A DISCUSSION OF METHODS OF CANNING.—(a) While the open kettle is not as safe a method of canning as the cold pack from the standpoint of perfect processing, it is desirable for small watery fruits, especially strawberries, since evaporation of some of the water takes place. It is also generally used for fruits preserved with much sugar, such as preserves, jams, conserves, etc. Many housekeepers find this method desirable for canning tomatoes and beets. The skins may be removed from the latter after cooking, thereby losing less coloring of the vegetable.

(b) The cold pack method of canning is very satisfactory for most fruits and all vegetables. It is especially desirable for whole fruits or for fruits in large pieces. The shape of the fruit may be preserved better by this method than by the open kettle process. It is also a safer method as far as satisfactory processing is concerned. Many housekeepers find it easier than the open kettle method.

The blanching and cold-dipping of vegetables and fruits which may be one of the steps in the cold pack method is thought to accomplish several things:

1. To remove objectionable acids and flavors.

2. To make the foods more pliable for packing in the jars.

It was formerly thought that blanching and cold-dipping of vegetables destroyed some of the bacteria and aided in processing the food. Recent experimentation shows that these processes do not affect the bacteria and have no value as far as the preservation of the food is concerned.

TABLE FOR CANNING FRUITS BY ONE PERIOD OF PROCESSING [Footnote 124: Adapted from Farmers' Bulletin 1211, "Home Canning of Fruits and Vegetables," Revised August, 1922.]

TIME OF PROCESSING IN PINT OR FOOD TIME OF QUART JARS IN: BLANCHING (a) (b) Water Bath at Pressure 12 degrees F. or Steam Cooker 5 Pounds Cooker Minutes Minutes Minutes

Apples, cut in pieces 1 1/2 20 to 30 Apricots 1 to 2 30 10 Blackberries, Blueberries None 10 to 20 10 Cherries 1/4 25 10 Currants, Dewberries, Gooseberries None 10 to 20 10 Pears 4-8 in boiling sirup 20 to 30 10 [Footnote 125: Do not cold dip after blanching in boiling sirup. Use the longer time of processing in the water bath for large pears.] Peaches 1 or until skin is loosened 20 to 30 10 Plums None 20 to 30 12 Pineapples None 30 10 Raspberries None 10 to 20 10 Rhubarb None 20 to 30 10 to 15 Strawberries None 10 to 20 10

NOTE.—Use only fresh, sound fruits for canning.

Do not begin to count the time of processing in a water bath until the water reaches the boiling point.

When different times of processing are given, as 20 to 30 minutes, use the longer time for quart glass jars and the shorter for tin cans.

For altitudes higher than 1000 feet, increase the time of processing 10 per cent for each additional 1000 feet. For very high altitudes it may be best to use a pressure cooker for certain fruits.

If fruits are packed tightly, time of processing should be increased.

DISCUSSION OF THE DIFFERENT DEVICES USED IN THE COLD PACK PROCESS.—(1) The kettle or wash boiler provided with a rack is an inexpensive device. It is satisfactory for processing fruits and acid vegetables; there is a question whether non-acid vegetables may be processed in the hot water bath even though they are processed on three successive days. It is thought by some that the flavor of foods canned at low temperature, i.e. not above 212 degrees F., is superior to that canned at a higher temperature.

(2) The steam cooker is a convenient and satisfactory equipment to use for canning fruits and some vegetables. It is more expensive, however, than the kettle having a rack, but less fuel is required when using it.

(3) The pressure cooker is the most satisfactory from the standpoint of processing. It is especially satisfactory for vegetables and meat, since a much higher temperature than that of boiling water is maintained during the processing period. The higher temperature also makes it possible to process foods in a shorter time. However, it is thought by some that the flavor of foods canned above 212 degrees F. is inferior to that canned at a lower temperature. Moreover, the pressure cooker is a more expensive device than either of the other two.

QUESTIONS

Why should processed jars, covers, and rubbers remain in boiling water until just ready for use?

Why not touch the inside of jars and covers with the fingers?

Why should berries and small fruits be washed before hulling or stemming?

Why should decayed or bruised spots on fruits be removed completely before canning the fruit?

Why is it that the cold pack method of canning is safer from the standpoint of processing than the open kettle method?

Why should the jar containing fruit that is to be processed by the

cold pack method be filled to 1/4 inch of the top with sirup rather than to overflowing?

Why should the covers of jars not be sealed tightly before placing in the kettle or steamer used for processing?

Why is it unnecessary and undesirable to dislodge air bubbles in jars containing food processed by the cold pack process?

When food is processed by immersing the jars in boiling water, why should the water extend above the covers of the jars to a depth of one inch?



LESSON CLXVIII

PROCESSING WITH MUCH SUGAR—PRESERVES, JAMS, AND CONSERVES

EXPERIMENT 93: THE USE OF SUGAR AS A PRESERVATIVE.—Place 2 thin slices of fresh fruit in a sauce dish. Sprinkle one of the slices generously with sugar. Set the sauce dish aside for at least 24 hours. Examine. What change has taken place in the fruit without sugar? What has caused the change? Compare the sugared fruit with that without sugar. What conclusion can be drawn concerning the use of sugar in preserving fruit?

PRESERVES

Sugar was mentioned as one of the preservatives used in the preservation of food (see The Principles of Preserving Food). Sugar in large quantity is unfavorable to germ life and hence is a most effective preservative. Preserves are made by cooking fruit in a thick sirup as in the Method of Canning (a) Open Kettle. A large quantity of sugar is desirable as far as preservation is concerned; but for flavor less sugar is usually to be preferred. Only a few fruits are better when preserved with considerable sugar. Fruits best adapted for preserving are strawberries, sour cherries, sour plums, quinces, currants, and raspberries. For preserves, use 3/4 to 1 pound of sugar for 1 pound of fruit. The less quantity of sugar should be used for peaches, plums, quinces, currants, and raspberries; the greater quantity, for strawberries and cherries. Use the quantity of water given in Method of Canning (a) Open Kettle. Cook and seal as canned fruit.

JAMS

Jam is made as follows: Clean the fruit. If large fruits are used, pare or peel them and cut into small pieces. If small fruits,—berries or grapes, —are used, mash them. Cook the fruit in as little water as possible. When the fruit is soft, measure it and add the sugar,—use 3/4 to 1 part of sugar to 1 part of cooked fruit. Cook until thick, stirring to prevent burning. Test the thickness by dropping from a spoon. If it falls in heavy drops, the jam is sufficiently cooked. Pour into sterilized jelly glasses. Cover the glasses with clean cloth or paper and set aside to cool and stiffen. Melt paraffin. Pour it (hot) over the cold jam. Allow the paraffin to harden and then cover the glasses with the lids. Wipe the outside of the glasses, label, and store.

Fruit that is too soft or too ripe for canning or preserving may be used for making jam.

MARMALADES

Marmalades are made much as jams. However, usually only the pulp and juices of fruits are used. The fruit is first cooked, and the skins and seeds removed before adding the sugar. In Orange Marmalade, the rind is used.

CONSERVES

Conserves consist of a combination of two or more fruits. Nuts and other materials are sometimes added. Conserves may be prepared as preserves, i.e. cooking the ingredients with sugar, until thick; or as jam, i.e. cooking the ingredients until tender, then adding the sugar and cooking until thick. It is thought by some that the latter method produces a finer flavor; it makes a product less tough and less sticky. In the special recipes for conserves given in this text, the latter method is followed.

ORANGE MARMALADE (I)

1 dozen oranges 1 grapefruit 6 lemons Sugar

Weigh the fruit, slice it. To each pound of fruit add 1 quart of cold water. Let the mixture stand for 24 hours. Then cook slowly for 2 hours. Weigh the cooked fruit. Add an equal weight of sugar. Cook for 1 hour or until it stiffens. Pour into sterilized jelly glasses, seal, and cover as directed for Jams.

ORANGE MARMALADE (II)

1 dozen oranges 3 pounds sugar 2 quarts rhubarb Rind of 6 oranges

Wash the fruit. Slice the oranges and cut the rhubarb into pieces. (Do not peel the rhubarb.) Cook the oranges and rhubarb for 30 minutes. Add the sugar and cook slowly for 2 hours or until thick. Pour into sterilized glasses. When cool, seal and cover as directed for Jams.

CARROT MARMALADE

1 pound carrots 3 cupfuls sugar 2 lemons 1/2 teaspoonful salt

Wash, scrape, and chop the carrots. Extract the juice from the lemons. Put the carrots and lemon rinds through a food chopper, cover them with water, and cook until tender. Add the lemon juice, salt, and sugar to the cooked mixture. Cook until it is thickened. Turn into sterilized jelly glasses. Let stand until cool. Then cover with melted paraffin.

STRAWBERRY AND PINEAPPLE CONSERVE

Use equal quantities of strawberries and shredded pineapple. Cook the shredded pineapple in the least possible quantity of water. When tender, add the strawberries and cook until they are soft. Measure the fruit and add three fourths as much sugar as fruit and a small quantity of salt. Cook until thick (see Jams). Pour into sterilized glasses. Seal and cover as directed for Jams.

CRANBERRY CONSERVE

1 quart cranberries 1 1/2 cupfuls water 1/4 pound raisins 1/2 pound California walnuts, chopped 1 orange,—juice and grated rind 1 1/2 pounds sugar 1/2 teaspoonful salt

Wash the fruit. Cook the cranberries in the water until the berries burst. Strain. Add the remaining ingredients and cook 25 minutes or until the mixture is thick (see Jams). Pour into sterilized glasses. When cool, seal and cover as directed for Jams.

GRAPE CONSERVE

1/2 peck grapes 2 oranges,—juice and rind 2 lemons,—juice and rind 1 cupful chopped nuts Sugar 1/2 teaspoonful salt

Wash the fruit. Remove the grapes from the stems; remove the skins from the pulp. Cook the pulp until soft; strain, to remove the seeds. Place the strained pulp and skins in a preserving kettle. Extract the juice from the oranges and lemons, then put the rinds through a food-chopper. Add the lemon and orange juice and rind to the grape mixture and cook for 1 hour. Measure the mixture. Then add an equal quantity of sugar and the nuts and salt. Continue cooking until thick (see Jams). Pour into sterilized glasses. When cool, seal and cover as directed for Jams.

APRICOT CONSERVE

1 pound dried apricots 1 1/2 quarts water Sugar 2 pineapples or 1 large can shredded pineapple 1/2 teaspoonful salt

Wash the dried apricots and soak them in the water. In the water in which they were soaked, cook the apricots until tender. Press through a colander. If fresh pineapples are used, shred them and cook, in as little water as possible, until tender. Combine the cooked fruits and measure. Add 1/2 as much sugar and the salt. Cook until thick (see Jams). Pour into sterilized glasses. When cool, seal and cover as directed for Jams.

PLUM CONSERVE

1 pound (1 1/2 dozen) plums 1/4 cupful chopped nuts 1 cupful seeded raisins 2 oranges 1 cupful water 1 1/4 cupfuls sugar 1/2 teaspoonful salt

Wash the plums, stone, and cut into pieces. Extract the juice from the oranges. Put the rind through a food chopper. Mix the plums, raisins, orange rind, and water. Simmer until the fruits and peel are tender. Add the orange juice, sugar, nuts, and salt, and continue cooking until the mixture has the consistency of marmalade. Pour into sterilized glasses. When cool, seal and cover as directed for Jams.

QUESTIONS

How do Preserves differ from Canned Fruit?

How does Jam differ from Preserves?

How does Jam differ from Fruit Sauce?

Why does Jam "keep" better than Fruit Sauce?

Give method of sealing Canned Fruit and method of sealing Jam. Explain why different methods are used.



LESSON CLXIX

PROCESSING WITH MUCH SUGAR—JELLIES

EXPERIMENT 94: PECTIN IN FRUIT JUICE.—Put a few grapes, slices of apple, or cranberries in a small saucepan, and add enough water to cover and cook until the fruit is tender and soft enough to mash. Strain the cooked fruit through cheese-cloth.

Put 1 teaspoonful of the extracted fruit juice in a saucer, add an equal quantity of alcohol. [Footnote 126: Either grain (ethyl), wood (methyl), or denatured alcohol may be used. Both wood and denatured alcohol are poisonous. If they are used for testing, they should be handled and stored away with caution.] Mix by gently rotating the saucer. Let the mixture stand for 5 minutes. Then examine. What change has taken place in the fruit juice?

The formation of a solid mass in the mixture of fruit juice and alcohol which has stood for 5 minutes indicates that the fruit juice contains pectin,—a vegetable gelatine.

EXPERIMENT 95: PECTIN IN THE INNER PORTION OF ORANGE OR LEMON PEEL.—Cut away the yellow portion from orange or lemon rind. Cut or chop the white portion of the rind in small pieces. Cover with water and soak several hours or overnight. Then cook slowly for 1/2 hour. Strain and set aside to cool. To 1 teaspoonful of this liquid add an equal quantity of alcohol, and proceed as in Experiment 94. Does the lemon or orange rind contain pectin?

THE PRINCIPLE OF JELLY MAKING.—When the juices of certain fruits are extracted and cooked with sugar, the mixture stiffens when cool. This property of stiffening is due to the presence in fruit of two materials,— a certain carbohydrate, called pectin, and an acid. Pectin is like starch in that it stiffens when cold; but like sugar, in that it is soluble. Not all fruits contain pectin.

Jelly is most easily prepared from fruits which are rich in pectin and contain some acid. Unless pectin is contained in the fruit, the addition of sugar to fruit juice will not cause the juice to jelly. But jelly may be made from a fruit lacking in pectin, if it is combined with a fruit rich in pectin.

Certain fruits contain pectin, but are lacking in acid, hence are not good for jelly making. These fruits can be used for jelly, however, if acid is added.

SELECTION OF FRUITS FOR JELLY MAKING.—For jelly making, choose fruits which contain considerable pectin and some acid. The fruits should be fresh and not over-ripe. Some "green" fruits make fine jelly. Currant, crabapple, grape, apple, and plum are good jelly-making fruits.

If it is desirable to use a fruit containing little pectin, as strawberries, add a fruit rich in pectin, as currants. If about 10 per cent of the fruit which contain much pectin is added to the other fruit, the flavor of the foundation fruit is not much altered.

If it is desired to use a fruit containing pectin but deficient in acid, as sweet apple and quince, add tartaric or citric acid. Since the acidity of fruits varies, no definite quantity of acid can be stated. It has been suggested [Footnote 127: See University of Illinois Bulletin, "Principles of Jelly Making," p. 249.] that enough acid should be added to make the fruit juice about as acid to taste as good tart apples. At least one teaspoonful of acid is required for one quart of fruit juice. Dissolve the acid in the fruit juice, then taste the mixture. If necessary, add more acid to produce the acidity indicated above. Jelly may be prepared from strawberries, peaches, and pears by the addition of these acids, but the flavor is somewhat impaired.

The suggestion has been made also [Footnote 128: Idem, p. 25.] that the inner white portion of lemon or orange peel be used as a source of pectin with fruit deficient in pectin. Remove the yellow portion of the rind, put the white portion through a food chopper, and soak in water for several hours or overnight. Then cook slowly for several hours. Strain out the solid portion. Add the liquid to the fruit juice deficient in pectin and use for jelly making. The rind of lemons and oranges may be dried for use in jelly making. When desired for use, soak and cook as directed above.

GENERAL METHOD OF JELLY MAKING

Wash and pick over the fruit; remove the stems, but use the skin and seeds and thus retain as much of the fruit as possible. The skin of fruit usually adds color to jelly. If large fruit is used, cut it in pieces. Cook the fruit slowly in water. Use very little water for juicy fruits, such as currants and raspberries,—1 cupful of water to 4 or 5 quarts of fruit. Crush the fruits during cooking.

To cook large fruits requires water. A general proportion is half as much water, by measure, as prepared fruit. A little less water may be used for peaches and plums and a little more for winter apples. A fair estimate is 3 quarts of strained juice from 8 quarts of fruit and 4 quarts of water. If the quantity of juice is greater than this, it should be boiled down to 3 quarts before adding the sugar.

When the fruit is cooked until it is very soft, it is ready for straining. For straining, make a bag of double cheesecloth or flannel. Wring the jelly bag out of hot water and suspend it from a strong support. Pour the cooked fruit into the bag and let the juice drip into a bowl. If transparent jelly is desired, do not press the juice through the bag; let the juice drip for several hours or overnight.

Measure the clear fruit juice and heat it. The time of cooking depends upon the per cent of pectin and the acidity of the juice; the more pectin and acid, the less the time of cooking. The time varies from 8 to 30 minutes. Skim the juice when necessary. While the juice is cooking, measure three fourths as much sugar [Footnote 129: The quantity of sugar used in jelly making depends upon the quantity of pectin in fruit juice,—the more pectin, the more sugar. A most satisfactory method of determining the quantity of pectin and consequently the quantity of sugar to use with fruit juice is suggested by the Bulletin of the National War Garden Commission. The test follows: To a tablespoonful of fruit juice which has been boiled and cooled, add 1 tablespoonful of alcohol (see footnote 126.). Mix by gently rotating and then let stand. If a solid mass forms, use equal parts of fruit juice and sugar. If 2 or 3 masses form, use 2/3 to 3/4 as much sugar as juice. If several small solid particles form, use 1/2 as much sugar as juice. If no solid particles form, the fruit juice should be enriched by the addition of some pectin-rich fruit juice.] as fruit juice and heat the sugar. For currants and green or under-ripe grapes, use equal quantities of sugar and fruit juice. Add the hot sugar to the boiling sirup and cook. The following are tests for sufficient cooking of jelly.

(a) Coats the spoon.

(b) Falls from the spoon in heavy drops. [Footnote 130: Two drops forming side by side along the edge of the spoon has been found to be a reliable test.]

(c) Stiffens when dropped on a cold dish and allowed to cool.

The first two tests are more satisfactory than the last, since the cooking process may be carried too far while the "test-jelly" is cooling.

Seal as Jam or shred paraffin and place it in the bottom of sterilized jelly glasses. Pour the hot jelly into the glasses and set aside to stiffen. Then cover and store. It is well to store jelly in a cool, dry, and dark place. The color of fruit sometimes fades when kept in a light place.

Long cooking of pectin changes it into substances which do not have the property of jellying, hence, make jelly in as short a time as possible. The purpose of heating the sugar is to hasten the process of jelly making. The addition of cold sugar would cool the mixture and thus prolong the process.

The addition of too much sugar is often the cause of unsuccessful jelly making. Crystallization of the sugar from the jelly may result from an excess of sugar.

The fruit pulp left in the jelly bag should be utilized. Marmalade may be made from it, or more jelly can be prepared from it. To accomplish the latter, add water to the fruit pulp (enough to cover), mix, and heat slowly until the boiling point is reached. Strain and prepare jelly from the juice. However, more cooking of the juice before the sugar is added is required for the second extraction, since the juice contains so much water. The juice extracted for a third time from most fruits will contain enough pectin for jelly making. It has been found that more desirable jelly can be obtained by this method than by pressing the juice from the bag and thus obtaining what is termed "second quality" jelly.

FRUIT JUICES WITHOUT SUGAR.—Extract the juice from fruit as directed in General Method of Jelly Making. Do not add sugar to the juice. Can it as directed in (a) or (b).

(a) Reheat until the boiling temperature is reached, then pour into sterilized jars. Fill to overflowing and seal.

(b) Place the juice in sterilized jars. Partially seal and place in a water bath having the water reach the neck of the jar. Let it cook at a simmering temperature from 20 to 30 minutes. Remove from the water bath, and seal securely.

In the winter time or when desired for use, this fruit juice may be made into jelly as directed in General Method of Jelly Making, or it may be sweetened, diluted if necessary, and used as a beverage. This method of preserving fruit juice is especially desirable when there is a scarcity of sugar.



QUESTIONS

Note the difference in the quantity of carbohydrates in Canned Fruit and Fruit Jelly (see Figure 92). What kind of carbohydrate is present in greatest quantity in these foods?

To what is the difference in flavor of Canned Fruit and Fruit Jelly largely due?

What is the chief difference in the processes of jam making and jelly making?

What is the result if too much sugar is used in jelly making?

What is the result if jelly is cooked too long?

Note the difference in the methods of sealing jams and jellies. Explain.



LESSON CLXX

PROCESSING WITH VINEGAR AND SPICES—RELISHES

SPICES AND VINEGAR ARE PRESERVATIVES OF FOODS. Not all spices, however, have equal preservative power. It has been found that cinnamon and cloves aid in food preservation, but that pepper and ginger have very little, if any, preservative power. In the lesson on Flavoring Materials: Food Adjuncts, it was mentioned that spices and condiments should be used sparingly in the diet, hence spiced fruits and pickles should have only occasional use. There is no doubt that lemon juice or other tart fruit juices are better sources of acid-satisfying materials than vinegar.

SPICED PEARS

1/2 peck pears 3 pounds sugar 1 pint vinegar 1/2 ounce ginger root Rind of 1/2 lemon Whole allspice Stick cinnamon Whole cloves

Cut the pears in halves, remove the seeds, and pare. Into each piece of pear stick two or three cloves. Make a sirup of the vinegar and sugar. Divide the cinnamon, allspice, and ginger into two parts, tie in cheese- cloth bags, and add to the sirup. When the sirup begins to simmer, add the pears and lemon rind; bring to the boiling point, remove from the fire, and turn into a stone jar. Cover and stand in a cool place overnight. Next day bring the mixture to the boiling point, again place in the stone jar and stand overnight. The following day heat as before. Do this for five consecutive days. The last day, remove the fruit from the sirup, heat the sirup and evaporate it until there is just enough to cover the fruit. Add the fruit to the hot sirup, heat to the boiling point, then put in stone or glass jars or tumblers.

The pears may be finished in one day as follows: Cook the fruit until tender, then remove it, evaporate the sirup, add the fruit, reheat again, and finish as above. Fruit prepared by the first method has a finer flavor.

TOMATO CATSUP

12 ripe tomatoes 2 large onions 2 green peppers 2 tablespoonfuls salt 4 tablespoonfuls brown sugar 2 tablespoonfuls ginger 1 tablespoonful cinnamon 1 tablespoonful mustard 1 nutmeg grated 1 pint vinegar

Peel the tomatoes and onions. Chop the onions and peppers fine. Cook all the ingredients together for 3 hours, or until soft and broken. Stir frequently. Bottle and seal while hot. The mixture may be strained before bottling.

CELERY SAUCE

20 large ripe tomatoes 6 large onions 4 large stalks celery 3/4 cupful sugar 1 large red pepper 4 tablespoonfuls salt 2 cupfuls vinegar

Chop the vegetables, add the salt and vinegar, and cook for 2 hours. Then add the sugar. Allow it to reach the boiling point again. Turn into sterilized bottles or jars, and seal.

OIL PICKLES

2 dozen small cucumbers 2 dozen small onions 1/2 cupful olive oil 1/4 cupful sugar 1 pint vinegar 1/3 cupful salt 1/4 cupful mustard seed 1 pint vinegar 1 teaspoonful celery seed

Scrub the cucumbers. Cut them (without paring) into thin slices. Wash and cut the onions into thin slices. Mix the salt with these vegetables (to extract moisture), and let the mixture stand over night. Then drain the moisture from the vegetables so that the vinegar may not be diluted.

Mix the remaining ingredients. Pour the mixture over the onions and cucumbers. Mix well, cover, and set aside for a few hours. Then pour into sterilized jars. Fill the jar with liquid. (If necessary, more vinegar may be used.) To drive out the air, place the jars (with covers loosely adjusted) in a water bath at simmering temperature (180 degrees F.) and heat at this temperature for 15 minutes. Remove from the water bath and seal.

TO SEAL BOTTLES.—Melt together, over hot water, equal parts of shoemaker's wax and resin. When liquefied, dip the tops of corked bottles into it. Corks in bottles may be dipped also in hot paraffin. Dip several times.

QUESTIONS

What is the objection to excessive use of spiced foods?

Name some substitutes for pickles. Why is an excessive or continuous use of pickles objectionable in diet?



LESSON CLXXI

CANNED VEGETABLES

MICROORGANISMS IN THE SPORE FORM.—Many microorganisms are destroyed by heating them for a few minutes to boiling temperature. However, some microorganisms have a peculiar power of retaining life under most adverse conditions. When subjected to extreme heat or cold, intense drying, or when there is lack of food, certain microorganisms assume a spore form, i.e. they cease growing and reproducing, and are able to undergo conditions which would readily kill microorganisms in the active form. Some microorganisms in the spore form are able to resist the temperature of boiling water for an hour or longer. Then as soon as the adverse conditions mentioned above are removed, the microorganisms assume active form and begin to grow and reproduce. In the growing state, their destruction is not so difficult.

Some of the microorganisms in certain foods, especially vegetables and fruits grown in a dry season, are capable of spore formation. When microorganisms in spore form do exist in foods that are to be canned, or the microorganisms change into spore form during the canning process, the microorganisms may not be destroyed by the time the ordinary process of canning is completed. If such is the case, when the canned foods are cooled and the conditions are favorable for growth, the microorganisms assume active form, begin to grow, and cause the decomposition of food. Twenty-four hours is sufficient time for the microorganisms to change from the spore to the active form. Hence the canned foods must be heated again, if they are to be preserved. For foods difficult to process (for the reason given above) processing should be carried on for three successive days. This is called intermittent processing.

Destruction of microorganisms in the spore form can be accomplished in a short time by subjecting them to very intense heat. In canning factories this is done by processing at a temperature higher than that of boiling water. In the home this may be accomplished by processing in the pressure cooker. According to one authority processing intermittently, i.e. on three successive days, does not insure satisfactory processing of materials containing spores.

SINGLE PERIOD AND INTERMITTENT PROCESSING.—The acid of tomatoes and fruits aids in the destruction of microorganisms. Hence intermittent processing is unnecessary for these. Processing tomatoes and fruits in a hot water bath for one period has proved very satisfactory and certain.

There is some question, however, regarding the safety of canning all vegetables by one period of processing in the water bath at 212 degrees F., especially in regions where botulism is known to occur and where Foods cannot be stored in a cool place. In Farmers' Bulletin 1211, "Home Canning of Fruits and Vegetables," revised August, 1922, one period of processing in the water bath at 212 degrees F. is not advised in climates where the storage conditions are trying for the following vegetables: corn, beans, asparagus, okra, spinach and other greens, and peas (especially if at all mature). For processing these vegetables, a higher temperature than that obtained in the boiling water bath is recommended. Processing at a high temperature (from 228 degrees F. to 250 degrees F.) can be accomplished conveniently by means of a pressure cooker. This is especially recommended for vegetable canning in high altitudes and in localities where botulism has occurred.

It is thought that in some places the above mentioned vegetables may be processed intermittently with safety. For vegetables difficult to can, pint jars only are recommended for both intermittent and single period processing in the water bath. Heat penetrates more rapidly to the center of the small jars than to the center of the large jars.

SELECTION AND PREPARATION OF VEGETABLES AND CANNING.—Young vegetables, especially those that have grown quickly, are most desirable for canning. If possible, vegetables, especially corn, should be canned immediately after picking.

Vegetables for canning should be thoroughly washed, pared, scraped, or cut into pieces in the same manner as when they are cooked and served immediately. If the vegetables vary in size, it is well to sort them and fill jars with those of uniform size. If there is much difference in ripeness, sort the mature and young vegetables.

METHOD OF CANNING VEGETABLES.—The method of canning vegetables for a single period does not differ greatly from the method of canning fruits. The chief difference is that jars containing fruit are filled with sirup, while those holding vegetables are filled with water and salt is added. Blanch and cold-dip vegetables as directed previously, for the length of time given. Greens and vegetables of delicate flavor are blanched most successfully by steaming either in a colander placed over boiling water or in a steamer. (Steaming greens prevents the escape of volatile oils and other materials.) Pack the vegetables in jars to within 1/2 inch of the top. It is well not to pack spinach and other greens too solidly in jars. Since lima beans, corn, and peas swell during processing, they should be packed only to about 1 inch of the top of the jar. To each jar add salt,—1 teaspoonful to each quart jar. Fill each jar to 1/2 inch of the top with boiling water. Put a new rubber on the jar, partly seal the cover, and proceed as directed for fruit (see Table below for the length of time for processing).

When vegetables are processed intermittently, jars with glass tops and spring clamps are recommended. In processing vegetables for three successive periods, the same method of processing and sealing is followed as for the single period. At the beginning of the second and third periods, raise the clamps of the jars to allow for expansion, then fasten the clamps at the close of processing period (see Table for the length of time of processing on each of the three successive days).

FOOD PRESERVATION

TABLE FOR CANNING FRESH, SOUND, AND FIRM VEGETABLES BY ONE PERIOD OF PROCESSING [Footnote 131: Adapted from Farmers' Bulletin 1211. Revised August, 1922.]

TIME OF PROCESSING TIME OF VEGETABLE BLANCHING OR (a) (b) Steam Pressure Water (Pressure Cooker) COOKING Bath at (1) 5lb (2) 10lb (3) 15lb 212 deg. F. 228 deg. F. 240 deg. F. 250 deg. F. Minutes Hours Minutes Minutes Minutes Asparagus 4 - - 30 to 40 Corn 1 to 5 - - 90 60 to 90 Lima beans 3 to 5 - - 45 to 60 Okra 6 to 8 - - 30 Peas 3 to 8 - - 40 to 50 Spinach 4 in water or 15 in steam - - 90 35 String beans. 3 to 5 - - 40 to 50 Tomatoes 1 to 1 1/2 to loosen skins 1/2 15 10

[Footnote for Asparagus: Scrape off tough outer skin of asparagus. Tie into bundles for blanching. Blanch tough ends 2 minutes and entire bundle 2 minutes longer.]

[Footnote for Corn: Blanch corn on the cob, then cold dip and cut from the cob. For each pint jar, use 1 pint of cut corn, 1 cupful boiling water, and 1/2 tea-spoonful each of salt and sugar. Cook the mixture in a saucepan until it boils and pour immediately into a hot, sterilized jar.]

[Footnote for Okra: Cold dip okra in salt water (1 tablespoonful salt to 1 quart water).]

[Footnote for Spinach: To loosen grit, cover spinach with scalding water, let stand 1 or 2 minutes. Then wash in several cold waters. Do not cold dip after blanching.]

[Footnote for Tomatoes: Pack tomatoes whole in jars, then fill the jars with cooked and strained tomato pulp. Tomatoes cut into pieces may be packed closely in jars. When this is done, no liquid need be added.]

NOTE.—Processing in the hot water bath is not advised for non-acid vegetables such as asparagus, corn, lima beans, okra, peas, spinach, and string beans.

Count time of processing in a water bath after the water boils.

When two different times of processing are given, use the longer time for quart glass jars, the shorter time for tin cans.

If the jar is packed tightly, increase the time of processing.

For altitudes higher than 1000 feet, increase the time of processing 10 per cent for each additional 1000 feet. For very high altitudes, the pressure cooker rather than the hot water bath should be used.

TIME TABLE FOR CANNING VEGETABLES BY INTERMITTENT PROCESSING [Footnote 132: See statements previously]

VEGETABLE TIME OF TIME OF PROCESSING IN WATER BATH BLANCHING AT 212 F. 12 TO 18 HOUR INTERVALS BETWEEN PERIODS (a) First Day (b) Second and Third Day

Asparagus 10 to 15 60 60 Corn 5 to 10 90 90 Lima Beans 3 to 5 90 90 Peas 5 90 90 String Beans 3 to 5 90 90

[Footnote 133: (For Asparagus, Corn, and Lima Beans) Process in pint jars only. See footnotes for Asparagus and Okra, above.]

USE OF CANNED VEGETABLES.—Open the can and if it is tin, empty its contents at once. If the vegetable is surrounded by liquid, use the water in cooking the vegetable, as it contains valuable materials. There are some who contend, however, that the flavor of certain vegetables such as peas and string beans is improved if the vegetable water is drained from them and they are cooked in fresh water. If this is done, the vegetable water should not be wasted. It should be used in making soup or sauce. If possible, let the vegetable stand exposed to the air for an hour or longer.

If the vegetable is to be served plain, turn into a saucepan. Cook in its own liquor at boiling temperature, for at least 30 minutes. (Cooking at boiling temperature for this length of time is advised to remove any possible danger of botulism.) When cooked, the liquid should be almost entirely evaporated. Add butter, salt, and, if desired, a very little sugar, and serve hot.

A White Sauce may also be used with a vegetable that has been heated as above.

QUESTIONS

Explain why vegetables (except tomatoes) are more difficult to can successfully than fruits.

What foodstuffs does the water in which vegetables are canned contain? From this explain why the water should not be drained from vegetables when removing them from the cans.

What is the purpose of cooking canned vegetables at boiling temperature?



LESSON CLXXII

DRIED VEGETABLES

ADVANTAGES OF DRYING FOODS.—While preserving foods by drying does not take the place of canning foods and storing them in jars or cans, it has certain advantages, viz.:

1. Little storage space is required for dried foods.

2. Dried foods can be stored in containers that cannot be used for canning.

When foods are dried, they may be reduced in bulk as much as 90 per cent; for example, 10 pounds of fresh food may be reduced to 1 pound of dried food. By this reduction no food value is lost, and the flavor is not greatly changed.

Dried foods may be stored in paper bags and boxes which are much less expensive containers than glass jars or tin cans. Hence if space is limited and glass or tin containers are difficult to secure or are expensive, drying may prove a very satisfactory method of preserving food.

METHODS OF DRYING AND DRIERS.—Food may be dried by:

1. Sun.

2. Steam (placing food on a specially constructed tray (see Figure 93) which is heated with steam).

3. Stove or oven drying (placing food above a stove or in the oven).

4. Fan drying (placing an electric fan near the food).

A combination of these methods, especially the two latter, is often used in drying foods.

Plates or dishes may serve as driers when the drying is done in the oven. Trays for drying may be constructed at home or they may be purchased. Most of them consist of a wood or metal frame over which wire netting is tacked. Single trays or a series of trays one placed above the other may serve as driers. When drying is accomplished by heat from a stove, the drier is hung over a stove or it rests on the top of the stove. In the latter case, it is necessary that the frame of the tray be constructed so that the bottom tray does not rest directly on the stove. In case the drying is done over a kerosene stove, the bottom of the tray must be of tin or galvanized iron to protect the food from kerosene fumes. The lowest tray must be placed at least 4 inches above the metal bottom.

SELECTION AND PREPARATION OF VEGETABLES FOR DRYING.—To secure the best results, select mature but fresh vegetables. They should be in good condition, free from blemish.

Certain foods, such as berries, cherries, peas, lima and shell beans, are dried whole. Most vegetables should be cut into slices from 1/8 to 1/4 inch in thickness. The slicing may be done with a paring or kitchen knife, or it may be done by means of a slaw-cutter or a rotary chopper. Foods are sometimes cut into pieces for drying by means of the food chopper. It is necessary that all knives and cutting devices be clean. There should be no discoloration of the vegetable from the cutting utensil. It has been found advisable to blanch most vegetables before drying. The method of blanching given previously can be used in drying vegetables as well as canning them. Foods are not cold-dipped, however, after blanching when they are to be dried. Fruits are usually not blanched before drying.

FOOD PRESERVATION

METHOD OF DRYING FOODS.—Place the prepared food on drying trays. Unless the drying is done in the oven, cover the food with cheese-cloth. If possible, tack the cloth to the frame so that no dust or insects can come in contact with the food. Stir or turn foods once or twice a day while they are drying. This is especially necessary when foods are dried in the sun.

If the food is to be dried in the sun, place the tray containing the food in the sun, where there is a breeze. If it rains, take the trays indoors. Also bring the trays indoors just before sunset.

If food is to be dried by means of steam, a special device is needed (see Figure 93). The device consists of a large pan for holding water and a hollow tray. The under surface of the tray has an opening about the size of the diameter of the pan. To this opening is fastened a collar which fits snugly into the pan. The pan filled with water is placed over a burner. When the water boils, the steam rises and fills the hollow tray and escapes by means of the small pipe in the upper surface of the tray. The food is placed on the upper surface and is dried by steam heat.

If the food is to be dried in the oven, place the food on suitable trays. Oven drying is much more satisfactorily done if the oven is provided with a thermometer. The temperature for drying foods is much less than that of boiling water,—it varies from 115 degrees to 175 degrees F. It is often necessary to keep the oven door open so that the temperature does not become too high.



If food is dried over a stove in a series of trays one placed above the other, the position of the trays should be changed so that the food may be uniformly dried.

If food is dried by means of an electric fan, the fan should be so placed that the current of air is directed along the trays lengthwise. The drying will be most rapid nearest the fan; hence it is necessary to change the position of the tray or of the food every few hours. Foods may be dried in less than 24 hours by means of an electric fan. A few foods such as sliced string beans may be dried in a few hours. Before drying by means of a fan, food should be blanched. It is also necessary to heat food dried in this way in an oven at 180 degrees F. for 10 or 15 minutes before storing.

Testing for Sufficient Drying and Conditioning.—The time for drying varies with the method of drying and the kind of food. A definite time of drying cannot be stated. There are some tests which may be applied in determining when a food is sufficiently dried. The following is quoted from the Bulletin of the National War Garden Commission, Victory Edition, p. 22:

"When first taken from the drier, vegetables should be rather brittle and fruits rather leathery and pliable. One method of determining whether fruit is dry enough is to squeeze a handful; if the fruit separates when the hand is opened, it is dry enough. Another way is to press a single piece; if no moisture comes to the surface the piece is sufficiently dry. Berries are dry enough if they stick to the hand but do not crush when squeezed."

When the food is judged to be sufficiently dried, it should be placed in boxes or bowls and covered with clean cloths. The dried foods should be stirred or poured from one container to another once a day for 10 days or two weeks. If at the end of this time the food is found to be moist, it must be subjected to the drying process for a short time. After the second drying, it should be treated as directed above. If the food is observed for several days and found to be dry, it may be stored away. This process of testing and making them sufficiently dry after removing from the drier is termed conditioning.

DRIED CORN

Select such sweet corn for drying as you would for immediate table use. Blanch the corn (on the cob) for 8 to 12 minutes in boiling water. Drain thoroughly. Then cut the corn from the cob as directed in Lesson IV. Dry by subjecting to a temperature of 130 degrees F. gradually increased to 140 degrees F. Stir the corn often. It is sufficiently dried when it is hard and semi-transparent.

(Adapted from Bulletin of the National War Garden Commission, Victory Edition.)

TABLE FOR BLANCHING AND DRYING [Footnote 134: From Bulletin of the National War Garden Commission, Victory Edition]

The following table shows blanching time for vegetables and the temperatures to be used in drying by artificial heat.

VEGETABLES BLANCHING TEMPERATURE TIME (FAHRENHEIT) Minutes Degrees

Beets 2 120 to 145 Cabbage 3 to 4 115 to 135 Carrots 2 120 to 145 Cauliflower 4 to 6 120 to 130 Celery 2 to 3 135 Figs 120 to 140 Garden peas 3 to 5 115 to 140 Green string beans 5 to 8 130 to 145 Lima beans 3 150 Okra 3 115 to 135 Onions 140 Parsnips 2 120 to 145 Potatoes 2 to 3 125 to 150 Prunes - 130 to 175 Pumpkin and winter squash 3 to 6 135 to 160 Spinach 2 130 Summer squash 3 to 6 135 to 160 Sweet corn 8 to 12 130 to 140 Sweet potatoes 6 to 8 145 to 165 Tomatoes 1 1/2 120 to 140 Turnips 1 to 2 135 to 165 Wax beans 3 150

Fruits

Apples 130 to 175 Apricots 130 to 165 Berries 130 to 155 Cherries 120 to 150 Peaches 130 to 165 Pears 130 to 175 Plums 130 to 165

QUESTIONS

Under what conditions do you think it would be advisable to dry foods rather than can them?

Name the advantages of dried over canned foods and the advantages of canned over dried.

From what you have learned regarding the cooking of dried fruits and dried peas and beans, how would you cook home-dried vegetables?

Give a reason for each step of the process.

Why is it necessary to stir foods occasionally while drying?

Why is oven drying of foods much more satisfactory when the oven is provided with a thermometer?

Explain why it is necessary to condition dried foods before storing.



RELATED WORK

LESSON CLXXIII

THE SICK-ROOM TRAY

SELECTION OF FOODS FOR THE SICK.—Methods of preparation of food for the sick differ somewhat from methods of preparation of food for those in health. The chief difference is in the selection of the foods to be prepared. In severe illness the physician prescribes definitely the diet of the patient. In the absence of a trained nurse, it is the home-keeper's work to follow the physician's directions and to prepare such foods as can readily be digested.

Often the home-keeper not only prepares, but selects the foods for the indisposed members of the household. In any case of feeding the sick, the following suggestions should be kept in mind:

(a) Choose easily digested foods and prepare them in such a way that they will be easily digested. Liquid or easily liquefied foods are digested with the least effort, hence the use of milk, broths, soups, and gruels in sick-room diet. Such semisolid foods as eggs (uncooked or soft cooked), cereals, softened toast, etc., are also easily digested. Avoid foods that are digested with difficulty, as pastry, fried foods, "rich" sauces, pork, veal, lobster, and baked beans.

(b) Give special attention to the selection of foods that appeal to the appetite. When foods are served, even though they are selected according to the physician's directions, likes and dislikes of the patient should be observed. If food suitable for the patient is distasteful to him, substitutions should be made or distasteful foods should be disguised. Eggs, for example, are most valuable foods for the sick. If disliked by the patient they may be slipped into such foods as cocoa or gruels. Appeal to the appetite can be made by changing the methods of preparing foods. The selection and preparation of food for the sick call for ingenuity and resourcefulness on the part of the homekeeper.

(c) Prepare less food for the sick than for those in health. Sometimes a lessened quantity of easily digested food is all that is needed to effect recovery from an indisposed condition. Some energy is needed to carry on the involuntary activities of the body, such as the beating of the heart, and the movements of the lungs (see Table of Energy Requirements). For the very sick patient, food served in small quantities, but served often, is necessary.

SELECTION OF FOODS FOR THE CONVALESCENT.—In recovery from severe illness, there is often the problem of building up an emaciated body. Knowledge of the proper quantity and the kind of food aids greatly in solving this problem.

The basic principles of the selection of food to increase weight were discussed previously (see Daily Carbohydrate and Fat Requirement). The use of concentrated foods, i.e. those whose fuel value is high, such as eggs, cream or top milk, and butter, is usually advisable. These foods can be added to foods of less fuel value such as vegetables. A generous use of whole milk is also effective in gaining weight. This can be used to advantage not only at meal times but between meals and at bed time. Milk is one of the few foods which can be used effectively between meals. Because it is bland in flavor, it does not "spoil the appetite" for the following meal. Bread and other grain foods and starch-rich vegetables are useful foods for gaining weight.

Many of the suggestions for the selection of foods for the sick apply to the selection of foods for the convalescent.

PREPARATION OF SPECIAL FOODS FOR THE SICK AND FOR THE CONVALESCENT.—(1) Milk.—Milk is one of the most important foods for an invalid because it is a liquid containing valuable nutrients. It is used in a partially predigested condition in Junket "Custard", peptonized milk, and malted milk. Buttermilk, kumiss, and matzoon are often agreeable and beneficial to the sick; by some, they are more easily digested than whole milk. Frozen desserts made of milk or cream are popular foods for the sick.

(2) Eggs.—Since eggs are both high in nutrients and easily digested, they serve as a most important article of diet for the sick. The variety of ways in which eggs can be cooked and served also adds to their value as a sick-room food. Eggs combined with milk (egg-nog, custards), with cereals (rice pudding, gruels), and with toast make suitable foods for the sick and convalescent. The principles used in the preparation of custards (see Lesson LI) should be applied in combining eggs with hot liquids.

(3) Gruels.—The principle of preparing breakfast cereals may be applied to the preparation of gruels. In the making of gruels less cereal and more liquid are used, i.e. mix 1 tablespoonful of cereal with 1 cupful of liquid. The finished product is strained. A gruel may be prepared by diluting a cooked cereal and straining. Gruels should be of the consistency of cream soups. Corn-meal, oatmeal, barley, rice, flour— especially graham, whole wheat, and gluten—arrowroot, and crushed crackers—especially graham and oatmeal—are suitable cereals for gruels. Water or a combination of water and milk is used for the liquid. When both water and milk are used, the method of cooking Rice Pudding should be followed.

The seasoning and flavoring of gruels are most important. Distaste for gruels is often due to improper seasoning. "High" seasoning is not desirable for the sick or convalescent. Usually a patient does not care for highly seasoned food. But some seasoning is necessary to make a tasty gruel. Gruels may be flavored with whole spices, meat extract, fruits, such as raisins, cranberries, etc., and lemon peel. The flavor of whole spices and fruits is extracted by cooking them with the gruel. If nutmeg is used, it is grated over the surface of the cooked food. The identity of this spice can thus be recognized. Sugar is used sparingly for the sick.

(4) Broth and Meat.—Although there is little nourishment contained in meat broths (see Protein in Meat), beef tea is often used as food for the sick, especially when liquid diet is necessary. It is appetizing and tasty.

To make beef tea, soak chopped meat in water for at least one hour. (Use 1 pint of water to 1 pound of lean beef.) Then cook the mixture slightly, over hot water (until it becomes reddish brown in color), and stir constantly. Strain through a coarse strainer, season, and serve at once.

Sometimes the juice of beef without any dilution with water is served to the sick. The meat is cut into pieces and heated slightly; then by means of a lemon "squeezer" or a meat press the juice is extracted.

Meats such as chicken (white meat preferably), lamb, broiled or roasted beef, can be used for convalescents. Scraped meat, i.e. meat from which the tough tissue is removed (see Experiment 50), can often be given to an invalid when solid meats are denied. The scraped meat contains more nutriment than beef juice (see Protein in Meat). It should be made into balls and pan-broiled (see Pan-broiling).

PREPARING THE TRAY.—Attractive serving of foods may make a stronger appeal to the appetite than choice selection or skilful preparation of foods. It should be remembered that the foods are to be carried from the kitchen to the sick room. For this reason, it is well to place foods, especially liquids, in deep dishes suitable for transit. All hot foods should be placed in covered dishes, that they may be hot when the bedside is reached.

For serving sick-room foods, the daintiest china available should be used. The tray should be spread with a clean napkin or doily. In the case of a contagious disease, a paper napkin or doily may be used. It should be destroyed at once after using.

A bedside stand which supports the tray without any effort of the patient is a comfort.

For contagious diseases, burn any remaining bits of food and sterilize the dishes,—cover with cold water, heat, and boil.

QUESTIONS

Keeping in mind that the requisite for food for the sick is ease of digestion, make a list of liquid, semisolid, and solid foods suitable for the sick room.

Explain why it is that liquid foods are invariably prescribed for the sick.

Give a variety of ways of cooking and serving eggs for the sick.

Keeping in mind the suggestions given in the chapter on Menu-making and in the present chapter, write several menus for an indisposed or convalescent patient.



LESSON CLXXIV

PREPARING TRAYS FOR THE SICK AND CONVALESCENT

Plan [Footnote 135: See Footnote 72.] menus for the sick and for the convalescent. Prepare the foods and arrange them on trays.



LESSON CLXXV

REVIEW—MEAL COOKING

MENU

Cream of Potato Soup Croutons Baked Custard

See Lesson XIV for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson.



LESSON CLXXVI

HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 136: See Lesson IX.]

SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.—Can fruit or vegetables, or make marmalades, jellies, etc. If possible, select the fruits or vegetables at market.

SUGGESTED AIMS: (1) To compare home-canned and factory-canned products. Determine the difference in cost per pint or quart. Compare the difference in flavor and appearance.

(2) To compare the yield of fruit made into jam or conserve and jelly. Note the weight of the fruit, sugar, and other ingredients before preserving. How many glasses of jam or conserve does each five pounds of material yield? State the advantages of preparing jelly from fruit and of preparing jam or conserve.



DIVISION EIGHTEEN

SUPPLEMENTARY

LESSON I

THANKSGIVING SAUCE

CRANBERRY SAUCE

1 quart (1 pound) cranberries 2 cupfuls water 2 cupfuls sugar Salt

Pick over and wash the cranberries. Cook them in water until they are soft and the skins are broken. Remove from the fire; strain if desired, add the sugar and salt, and stir until dissolved. Set aside to cool.

CRANBERRY "JELLY"

1 quart (1 pound) cranberries 1 cupful water 2 cupfuls sugar Salt

Prepare and cook the cranberries in water, as for Cranberry Sauce. Press through a strainer, add the sugar and salt, and mix well. Without further cooking pour the mixture into molds which have been rinsed in cold water. Set aside to cool and stiffen.

QUESTIONS

Give a practical method of washing cranberries. How does Cranberry Sauce differ from Cranberry Jelly? If you desired to make clear Cranberry Jelly what change would you make in the method given above?



LESSON II

THANKSGIVING DESSERTS

PLUM PUDDING

2 cupfuls soft bread crumbs 1/4 teaspoonful baking soda 2 teaspoonfuls baking powder 1/8 teaspoonful cloves 1/2 teaspoonful cinnamon 1/4 teaspoonful salt 1/2 cupful suet 1/2 cupful molasses 1 egg 3/4 cupful milk 1/2 cupful currants 1/2 cupful raisins

To prevent suet from sticking while being chopped, sprinkle it with a little flour. Use a meat grinder, or a chopping bowl and knife, to chop the suet. Beat the eggs lightly and add the milk to them. The currants and raisins should be cleaned as directed previously, and sprinkled with flour. Mix the ingredients in the order given. Steam in an oiled pudding mold for at least 2 hours. Serve with Hard Sauce I or II, Yellow Sauce, or Vanilla Sauce.

VEGETABLE PLUM PUDDING

2 cupfuls flour 1 pound seeded raisins 1 cupful potatoes 1 cupful carrots 1 cupful sugar 1 teaspoonful salt 1 teaspoonful baking soda 1 tablespoonful cold water 1 cupful suet 2 oranges—juice and grated rind 1 lemon—juice and grated rind

Mix the flour and raisins. Put the potatoes, carrots, and suet through a food chopper. Mix the baking soda and water. Combine these three mixtures. Then add the remaining ingredients. Turn into a greased mold and steam three hours. Serve hot with Lemon Sauce or with Hard or Yellow Sauce.

HARD SAUCE II

3/4 cupful brown sugar 1/3 cupful butter 2 tablespoonfuls cream or milk 1 teaspoonful vanilla or 1 teaspoonful lemon juice and 1/2 teaspoonful vanilla

Cream the butter, add the sugar gradually, and mix thoroughly. Add the cream or milk gradually. Add the flavoring. Chill; serve over hot puddings.

YELLOW SAUCE

2 eggs 1/2 cupful powdered sugar 1 tablespoonful milk or cream 1/2 teaspoonful vanilla Salt

Separate the eggs; beat the whites until they are stiff and dry. Add the yolks and continue beating until the mixture is very light. Then add the powdered sugar and beat again. Continue beating and add the milk or cream gradually; finally add the vanilla and salt. Serve at once over hot puddings.

CRANBERRY FRAPPE

1 quart (1 pound) cranberries 2 1/2 cupfuls sugar 4 cupfuls water Juice 1 large lemon Salt

Cook the cranberries and water slowly, until soft. Force through a sieve, and add the sugar, lemon juice, and salt. When cool, freeze (see Preparing and Packing the Freezer and Freezing).

Serve with roast chicken or turkey, or as a dessert.

QUESTIONS

What are the leavening materials used in Plum Pudding? Explain their action.

Why are raisins and currants sprinkled with flour before adding to the pudding?

How should pudding molds be prepared for pour batters (see General Suggestions for Steamed Quick-bread Mixtures)? If it is desired to use left-over steamed pudding, how should it be reheated?

What is the price per pound of suet? How much by weight is required to make one half cupful?

See Figure 63 and tabulate the percentage composition of beef suet and butter. Which contains the more fat?

How many persons does the Plum Pudding recipe serve?

How many persons does the Cranberry Frappe recipe serve?



LESSON III

CHRISTMAS SWEETS

THE USE OF CANDY IN DIET.—Candy is an energy-giving food, but, unfortunately perhaps, it is not (at all times) a most desirable energy- giving food. Sugar exists in candy in concentrated form. As stated previously, such sugar is irritating to the organs of digestion. Sugar is contained in large quantity in some fruits, especially in dried fruits, figs, dates, prunes, etc. These fruits are a much better source of sweets for children than is candy, because they do not contain as much sugar, and have, in addition, valuable food materials in the form of ash. (See Figures 92 and 94. Note the large quantity of carbohydrates and ash in raisins. Also note the large quantity of carbohydrates—which are in the form of sugar—in stick candy.)

Candy should never be used to excess or at the wrong time. A little eaten at the end of a meal is not harmful to the normal person. At that time the sugar is diluted because it is mixed with other foods. When diluted it does not irritate the digestive tract to the extent that it would if eaten between meals with no other foods. It is well to drink a generous quantity of water when eating candy or other sweets. Since molasses, honey, and maple sirup are not so concentrated as is sugar (see Figure 94), they are desirable sweets for children,—provided they are used moderately, at the right time, and are mixed with other foods.



PARISIAN SWEETS

Chop equal parts of figs, dates, or raisins, and nuts together. Knead on a board dredged with confectioner's sugar, until well blended. Roll to 1/3 inch thickness, cut into cubes or rounds, and dip each piece in confectioner's sugar. Store in tin boxes.

STUFFED FRUITS

Cover prunes with cold water, and let them soak for 30 minutes. Then heat and cook at boiling temperature for 15 minutes. Now drain off the water and place prunes in the top part of a double boiler and cook over boiling water for 45 minutes. Or put the prunes in a tightly covered pan and place in the fireless cooker for several hours. Cool and remove the stones and fill the open space with a nut or a mixture of chopped dates or raisins, figs, and nuts. Press the prunes into symmetrical shape, then roll them in fine granulated sugar. (The Parisian Sweet mixture may be used for stuffing prunes.) Prunes may also be stuffed with marshmallows. One half of a marshmallow should be inserted in each cooked and seeded prune.

Dates stuffed with chopped nuts, peanut butter, or candied ginger are tasty sweets. They may be rolled in granulated sugar after stuffing.

DATE BARS

1 egg 1 cupful sugar 1 teaspoonful vanilla 1 cupful flour 2 teaspoonfuls baking powder 1/4 teaspoonful salt 3/4 cupful dates, seeded and cut into pieces 1 cupful nuts, chopped 1/2 cupful milk

Mix as Date Pudding. Turn into an oblong or square pan about 9 by 9 inches. Bake at 350 degrees F., for from 30 to 40 minutes. When sufficiently baked, remove from the pan and place on a cake cooler for a few minutes. Then cut the cake into halves, and cut each half into narrow strips about 1 inch wide and 4 1/2 inches long. Roll each strip in powdered sugar. Store in a tightly covered tin box. These cakes have a finer flavor after they have been stored for a few days.

Raisins may be substituted for dates.

POP-CORN BALLS

1 cupful molasses 1/4 teaspoonful baking soda 1 cupful corn sirup or sugar 1/2 teaspoonful salt

Mix the molasses and sirup or sugar and cook them to the crack stage. Then add the soda and salt and pour the mixture over popped corn,—about six quarts. Stir the corn while pouring the sirup. Let the sweetened corn stand a few minutes. Then dip the hands into cold water, shake off the water, and with the two hands press some corn into a ball. Repeat until all the corn is shaped into balls.

QUESTIONS

Explain why Parisian Sweets and Stuffed Fruits are a more desirable sweet food than candy.

When is the best time to eat candy? Explain your answer.

Why are mints served at the close, rather than at the beginning of a meal?

Why is it advisable to drink a generous quantity of water when eating candy or sweets?

Compare the recipes for Date Pudding and Date Bars. Account for the greater quantity of flour, sugar, and milk in Date Bars.

Why is it necessary to dip the hands in cold water before shaping Pop-corn Balls?



LESSON IV

CHRISTMAS CANDY

SUGAR AND GLUCOSE.—Granulated sugar and glucose differ in taste and composition. Granulated sugar is crystalline in structure, while commercial glucose exists in the form of a heavy sirup, i.e. is non-crystalline in form.

In many candies, a creamy consistency is desired. This is not possible, if all the sugar of the candy exists in coarse crystalline form. Hence in the making of candy from granulated sugar, it is desirable to add glucose or sirup to granulated sugar or to change some of the crystallized sugar to a sugar which crystallizes with difficulty, i.e. invert sugar. This can be accomplished by boiling granulated sugar with acid.

Recent experimentation [Footnote 137: See Journal of Home Economics, February, 1919 (Vol. XI), p. 65, "Factors Influencing the Amount of Invert Sugar in Fondant," by Daniels and Cook.] with sugars, however, shows that the quantity of acid required varies with the degree of hardness or the alkalinity of the water,—the more alkaline the water, the greater the quantity of acid needed. This experimental work also shows that unless soft water is used in boiling sugar to which acid is added, more constant and satisfactory results may be secured by adding glucose rather than acid to sugar.

COOKING SIRUPS.—Sugar and water are boiled to different degrees of temperature for making different kinds of candy. The thicker the sirup, the higher the temperature. Tests for sirups of different consistencies are:

(a) Thread,—when dropped from a spoon, the sirup forms a thread about two inches long (230 degrees F.). [Footnote 138: These temperatures apply to sirups made from cane sugar. The addition of glucose to cane sugar lowers the temperatures of the sirups at the various stages. See Note to the Teacher, Lesson CXVI, regarding the use of the Fahrenheit scale of temperature.]

(b) Soft ball,—when dropped into cold water, the sirup forms a soft ball if rolled between the fingers (236 degrees F.).

(c) Hard ball,—when dropped into cold water, the sirup forms a firm ball (252 degrees F.).

(d) Crack,—when dropped into cold water, the sirup becomes brittle (270 degrees F.).

(e) Hard crack,—when dropped into cold water, the sirup becomes very hard and brittle (293 degrees F.).

(f) Caramel,—when sugar (without addition of water) liquefies when hot and becomes very hard and brittle when cold (310 degrees F.).

FUDGE

2 cupfuls sugar 1/2 cupful water or milk 1/2 cupful corn sirup 2 ounces chocolate 2 tablespoonfuls butter 1 teaspoonful vanilla 1/4 teaspoonful salt

Mix the sugar with the liquid. Add the chocolate and sirup. Boil gently to a "soft ball" stage. Just before removing from the fire, add the butter. Cool, then beat the mixture until it thickens. Add the vanilla and salt and pour into a buttered pan. Cut into squares; when cool the fudge is ready for serving.

The butter may be omitted.

PANOCHA

2 cupfuls light brown sugar 1/2 cupful milk 1/8 teaspoonful cream of tartar 2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute 1/2 pound nuts 1/8 teaspoonful salt

Mix the sugar with the milk. Add the cream of tartar, and boil gently to a "soft ball" stage. Just before removing from the fire, add the butter and salt. Cool and beat until the mixture thickens. Add nuts that have been cut into pieces; pour into a buttered pan; cut into squares. When cool, the Panocha is ready for serving.

Sour milk or cream may be substituted for sweet milk and cream of tartar. When sour cream is used, omit the butter or substitute.

BUTTERSCOTCH

1/2 cupful water 3 cupfuls light brown sugar Juice of 1 lemon or 1/4 cupful vinegar 2 to 4 tablespoonfuls butter

Mix the sugar and liquids thoroughly. Boil gently to the "crack" stage. Add the butter. Pour into buttered pans. When almost cool, cut into squares with a chopping knife. Break into pieces when cold.

The butter may be omitted. If this is done, add 1/8 teaspoonful of salt.

CINNAMON BALLS

1 cupful sirup 2 cupfuls sugar 1 tablespoonful butter 1/8 teaspoonful salt 1 tablespoonful water 1 tablespoonful vinegar 1 tablespoonful ground cinnamon or 2 drops of oil of cinnamon

Put all the ingredients except oil of cinnamon into a saucepan and boil to the crack stage. If oil of cinnamon is used for flavoring, add it to the mixture after cooking. Pour into a greased pan. When cool enough to handle, take a small portion and shape it into a ball. If the candy becomes too stiff to shape, it may be placed in an oven until it is soft enough to handle.

Oil of cinnamon produces a more pleasing flavor than ground cinnamon. However, the former is expensive. If it is added, the use of a medicine dropper prevents its waste.

QUESTIONS

What ingredient does corn sirup contain that would make it effective in preparing creamy candy?

Explain the use of corn sirup, cream of tartar, sour milk, and vinegar in these candies. In Fudge, why is the butter added just before removing the candy from the fire (see Frying and Digestion)?

Why are not the nuts cooked in the Panocha mixture?

Why is butter or substitute omitted in Panocha if sour cream is substituted for sweet milk?

If a thermometer is used for testing sirups, what precaution should be taken against breaking?

From U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition of granulated (see Figure 94), powdered, brown, and maple sugars. What is the price per pound of each?

How many cupfuls in a pound of brown sugar?

Considering the percentage of carbohydrates, and the price per pound of granulated and brown sugar, which is the cheaper?

Tabulate the percentage composition of honey, of molasses, and of maple sirup.

How much fudge, by weight, does 1 pound of sugar make?

What is the cost per pound of homemade fudge?



APPENDIX

SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHING

In using this text, the teacher may follow the order of presenting a lesson which she considers most satisfactory. She may prefer to preface processes of cooking with a discussion of foods and reasons for the steps involved in the processes, or she may consider it advisable to have the pupils do the cooking and discuss foods and methods later. In case both the so-called "theory" and practical work are undertaken in the same lesson, the time required to cook the food often determines the order of the lesson. In either case, this text may be used to advantage.

Although recipes in definitely stated form appear in the book, the teacher need not refer to them in class, or place them upon the board previous to the lesson. She may prefer to lead the pupils to develop a recipe. The latter method is valuable in training pupils to know the proper quantity of food materials to combine for practical recipe making, and to know how to substitute one food material for another.

The relation of one recipe to another is shown in this text and should be constantly emphasized. The pupils should be made to understand that there are a few basic recipes from which many may be developed.

Much attention should be given to the cost of foods. At frequent intervals, pupils should be required to compute the cost of particular dishes or of entire meals. The buying of foods by the pupils is most valuable. In table service lessons, it is advisable to have the pupils not only plan and cook foods but, when possible, buy them.

In teaching table service lessons, the greatest care should be taken to adapt the lessons to the standard of living of the pupils. In communities where the equipment for serving foods is most meagre, a special effort should be made to make the best use of such dishes and furnishings as are found in the homes of the pupils. Serving meals in a more pleasing way with more adequate (but not elaborate) equipment should also be taught. Methods of serving without a maid meet best the needs of most pupils of the public schools.

The cooking of foods by each pupil in family quantity rather than in individual amount is valuable. To do this some practical way of disposing of the cooked products must be arranged. The lunch rooms of the school may serve as the means of disposal. In case the pupils of a school cook for the lunch room, the greatest care needs to be exercised by the teacher to place the responsibility of preparing a salable product upon the pupil. Too much assistance on the part of the teacher in directing the pupils' work and in deciding when a food is sufficiently cooked or baked, may interfere in developing initiative in pupils,—one of the aims to be accomplished in education. The plan of having each pupil prepare a food for the first time in individual quantity and then later in family quantity for the lunch room has proved satisfactory in some cases.

This text furnishes material for a year's work, if five lessons per week (at least ninety minutes in length) are given; or for two years' work, if the curriculum provides for but two or three lessons per week. If it is necessary to arrange a shorter course, certain lessons may be omitted or assigned for home work, or lessons may be combined.

If the teacher wishes to correlate food study with some other subject such as general science, or physiology, chemistry, or physics, the time may be extended, or the order of work may be changed to fit the particular requirements. Because many of the lessons of the first eight divisions treat of the uses of the foods in the body, they are especially good for correlation with physiology. The remaining lessons, many of which emphasize food composition, may be correlated to advantage with chemistry.

If for any reason an entire semester's work is to be devoted to table service, including the planning, buying, cooking, and serving of foods and determining the cost and computing the calorific value of the foods, the material found in Related Work—the lessons placed at the end of each division—will be found adequate for such a course.

BOOKS FOR REFERENCE

Bevier and Van Meter: Selection and Preparation of Food. Brechner: Household Physics. Brownlee and Others: Chemistry of Common Things. Buchanan: Household Bacteriology. Child Health Organization of America: Pamphlets. Cooley and Others: Teaching Home Economics. Conn: Bacteria, Yeasts, and Molds in the Home. Department of Household Science, University of Illinois: Principles of Jelly-Making (Bulletin). Farmer: Food and Cookery for the Sick and the Convalescent. Farmer: The Boston Cooking School Cook Book. Hill: Cooking for Two. Hill: The Up-To-Date Waitress. Holt: The Care and Feeding of Children. Holt and Sedgwick: The Human Mechanism. Holt and Shaw: Save the Babies, Pamphlet. Kansas Agricultural College: Table Etiquette and Table Service (Bulletin). Lincoln and Barrows: Home Science Cook Book. Lusk: Elements of the Science of Nutrition. Lusk: Fundamental Basis of Nutrition. McCollum: The American Home Diet. Mitchell: Fireless Cook Book. Pattee: Practical Dietetics. Richards, Ellen H.: The Cost of Food. Rose: Feeding the Family. Rose: Laboratory Handbook for Dietetics. Sherman: Chemistry of Food and Nutrition, Second Edition. Sherman: Food Products. Styles: Human Physiology. Taber: The Business of the Household. U. S. Department of Agriculture: Bulletins. Van Rensselaer and Others: A Manual of Home-Making. Vulte: Household Chemistry. Vulte and Vanderbilt: Food Industries.

THE END