups. The fibers are very tightly packed together, as are also the groups; they are very tough individually, and have a hardness of 4, and a specific gravity of about 2.5. It gelatinizes on boiling with acid, and a fragment may be readily fused in the blowpipe flame, yielding a transparent globule. The appearance is the most striking characteristic, and at once distinguishes this mineral from any of the others occurring in this locality. Considerable quantities of pectolite may generally be found on the dump, but also in Shaft No. 1, and especially No. 2. The veins of it are difficult to distinguish from the calcite, as they are almost identical in color, and many of the calcite veins are partly of pectolite—in fact, every third or fourth vein will contain more or less of it. There is, however, a very fine vein of pectolite about twenty-five feet further east from the natrolite bed; it runs from the floor to ceiling, and is about two inches in thickness; some specimens of which I took from these were unusually unique in both size and appearance. It makes a very handsome specimen for the cabinet, and should be carefully trimmed to show the characteristics of the mineral.

Datholite.—This mineral has been found very frequently in the tunnel, it occurring in pockets in the softer trap near the chlorite, and also in the latter, generally at a depth of one hundred and fifty feet from the surface, and consequently near the ceiling of the tunnel. All that has been found of any great beauty has been in the western end of the Shaft No. 1 and the eastern of Shaft No. 2, where the trap is quite soft; here it is found nearly every day in greater or less quantity, and from this some may generally be found on the dump, or, in the vein of chlorite which I mentioned as a locality for the dogtooth spar, considerable may be obtained in it and on its western edge near the ceiling. A ladder about thirteen feet long is used for attending the lights, and may generally be borrowed, and access to the remainder of this pocket thus gained. Datholite is also very characteristic in appearance, and can only be confounded with some forms of calcite occurring near it. It occurs in small glassy, nearly globular crystals; they are generally not over three-sixteenths of an inch in diameter, and generally pure and perfectly transparent, having a hardness of a little over 5, and specific gravity of 3; as it generally occurs as a druse upon the trap, or an apopholite, calcite, etc., this is seldom attainable, however, and we have a very distinctive characteristic in another test: this is the blowpipe, under which it at first intumesces and then fuses to a transparent globule, and the flame, after playing upon it, is of a deep green color. Nitric acid must be used to boil it up with, and with it it may be readily gelatinized. This last test will seldom be necessary, however, and may be dispensed with if the hardness and blowpipe reactions may be ascertained.

Apopholite.—This beautiful mineral has been found in fair abundance at times in Shafts No. 1 and 2 in pockets, and seldom in place, most of it being taken from the loose stone at the mouth of the shaft, and it may generally be found on the dump. It is readily mistaken for calcite by the miners and those unskilled in mineralogy, but a drop of acid will quickly show the difference. The sizes of the crystals are very various, from an eighth of an inch long or thick, to, in one case, an inch and a half. The colors have been varied from white to nearly all tints, including pink, purple, blue, and green; the white variety is, however, the most abundant, and makes a handsome cabinet specimen. The crystals are generally packed together in a mass, but are frequently set apart as heavy druses of crystals having the form shown in Fig. 7. Sometimes, as in the former grouping, the crystals are without the pyramidal terminations, and are then right square prisms. The fracture being at perfect right angles, distinguishes it from calcite. Its hardness is generally fully 5, the specific gravity between 2.4 and 2.5; it is difficult to fuse before the blowpipe, but is finally fused into an opaque globule. Upon heating with nitric acid it partly dissolves, and the remainder becomes flaky and gelatinous. Apopholite, although quite rare, now may be bought from the men, or at least one of the engineers of Shaft No. 2's elevator, and generally at low terms.

Phrenite.—This mineral is quite abundant in Shafts No. 1 and 2, in very small masses, incrustations, and even in small crystals. It occurs embedded in or incrusting the trap, and also with calcite and apopholite. The only sure place to find it is at the southwest side of an opening through the pile of drift rock under the trestle work of the tramway, between shaft No. 1 and the dump, and within a few feet of a number of wooden vats sunk into the ground seen just before descending the hills and near the edge. Here on a number of blocks of trap it may be found, a greenish white incrustation about as thick as a knife blade; it also may be found on the main dump, and is sometimes found in plates one-eighth of an inch thick, of a darker green color, upon calcite. Its easiest distinguishment from the other minerals of this locality, with which it might be confounded, is its great hardness of from 6 to 7. It is very fragile and brittle, however, and is never perfectly transparent, but quite opaque; its specific gravity is 2.9, and it is readily fused before the blowpipe after intumescing. It partly dissolves in acid without gelatinizing, leaving a flaky residue; it is a beautiful mineral when in masses or crystals of a dark green color, but the best place in the vicinity to secure specimens of this kind is, as I will detail hereafter, at Paterson, N. J.

Iron and Copper Pyrites.—Both of these common but frequently beautiful minerals occur in the tunnel and adjacent rocks in great abundance. The crystals are generally about one-fourth of an inch in diameter, and groups of these may be frequently obtained on the dump in the shafts, especially No. 1 and 2, and where the rock is being cleared away for the eastern entrance to the tunnel. They resemble each other very much; the iron pyrites, however, is in cubical forms and having the great hardness of from 6 to 7, while the copper pyrites, less abundant and in forms having triangles for bases, but having sometimes other forms and a hardness of but 3 to 4. Both are similar in aspect to a piece of brass, and cannot be mistaken for any other mineral. The form of the copper pyrites is shown in Fig. 8; the iron is, as before noted, in cubes, more or less modified.

Stilbite.—Small quantities of this beautiful mineral have been found in Shaft No. 2, in a small bed of but a few square feet in area, but quite thick and appearing much like natrolite. This bed was about one hundred feet east from Shaft No. 2, and in the center of the heading when it was at that point. It has been encountered since in small quantities, and it would do well to look out for it in the fresh tunneled portion after the date appended to this paper. It generally occurs in the form shown in Fig. 9, grouped very similarly to natrolite, and being right upon the rock or a thin bed of itself. The crystals are generally half an inch long, but often less. The modifications of the above form, which are frequent in this species, strike one forcibly of the resemblance they bear to a broad stone spear head on a diminutive scale, with a blunted edge; their hardness is about 4, specific gravity 2.2, the color generally a pearly white or grayish. After a long boiling with nitric acid it gelatinizes, but it foams up and fuses to a transparent glass before the blowpipe. A little stilbite may often be found on the dumps.

Laumonite occurs in very small quantities on calcite or apopholite, and can hardly be expected to be found on the trip; but as it might be found, I will detail some of its characteristics. Hardness 4, specific gravity 2.3; it generally occurs in small crystals, but more frequently in a crumbly, chalky mass, which it becomes upon exposure to the air. The crystals are generally transparent and frequently tinged yellow in color. It gelatinizes by boiling with acid, and after intumescing before the blowpipe, fuses to a frothy mass. To keep this mineral when in crystals from crumbling upon exposure it may be dipped in a thin mastic varnish or in a gum-arabic solution.

Heulandite.—This rare mineral has been found under the same conditions as laumonite in Shaft No. 2, but it is seldom to be met with, and then in small crystals. It is of a pure white color, sometimes transparent. It intumesces and readily fuses before the blowpipe, and dissolves in acid without gelatinizing. Hardness 4, specific gravity 2.2.

The few other minerals occurring in the tunnel are so extremly rare as not to be met with by any other than an expert, and it is impossible to detail the localities, as they generally occur as minute druses or incrustations upon other minerals with which they may be confounded, and have been removed as soon as discovered. The minerals referred to are analcime, chabazite, Thompsonite, and finally, the mineral which I first found in this formation, Hayesine, which is extremely rare, and of which I only obtained sufficient to cover a square inch. The particulars in regard to its locality, etc., maybe found in the American Journal of Sciences for June, page 458. I will now sum up the characteristics of these several minerals of this locality in the table:

- Name. H. Sp. Action of Action of Color. Appearance. Gr. Blowpipe. hot acid. - - - - - Calcite 3 2.6 Infusible, Soluble with White Like Fig. but glows effervescence 3 and 4. Natrolite 5 2.2 Readily fused Forms a jelly do. Like Fig 5. to clear globule Pectolite 4 2.5 do. do. do. do. Divergent fibers, Fig. 6. Datholite 5 3.0 Intumesces, fused Forms a jelly Color- Small, nearly to clear globule, less spherical, etc. gives green flame white Apopholite 5 2.5 Difficult, fused Partly soluble Tinted Like Fig. 7. to opaque globule in nitric acid Phrenite 6 2.9 Intomesces, fused Partly soluble Green- In tables and to 7 to clear globule in nitric acid, ish incrustations. leaving flakes Iron 6 5.0 Burns and yields Brass Cubical. pyrites to 7 a black globule, decrepitates Copper 3 4.2 do. do. do. Tetrahedronal. pyrites to 4 Stilbite 4 2.2 Intumesces and Difficult; jelly White Like Fig. 8. fuses readily on long boiling with nitric acid. Laumonite 4 2.3 Intumesces and Readily do. Generally to 0 fuses to frothy gelatinizes chalky. mass Heulandite 4 2.2 Intumesces and Soluble, no do. In right readily fuses jelly rhomboidal prisms. -

To Distinguish the Minerals together the one from the other.—Calcite by effervescing on placing a drop of acid upon it. Natrolite resembles stilbite, but may be distinguished by gelatinizing readily with hydrochloric acid and by not intumescing when heated before the blowpipe; from the other minerals by the form of the crystals and their setting, also the locality in the tunnel in which it was found.

Pectolite sometimes resembles some of the others, but may be readily distinguished by its tough long fibers, not brittle like natrolite. Datholite may generally be distinguished by the form of its crystals and their glassy appearance, with great hardness, and by tingeing the flame from the blowpipe of a true green color. Apopholite is distinguished from calcite, as noticed under that species, and from the others by its form, difficult fusibility, and part solubility.

Phrenite is characterized by its hardness, greenish color, occurrence, and action of acid. Iron pyrites is always known by its brassy metallic aspect and great hardness. Copper pyrites, by its aspect from the other minerals, and from iron pyrites by its inferior hardness and less gravity.

Stilbite is characterized by its form, difficult gelatinizing, and intumescence before the blowpipe; from natrolite as mentioned under that species.

Laumonite is known by its generally chalky appearance and a probable failure in finding it.

Heulandite is distinguished from stilbite by its crystals and perfect solubility; from apopholite by form of crystals.

In the next part of this paper I will commence with Staten Island.

July 1, 1882. (To be continued.)

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ANTISEPTICS.

The author has endeavored to ascertain what agents are able to destroy the spores of bacilli, how they behave toward the microphytes most easily destroyed, such as the moulds, ferments, and micrococci, and if they suffice at least to arrest the development of these organisms in liquids favorable to their multiplication. His results with phenol, thymol, and salicylic acid have been unfavorable. Sulphurous acid and zinc chloride also failed to destroy all the germs of infection. Chlorine, bromine, and mercuric chloride gave the best results; solutions of mercuric chloride, nitrate, or sulphate diluted to 1 part in 1,000 destroy spores in ten minutes.—R. Koch.

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CRYSTALLIZATION AND ITS EFFECTS UPON IRON.

By N.B. WOOD, Member of the Civil Engineers' Club, of Cleveland.

[Footnote: Read January 10th. 1882.]

The question has been asked, "What is the chemically scientific definition of crystallization?" Now as the study of crystallization and its effect upon matter, physically as well as chemically, will be of interest, considering the subject matter for discussion, I shall not only endeavor to answer the question, as I understand it, but try to treat it somewhat technologically.

Having this object in view, I have prepared or brought about the conditions necessary to the formation of a few crystals of various chemical substances, which for various reasons, such as lack of time and bad weather, are not as perfect as could be desired, but will perhaps subserve the purpose for which they were designed. I think you will agree with me that they are beautiful, if they are imperfect, and I can assure you that the pleasure of watching their formation fully repays one for the trouble, if for no other reason than the mere gratification of the senses. From the earliest times and by all races of men, the crystal has been admired and imitated, or improved by cutting and polishing into faces of various substances. I have also procured specimens of steel and iron which show the effect of crystallization, which was produced (perhaps) under known conditions, so that the conclusions which we arrive at from their study will have a fair chance of being logical, at least, and perhaps of some practical value.

When we examine inanimate nature we find two grand divisions of matter, _fluid_ and _solid_. These two divisions may be subdivided into, the former gaseous and liquid, the latter amorphous and crystalline; but whether one or the other of these divisions be considered, their ultimate and common division will be the ATOM. By the atom we understand that portion of matter which admits of no further division, which, though as inconceivable for minuteness as space is for extent, has still definite weight, form, and volume; which under favorable circumstances, has that power or force called cohesion, the intensity of which constitutes strength of material, which every engineer is supposed to understand, but which lies far beyond the powers of the human mind for comprehension or analysis. When we apply a magnet to a mass of iron filings, we observe the particles arrange themselves in regular order, having considerable strength in one direction, and very little or none in any other. Now, although we understand very little about the force which holds these particles in position, we do know that it is actual force applied from without and maintained at the expense of some of the known sources of force. But the force or power or property of cohesion seems to be a quality stored within the atom itself, in many cases similar to magnetism, having powerful attraction in some directions and very little or none in others. A crystal of mica, for instance, or gypsum may be divided to any degree of thinness, but is very difficult to even break. This property of crystals is termed cleavage. Cohesion and crystallization are affected variously by various circumstances, such as heat or its absence, motion or its absence, etc. In fact, almost every phenomenon of nature within the range of ordinary temperatures has effects which may be favorable to the crystallization of some substances, and at the same time unfavorable to others; so it will be seen that it is impossible to lay down any rule for it except for named substances, like substances requiring like conditions, to bring its atoms into that state of equilibrium where crystallization can occur. If we examine crystals carefully we find, not only that nature has here provided geometric forms of marvelous beauty and exactness, with faces of polish and quoins of acuteness equal to the work of the most skillful lapidist, "but that in whatever manner or under whatever circumstances a crystal may have been formed, whether in the laboratory of the chemist or the workshop of nature, in the bodies of animals or the tissues of plants, up in the sky or in the depths of the earth, whether so rapidly that we may literally see its growth, or by the slow aggregation of its molecules during perhaps thousands of years, we always find that the arrangement of the faces is subject to fixed and definite laws." We find also that a crystal is always finished and has its form as perfectly developed when it is the minutest point discernible by the microscope as when it has attained its ultimate growth. I might add parenthetically that crystals are sometimes of immense size, one at Milan of quartz being 3 feet 3 inches long and 5 feet 6 inches in circumference, and is estimated to weigh over 800 pounds; and a gigantic beryl at Grafton, N. H., is over 4 feet in length and 32 inches in diameter, and weighs not less than 5,000 pounds; but the most perfect specimens are of small size, as some accident is sure to overtake the larger ones before they acquire their growth, to interfere with their symmetry or transparency. This you will see abundantly illustrated by the examples which I have prepared, as also the constancy of the angles of like faces. Chemically speaking, the crystal is always a perfect chemical body, and can never be a mechanical mixture. This fact has been of great value to the science of chemistry in developing the atomic theory, which has demonstrated that a body can only exist chemically combined when a definite number of atoms of each element is present, and that there is no certainty of such proportions existing except in the crystal. I hold before you a crystal of common alum. Its chemical symbol would be Al_{2}O_{3},3SO_{3}+KO,SO_{3}+24H_{2}O. If we knew its weight and wished to know its ultimate component parts, we could calculate them more readily than we could acquire that knowledge by any other means. But the elements of this quantity of uncrystallized alum could not be computed. Then we may define crystallization to be the operation of nature wherein the chemical atoms or molecules of a substance have sufficient polarized force to arrange themselves about a central attracting point in definite geometrical forms.

Fresenius defines it thus: "Every operation, or process, whereby bodies are made to pass from the fluid to the solid state, and to assume certain fixed, mathematically definable, regular forms." It would be folly for me to attempt to criticise Fresenius, but I give you both definitions, and you can take your choice. The definition of Fresenius, however, will not suit our present purpose, because the crystallization of wrought iron occurs, or seems to, after the iron has acquired a solid state.

Iron, as you all know, is known to the arts in three forms: cast or crude, steel, and wrought or malleable. Cast iron varies much in chemical composition, being a mixture of iron and carbon chiefly, as constant factors, with which silicium in small quantities (from 1 to 5 per cent.), phosphorus, sulphur, and sometimes manganese (e.g. spiegeleisen) and various other elements are combined. All of these have some effect upon the crystalline structure of the mass, but whatever crystallization takes place occurs at the moment of solidification, or between that and a red heat, and varies much, according to the time occupied in cooling, as to its composition. My own experience leads me to think that a cast iron having about 3 per cent. of carbon, a small per centage of phosphorus, say about of 1 per cent., and very small quantities of silicium, the less the better, and traces of manganese (the two latter substances slagging out almost entirely during the process of remelting for casting), makes a metal best adapted to the general use of the founder. Such proportions will make a soft, even grained, dark gray iron, whose crystals are small and bright, and whose fracture will be uneven and sharp to the touch. The phosphorus in this instance gives the metal liquidity at a low temperature, but does not seem to influence the crystallization to any appreciable extent. The two elements to be avoided by the founder are silicium and sulphur. These give to iron a peculiar crystalline appearance easily recognized by an experienced person. Silicium seems to obliterate the sparkling brilliancy of the crystalline faces of good iron, and replace them with very fine dull ones only discernible with a lens, and the iron breaks more like stoneware than metal, while sulphur in appreciable quantities gives a striated crystalline texture similar to chilled iron, and very brittle. Phosphorus in very large quantities acts similarly. The form of the crystal in cast iron is the octahedron, so that right angles with sharp corners should be avoided as much as possible in castings, as the most likely position for a crystal to take would be with its faces along the line of the angle. Steel, to be of any value as such, must be made of the purest material. Phosphorus and sulphur must not exist, except in the most minute quantities, or the metal is worthless. If either of these substances be present in a bar of steel, its structure will be coarse, crystalline and weak. The reason of this is unknown, but probably their presence reduces the power of cohesion; and, that being reduced, gives the molecules of steel greater freedom to arrange themselves in conformity with their polarity, and this in its turn again weakens the mass by the tendency of the crystals to cleavage in certain directions. Carbon is a constant element in steel, as it is in cast iron, but is frequently replaced by chromium, titanium, etc., or is said to be, though it is not quite clear to me how it can be so if steel is a chemical compound. However this may be, we know that a piece of good soft steel breaks with a fine crystalline fracture, and the same piece hardened when broken shows either an amorphous structure or one very finely crystalline, which would indicate that the crystals had been broken up by the action of heat, and that they had not had sufficient time to return to their original position on account of the sudden cooling. The tendency of the molecules of steel after hardening to assume their natural position when cold seems to be very great, for we have often seen large pieces of steel burst asunder after hardening, though lying untouched, and sometimes with such force as to hurl the fragments to some distance. If a piece of steel be subjected to a bright yellow or white heat its nature is entirely changed, and the workman says it is burnt. Though this is not actually a fact, it does well enough to express that condition of the metal. Steel cannot be burnt unless some portion of it has been oxidized. The carbon would of course be attacked first, its affinity for oxygen being greatest; but we find nothing wanting in a piece of burnt steel. It can, by careful heating, hammering and hardening, be returned to its former excellence. Then what change has taken place? I should say that two modifications have been made, one physical, the other chemical. The change chemically is that of a chemical compound to a mixture of carbon and iron, so that in a chemical sense it resembles cast iron. The change physically is that of crystallization, being due partly to chemical change and partly to the effect of heat. I have procured a specimen of steel showing beautifully the effect of overheating. The specimen is labeled No. 1, and is a piece of Park Brothers' steel (one of the best brands made in America). It has been heated at one end to proper heat for hardening, and at the other is what is technically called "burnt." It has been broken at intervals of about 1 inches, showing the transition from amorphous or proper hardening to highly crystalline or "burnt." Malleable or wrought iron is or should be pure iron. Of course in practice it is seldom such, but generally nearly so, being usually 98, 99, or even more per cent. It is exceedingly prone to crystallization, the purer varieties being as much subject to it as others, except those contaminated with phosphorus, which affects it similarly with steel, and makes it very weak to cross and tensile strains. I have never estimated the quantity present in any except one specimen, a bar of 1 round, which literally fell to pieces when dropped across a block of iron. It had 1.32 per cent. of phosphorus and was very crystalline, though the crystals were not very large. Iron which has been, when first made, quite fibrous, when subjected to a series of shocks for a greater or less period, according to their intensity, when subjected to intense currents of electricity, or when subjected to high temperatures, or has by mechanical force been pushed together, or, as it is called, upset, becomes extremely crystalline. Under all of these circumstances it is subjected to one physical phenomenon, that of motion. It would seem that if a bar of iron were struck, the blow would shake the whole mass, and consequently the relative position of the particles remain unchanged, but this is not the case. When the blow is struck it takes an appreciable length of time for the effect to be communicated to the other end so as to be heard, if the distance is great. This shows that a small force is communicated from particle to particle independently along the whole mass, and that each atom actually moves independently of its neighbor. Then, if there be any attraction at the time tending to arrange it differently, it will conform to it. So much for theory with regard to this important matter. It looks well on paper, but do the facts of the case correspond? If practically demonstrated and systematically executed, experiments fail to corroborate the theory, and if, furthermore, we find there is no necessity for the theory, we naturally conclude that it is all wrong, or, at least, imperfectly understood. Now there is one other quality imparted to iron by successive shocks, which, I think, is independent of crystallization, and this quality is hardness and consequent brittleness. One noticeable feature about this also is, that as "absolute cohesion" or tensile strength diminishes, "relative cohesion" or strength to resist crushing increases. Specimens Nos. 2, 3, and 4 are pieces of Swedish iron, probably from the celebrated mines of Dannemora. Nos. 2 and 3 are parts of the same bolt, which, after some months' use on a "heading machine" in a bolt and nut works, where it was subjected to numerous and violent shocks, (perhaps 50,000 or 60,000 per day), it broke short off, as you see in No 2, showing a highly crystalline fracture. To test whether this structure continued through the bolt, I had it nicked by a blacksmith's cold chisel and broken. The specimen shows that it is still stronger at that point than at the point where it is actually broken, but the resulting fracture shows the same crystalline appearance. I next had specimen No. 4 cut from a fresh bar of iron which had never been used for anything. It also shows a crystalline fracture, indicating that this peculiarity had existed in the iron of both from the beginning.

I next took specimen No. 3 and subjected it to a careful annealing, taking perhaps two hours in the operation. Although it is a 1-1/8 bolt and has V threads cut upon it we were unable to break it, although bent cold through an arc of 90, and probably would have doubled upon itself if we had had the means to have forced it. Now what does this show? Have the crystals been obliterated by the process of annealing, or has only their cleavage been destroyed, so that when they break, instead of showing brilliant, sparkling faces, they are drawn into a fibrous looking mass? The latter seems to be the most plausible theory, to which I admit objections may be raised. For my own part, I am inclined to the belief that the crystal exists in all iron which is finished above a bright red heat, and that between that and black heat they are formed and have whatever characteristics circumstances may confer upon them, modified by the action of agencies heretofore mentioned.

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