The consumption of sugar in Great Britain is much greater per capita than in the United States, about 65 pounds, or nearly double; while in Germany 19 pounds per annum are used on an average by each person, and in Russia the consumption is much less.

The importance of this subject to the United States, where the consumption of sugar is increasing out of ratio to the production of sugar-bearing plants, and where agricultural independence should be realized, as we have already attained and maintained political independence, and almost independence in manufacturing industries, has called out Mr. Lewis S. Ware, a member of the American Chemical Society, etc., in a pamphlet of over 60 pages, entitled a "Study of the Various Sources of Sugar."

From this publication it appears that the main source of sugar supply must still be sucrose, cane sugar, even in spite of the best efforts of the general government and of the State agricultural organizations to introduce sugar-bearing plants that will thrive in the temperate and colder latitudes of this country. With the single exception of the sugar beet, he seems to disparage all attempts to produce practical sugar from hardy plants, or those that will mature in the region of frosts in winter. Even sorghum, that has for twenty years held a place in the hopes of the northern farmer, has declined so that the alleged production of half a million pounds in 1866 had became barely a twelfth of a million pounds in 1877.

In his remarks on the synopsis of one hundred and eleven experiments, made at Washington, he says: "As may be noticed, thirty-five of them (111) would yield zero. If we take the average of the hundred and eleven experiments, we find as a yield 4.5 per cent., which result cannot possibly be practically accepted. In other words, our government, notwithstanding the favorable conditions under which they were made, prove that the sorghum utilization is fallacy in every sense of the word." ... "If sorghum is to be grown for its sirup, or for fodder, it will evidently render excellent service." It seems that less than four per cent. of crystallizable sugar in the sorghum juice will not pay the cost of making sugar from it, as it will not crystallize in a reasonable time, on account of the glucose in the juice, which, with the other impurities, will prevent the ready crystallization of four or five times their own weight of sucrose.

From the early history of sorghum, it appears that it was known as sorgo in the sixteenth century, while twenty or thirty varieties were known under different names in Egypt, Arabia, and Africa. Some of the names are, Chinese sugar cane, (sorgo), India cane, emphee or Coffers' bread, paindes anges, etc.

The later history of it shows that in 1850, Count Montigny sent the first samples from China to Europe. It had been used in the former country for thousands of years for the manufacture of red dye. The seeds were afterward sold in France for a franc each.

A variety came later to this country from Africa, through the agency of an Englishman named Wray, to whom is charged the effects of the delusive experiments of trying to make crystallized sugar from its juice, which have been going on in this country for twenty years. But two varieties of sorghum now remain, known as the Chinese and African types. Of all the other sugar plants, none except the maple tree (besides the sugar cane and the beet) seem to have yielded sugar to pay the cost of manufacture. The maple tree has yielded a total of 41,000,000 pounds in 1877. But as an industry by itself, it appears to be unprofitable, and maple sugar must be, and generally is, sold at a higher price per pound than cane sugar; moreover, it has not the qualities that are required in a general sweetner for culinary purposes.

The variety of sugar plant called amber cane is not very clearly defined, but it may be taken, from the description of the juice as to crystallizing qualities, as no better sugar producer than sorghum. It, with sorghum, is classed as a sub-variety of sugar cane, which will yield sirup and fodder, but will not crystallize under several months' time, and even then in but small percentage.

On the whole it appears, as before stated, that the sugar beet is the only practicable source of sugar for the Northern States, which, as experimentally shown, can be raised at a profit of forty six dollars per acre, against twenty dollars per acre, the profit of sugar making from cane in Louisiana. Upon this showing several beet sugar factories have been started in the United States and in Canada, and their products are said to be satisfactory, and have been sold at a profit in competition with imported beet sugar.

Mr. Ware recommends the establishment of beet sugar factories on a larger scale, to be managed by men who have had experience in this particular kind of sugar making, which seems to be a practical means of supplying ourselves with home-made sugar. It must be remembered, however, that the successful cultivation of an ample supply of beets to keep them at work is an essential prerequisite.

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HERALD ISLAND.

John Muir, the geologist with the Corwin Arctic Expedition, describes, as follows, the characteristics of Herald Island, hitherto known only as an inaccessible rock seen by a few venturesome whalers and explorers:

After so many futile efforts had been made to reach this little ice bound island, everybody seemed wildly eager to run ashore and climb to the summit of its sheer granite cliffs. At first a party of eight jumped from the bowsprit chains and ran across the narrow belt of margin ice and madly began to climb up an excessively steep gully, which came to an end in an inaccessible slope a few hundred feet above the water. Those ahead loosened and sent down a train of granite bowlders, which shot over the heads of those below in a far more dangerous manner than any of the party seemed to appreciate. Fortunately nobody was hurt, and all made out to get down in safety. While this remarkable piece of mountaineering and Arctic exploration was in progress, a light skin-covered boat was dragged over the ice and launched on a strip of water that stretched in front of an accessible ravine, the bed of an ancient glacier, which I felt assured would conduce by an easy grade to the summit of the island. The slope of this ravine for the first hundred feet or so was very steep, but inasmuch as it was full of firm, icy snow, it was easily ascended by cutting steps in the face of it with an ax that I had brought from the ship for the purpose. Beyond this there was not the slightest difficulty in our way, the glacier having graded a fine, broad road.

ON THE SUMMIT.

Kellet, who discovered this island in 1849, and landed on it under unfavorable circumstances, describes it as an inaccessible rock. The sides are, indeed, in general, extremely sheer and precipitous all around, though skilled mountaineers would find many gullies and slopes by which they might reach the summit. I first pushed on to the head of the glacier valley, and thence along the back bone of the island to the highest point, which I found to be about twelve hundred feet above the level of the sea. This point is about a mile and a half from the northwest end, and four and a half from the northeast end, thus making the island about six miles in length. It has been cut nearly in two by the glacial action it has undergone, the width at this lowest portion being about half a mile, and the average width about two miles. The entire island is a mass of granite with the exception of a patch of metamorphic slate near the center, and no doubt owes its existence with so considerable a height to the superior resistance this granite offered to the degrading action of the northern ice sheet, traces of which are here plainly shown, as well as on the shores of Siberia and Alaska, and down through Behring Strait, southward, beyond Vancouver Island. Traces of the subsequent partial glaciation it has been subjected to are also manifested in glacial valleys of considerable depth as compared with the size of the island. I noticed four of these, besides many marginal glacial grooves around the sides. One small remnant with feeble action still exists near the middle of the island. I also noted several scored and polished patches on the hardest and most enduring of the outswelling rock bosses. This little island, standing as it does alone out in the Polar Sea, is a fine glacial monument.

A MIDNIGHT OBSERVATION.

The midnight hour I spent alone on the highest summit, one of the most impressive hours of my life. The deepest silence seemed to press down on all the vast, immeasurable, virgin landscape. The sun near the horizon reddened the edges of belted cloud bars near the base of the sky, and the jagged ice bowlders crowded together over the frozen ocean stretching indefinitely northward, while more than a hundred miles of that mysterious Wrangell Land was seen blue in the northwest—a wavering line of hill and dale over the white and blue ice prairie and pale gray mountains beyond, well calculated to fix the eye of a mountaineer; but it was to the far north that I ever found myself turning, where the ice met the sky. I would fain have watched here all the strange night, but was compelled to remember the charge given me by the captain, to make haste and return to the ship as soon as I should find it possible, as there was ten miles of shifting, drifting ice between us and the open sea.

PLANT LIFE ON HERALD ISLAND.

I therefore began the return journey about one o'clock this morning, after taking the compass bearings of the principal points within sight on Wrangell Land, and making a hasty collection of the flowering plants on my way. I found one species of poppy, quite showy, and making considerable masses of color on the sloping uplands, three or four species of saxifrage, one silene, a draba, dwarf willow, stellaria, two golden compositae, two sedges, one grass, and a veronica, together with a considerable number of mosses and lichens, some of them quite showy and so abundant as to form the bulk of the color over the gray granite.

INHABITANTS OF THE CLIFFS.

Innumerable gulls and murres breed on the steep cliffs, the latter most abundant. They kept up a constant din of domestic notes. Some of them are sitting on their eggs, others have young, and it seems astonishing that either eggs or the young can find a resting place on cliffs so severely precipitous. The nurseries formed a lively picture—the parents coming and going with food or to seek it, thousands in rows standing on narrow ledges like bottles on a grocer's shelves, the feeding of the little ones, the multitude of wings, etc.

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M. Bouchut's experiments with pepsine for destroying worms in the stomach and bowels have been continued with extremely promising results. Even the tapeworm succumbs to the digestive action of pepsine in large doses, while the more highly organized tissues of the stomach are unaffected.

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FRANZ LISZT.

On the 22d day of October, 1811, Franz Liszt, the greatest pianist of the last half century, was born at Raiding, in Hungary, and the entire musical world was united in celebrating his seventieth birthday, which took place this year.

What can be more appropriate than to take a look at the past and recall some of the important events of Liszt's so very interesting life? To recall his first appearance as a "wonder" child in his native town, the blessing and kiss he received a few years later from the immortal Beethoven, his great triumphs in the Paris salons and the defeat of his rival Thalberg. After the appearance of the violin virtuoso Paganini, he resolved to attain the highest development of his musical genius and to become so world-renowned as none has been before him, and in this was successful. He has not only maintained his standing as the greatest master of modern piano virtuosos, but has had the greatest influence on his followers and scholars, Taussig, v. Bulow, Mr. and Mme. Bronsart, Menter, and other younger and older pianists who have had the benefits of his instruction for a greater or less length of time, so that it can be justly claimed that the majority of our present virtuosos owe their success and fame directly or indirectly to the abilities of Liszt.

Liszt is endowed with that great gift of treating every individual in the manner most favorable to the development of its traces of artistic ability and desires, and this accounts for his wonderful results as instructor and master.



But no picture of Liszt would be perfect without a resume or recapitulation of his compositions.

After a most perfect transposition and preparation of numerous works of Beethoven, Schubert, and Berlioz, and after making their compositions popular and introducing numerous valuable novelties in the art of playing piano, he produced his "Symphonische Dichtungen" (Symphonic Poems).

These highly dramatic compositions, in which he follows Berlioz and often produces the most astonishing effects of sounds, however, did not find entire approbation with the public, and did not succeed in popularizing themselves. But that fact can be recorded in his favor that every programme containing Liszt's "Dante," or Faust Symphony, or "Mazeppa," receives more than ordinary attention from the public. The same is the case with his solo songs with piano accompaniment, in which, however, ingenious details often tend to drown the original melody. Of his quartets, some have become highly popular with singing societies and form part of their repertoire. The crowning point of Liszt's compositions is to be found in sacred music, for instance in his mass known as the "Grauer Messe," composed for the dedication of the Cathedral at Grau, in Hungary; the Crowning mass, and his two oratorios, "Die heilige Elisabeth" and "Christus." But even they caused a decided difference of opinion; and if some knew no bounds for their enthusiasm, others could not find an end for their condemnation. Such works should not be treated too lightly, and a thorough and impartial examination will show that a place of honor must be accorded to them in the history of music. Since the "Heilige Elisabeth" has been produced in several cities of Germany it has been viewed more favorably and disarmed many of the opponents.

But Liszt also belongs to the literary fraternity, and his works, published by Breitkopf & Hartel, contain some of the best ever written in regard to art and artists. They were mostly written in elegant French originally, and relate to the social position of artists and the state of the art of music in certain cities or even an entire country. A part of his works is devoted to the music of gypsies, and to a true and honest history of the life of his friend Chopin.

Then again we find him preparing the path to the hearts of the public for Berlioz, Schumann, Wagner, Robert Franz, and Meyerbeer. Liszt has certainly collected enormous sums of money in his successful career, but as fast as he reaps his earnings he gives them to those needing assistance, and it is almost entirely to him that the inhabitants of Bonn, on the Rhine, owe their beautiful Beethoven Monument, and during the last years Liszt has been untiring in giving concerts and collecting money for a monument for the greatest of the great, Johann Sebastian Bach.

Liszt is an artist in every sense of the word, and we should all wish that he will remain among us for many years more.

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M. GARNIER'S NEW METHODS OF PHOTOENGRAVING.

By MAJOR J. WATERHOUSE, B.SC.

In one of the upper rooms of the Electrical Exhibition in Paris, there is an interesting collection of plates and proofs produced by various methods of photo-engraving, invented by M. Henri Garnier, whose name is so well known in connection with these processes, and whose beautiful plate of the Chateau of Maintenon gained for him a gold medal at the Paris International Exhibition of 1867.

Some interesting details of these processes are given in an extract from a report on them by M. Davanne to the Societe d'Encouragement pour l'Industrie Nationale, read at its sitting on the 22d July last, of which copies are distributed gratis in the exhibition.

The report opens with a brief allusion to M. Garnier's continuous labors in permanent photographic printing, commencing with the ingenious mercury process worked out in conjunction with M. Salmon, and published in 1855, in which a print which has been exposed to the fumes of iodine is laid down on a plate of polished brass, so that the iodine, absorbed by the printed lines, slightly attacks the brass; mercury being then rubbed over the brass, forms an amalgam with the iodized parts. If a roller charged with printing ink be now passed over the plate, the ink will only be taken on the pure brass, and not on the iodized parts. The plate is next bitten with acid nitrate of silver, and may then be treated in various ways, so as to form either a printing-block or an engraved plate. The process never came to any practical use, but led M. Garnier to the invention of the very valuable and largely used process of acierage or steel-facing, by which the surface of engraved copper-plates is so hardened and protected by a thin coating of iron that instead of only a few hundred impressions, many thousands can be printed from a plate without the slightest deterioration.

The next invention noticed is the citrate of iron process of M.M. Salmon and Garnier, in which a paper, coated with a sirupy solution of citrate of iron, is exposed to light under a positive print for a period varying from eight to ten minutes in the sun, to half or three-quarters of an hour in the shade. In the parts where the light has acted the paper becomes non-hygroscopic in proportion to the intensity of the action of the light upon it. The paper being left for a short time to absorb moisture from the air, is dusted over with lamp-black, which, attaching itself to the unexposed parts, reproduces an exact image of the original drawing.

M. Garnier has since greatly modified this method of obtaining an image by dusting, and applied it to various processes of photo-engraving.

The report then proceeds to give the following details of a process of photo-engraving, which was exhibited before the society by M. Garnier in March last:

PHOTOGRAVURE.

In photo-engraving a distinction must always be made between the reproduction of drawings in line and those with shaded tints.

A.—Photo-engraving of Line-work.—A plate of copper is prepared by covering it, either by flowing or with a roller, with a very thin coating of a solution of:

Sugar 2 grammes. Bichromate of ammonia 1 gramme. Water 14 grammes.

This coating is equalized and quickly dried by means of an arrangement which keeps it in rotation over a warm plate.

As soon as the plate is dry, a positive cliche of the drawing to be reproduced is laid upon it, and the whole exposed to the sun for a minute, or to the electric light for three minutes. The reaction produced is the same as with the citrate of iron, but much quicker; the exposed parts are no longer hygroscopic, but in the parts protected by the lines of the drawing the sensitive coating has retained its stickiness, and will hold any powder that may be passed over it, thus producing a very clear image of the drawing. The coating being excessively thin, the little moisture it holds and the powder applied suffice to break its continuity, especially if the powder be slightly alkaline. If the rest of the surface were sufficiently resisting, the plate might be bitten at once; but light alone is not enough to produce complete impermeability: the action of heat must be combined with it. The plate is, therefore, placed on a grating, with wide openings, a large flame is applied underneath, and it is heated till the borders where the copper is bare show iridescent colors. The sugary coating thus becomes very hard in the exposed parts, but under the powder it is broken, porous, and permeable to acids. The surface is then covered with the biting fluid, which is a solution of perchloride of iron at 45 deg. Baume, and after few minutes' contact the plate is engraved. It only remains to clear off the bichromated sugary coating which forms the reserve, and which, being hardened by the heat, resists ordinary washing. It is removed perfectly by rubbing the surface with a hard brush and warm potash lye; the plate is then ready for printing. Sometimes it may be necessary to give several successive bitings, or to use a resinous grain; in such cases the various methods of the engraver's art are employed.

B.—Photo Engraving for Half-Tones.—To reproduce by engraving the image of any object, a portrait, or a landscape, the gradation of tint is obtained by repeating three times in the following manner the operation A, just described:

The copper plate being prepared as before, it is exposed to the light under a positive, and given a long exposure, say four minutes, in the electric light. The sugary coating hardens under the whites and the lighter shades—it only remains tacky under the blacks. The positive cliche is removed, the plate powdered, and bitten; the blacks alone come out.

The plate is cleaned, then coated again with the sugary preparation, and exposed a second time under the positive, care being taken to preserve an accurate register, which may easily be done. The second exposure is not so long as the first—say two minutes, and gives the image of the middle tints and blacks. The plate is powdered and bitten as before, bringing out the middle tints, and, at the same time, giving greater depth to the shadows.

In the third operation, the plate is exposed still less to the light—say one minute. The high-lights alone harden; the light shades, middle tints, and the shadows remain permeable. After powdering and biting, the plate is finished.

When necessary, after each operation, a resinous grain may be applied in the manner usual with engravers.

It is important to note that M. Garnier affirms that in both cases the engravings are untouched, and that this is one of the essential characteristics of his process.

C.—Engraving in Relief for Letter-Press.—In the case of drawings in lines to be made into printing-blocks for letter-press printing, the operation is conducted in its first phase absolutely in the same manner as the foregoing, only, after exposure, instead of producing the image with a slightly alkaline powder, powdered bitumen is used, and the plate is slightly warmed, so that the powder may slightly fuse and adhere to the metal, but not enough to make the bichromated sugar become insoluble. The plate is then washed with water, and all the sugary coating removed, leaving the surface of the copper bare, except where it is protected by the bitumen forming the image. The plate is then bitten with perchloride of iron, which gives a first biting, leaving all the lines in relief. Further depth is obtained by alternate inkings and bitings, as in the Gillotype method.

The above processes are very interesting, the use of the sugary coating, the hardening it by heat, and the triple exposure and biting are new—at any rate, have not, so far as I know, been published before.

The report then goes on to describe a further application of the same principle to obtaining photographic images recently invented by M. Garnier, and called by him atmography.

PHOTOGRAPHIC PRINTING BY VAPOR—ATMOGRAPHY.

This process consists in tracing or transferring by means of vapors or fumes an image of any object from one surface to another, whence the name of atmography it is proposed to give it. The operations are as follows:

When an image formed of a powdery substance has been obtained either by dusting (as described above), or by filling an engraved plate with the powder, the plate bearing the image is exposed to a vapor, which has no effect upon it. The powder alone absorbs the vapor, and if the plate be then applied to a surface coated with some substance capable of being acted upon by the vapor, an image is obtained upon this second surface. For example, the lines of an engraved copper-plate are filled with powdered albumen. On the other hand, a few drops of hydrofluoric acid are spread over a wooden board, and the powdered engraving is exposed for ten to fifteen seconds to the fumes disengaged by holding it about a quarter-of-an-inch above the board. The acid is absorbed by the powdered albumen without attacking the copper. If this plate be now placed in close contact with any surface (metal, paper, or glass) which has been covered with a coating of sugar and borax, and dried immediately, a deliquescent fluoborate of soda is produced under the action of the acid vapors, the sugar becomes tacky, and, by brushing a powder over this surface, the image appears immediately.

In M. Davanne's opinion this new invention of M. Garnier's seems likely to have a useful and extended application. The image may be made with powder of any desired color. If it is on glass, it may be transferred to paper or other support by means of collodion or gelatine. By employing enamel powders, this process gives a new method of producing vitrified images. It may also be used as a simple method of reproducing engravings under certain circumstances; copies of diagrams, however intricate, could easily be produced on glass by it, and used for the illustration of lectures by means of the magic lantern.—Photo. News.

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DANGERS OF PYROGALLIC ACID.

By DR. T.L. PHIPSON.

Some time ago, Dr. Napias, of Paris, who devotes much of his time to matters connected with hygiene, took up the subject of the hygiene of the photographer, and published in the Moniteur de la Photographie a series of papers which were afterward translated into English and published by Messrs. Piper & Carter, of London. In them the worthy author has considered the action on the economy of the various poisonous substances which pass daily through the hands of our readers, and the best means of counteracting their influence.

Since then—in fact, quite recently—attention has been called in the medical journals to certain properties of pyrogallic acid which were perfectly unknown, and show that this substance, even when applied externally, may act as a violent poison causing death by its great affinity for oxygen. I published a short note upon the subject in the Journal of Medicine, etc., for April last, and it may perhaps be useful to reproduce the facts here. Physicians who were unacquainted with this energetic deoxidizing property of pyrogallic acid have proposed it as a substitute for chrysophanic acid in the treatment of skin diseases; but Dr. Neisser has made known a case of poisoning by an ointment of pyrogallic acid, which at once shows that considerable danger attends its use for this purpose. A man of strong constitution was admitted into one of the wards of the Breslau Hospital to be treated for general psoriasis. He appears to have been submitted to a kind of experimental treatment in order to test the curative properties of pyrogallic acid as compared with chrysarobine. He was treated by friction with chrysarobine (in the form of a pomade of alcoholic extract of rhubarb, containing one-twentieth) on the one-half of the body, while the other half was treated in the same manner by a pomade containing ten per cent. of pyrogallic acid. Six hours after the application the patient had violent shivering with vomiting and intense collapsus. Death occurred on the fourth day. Experiments were at once undertaken on rabbits, and proved that this catastrophe was due entirely to the pyrogallic acid pomade, and that the chrysarobine was innocuous. In some instances the rabbit died within two hours. It was also found that in the case of the patient in the Breslau Hospital the pyrogallic acid had acted by its extreme avidity for oxygen when in contact with alkaline fluids. The blood had been affected, and the red corpuscles were destroyed and turned brown. Very little urine was voided, but it presented a most extraordinary character, being dark brown and very thick; it contained no blood corpuscles, but a considerable amount of haemoglobine (the coloring matter of the corpuscles), which was recognized by the absorption bands it gave in the spectroscope. The kidneys were uniformly bluish black. The blood had a dirty brownish red tint, and contained an abundance of detritus of red corpuscles.

This case points out once more that photographers cannot use too much prudence in dealing with chemical products which are in daily use by them, and the noxious properties of which, they are apt to forget.—Photo News.

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