QUESTIONS

Explain why corn-meal is not used alone for corn-meal muffins (see Wheat Flour and Corn-meal).

Compare the quantity of milk used in Rice Muffins with that used in Plain Muffins. Account for the difference.

From U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition of boiled rice. Compare with the composition of the uncooked food. How much nourishment is lost by boiling?

By what method can rice be cooked to retain the most nourishment?

Explain why the per cent of nutrients in a food does not always indicate the quantity of nourishment that the nutrients yield to the body (see Per Cent of Nutrients; Nutritive Values).



LESSON CXXII

BAKING POWDER LOAF BREADS

QUICK LOAF BREADS.—The making of yeast bread requires kneading and covers a considerable period of time. A loaf of bread leavened with baking powder or other leavens suitable for quick breads may be made in a short time. The ingredients used for such a loaf, and the method of mixing it are about the same as for muffins. Baking the mixture in a bread pan rather than in muffin pans saves some effort in pouring the batter in the pan and in washing them. For those whose time is limited for food preparation, the making of baking powder loaf breads is recommended.

If it is necessary or desirable to use meals or flours other than wheat, baking powder loaf breads are advisable. Such

grains can be used successfully in greater quantity (i.e. with the addition of little or no wheat flour) in quick breads than in yeast breads.

A quick bread baked in a loaf should be placed in a moderate oven,—about 300 degrees F. Moderate heat is applied so that the loaf will rise sufficiently before a crust is formed. After 10 or 15 minutes, the temperature of the oven should be increased. Some secure desirable results by allowing a loaf of quick bread to stand 20 minutes before placing it in the oven. Such a procedure is unnecessary if the loaf is placed in an oven of proper temperature.

WHOLE WHEAT BAKING POWDER BREAD

3 cupfuls whole wheat flour 3 tablespoonfuls sugar 2 3/4 teaspoonfuls baking powder 7/8 teaspoonful baking soda 1 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt 1 egg 1 3/4 cupfuls sour milk 3 tablespoonfuls fat

Mix these ingredients in the same way as Plain Muffins. Pour into an oiled bread pan. Bake in a moderate oven (325 degrees F.) 45 to 60 minutes.

The egg may be omitted. If this is done, increase the baking powder to 3 1/4 teaspoonfuls.

Peanut Bread may be made by adding 1 cupful chopped peanuts. If commercial salted peanuts are used, decrease the salt to 1/2 teaspoonful.

PRUNE BAKING POWDER BREAD

1 1/2 cupfuls whole wheat flour 1 cupful pastry flour 3/8 cupful sugar 5 3/4 teaspoonfuls baking powder 1 teaspoonful salt 1 egg 1 cupful prunes (measured before soaking and cooking) 1 cupful liquid (prune water and milk) 2 tablespoonfuls fat

Wash the prunes, soak, and cook them as directed previously. Drain, stone, and cut in pieces or chop them.

Break an egg in the mixing bowl. Beat it and add the chopped prunes. Put the water drained from the prunes in a measuring cup and fill up the latter with milk. Add this liquid to the egg and prune mixture. Then proceed as in making Plain Muffins. Turn into an oiled bread pan. Bake in a moderate oven (325 degrees F.) 45 to 60 minutes.

Raisins or dates may be used instead of prunes. These fruits may be cooked before adding to the other ingredients or they may be used uncooked. If the latter plan is followed, use 1 1/4 cupfuls milk instead of 1 cupful liquid.

QUESTIONS

Write a recipe for Prune Baking Powder Bread in which no eggs are used.

Write a recipe for Raisin Baking Powder Bread in which uncooked raisins are used, and sour milk is substituted for sweet milk.

Use the recipe for Whole Wheat Baking Powder Bread as a basis, and write a recipe for a loaf of quick bread in which fine white flour is used. Decrease the sour milk to 1 1/2 cupfuls. If the latter change is made, what ingredients will also require changing in quantity?



LESSON CXXIII

EGGS FOR QUICK BREADS—CREAM PUFFS

DRIED EGGS.—Eggs are a most valuable food, but they are extremely high in price. In the packing and transportation of eggs, many are broken. To save these cracked eggs, methods of drying them have been devised. If dried or desiccated eggs are cooked or used in cooked foods, they are not injurious. Their food value is high.

It has been found [Footnote 95: See Journal of Home Economics, Vol. XI, p. 108 (March, 1919), "The Use of Desiccated Eggs," by Lois Lhamon] that desiccated eggs can be used successfully in custards, quick breads, cakes, and salad dressings. Use 1 slightly rounded tablespoonful of dried egg for each egg desired. To this amount of powder, add 3 tablespoonfuls of water. Cover the mixture and allow to stand from 30 to 45 minutes, stirring occasionally. A solution is thus obtained, which resembles eggs in which the whites and yolks have been beaten together.

Desiccated eggs should not be confused with the so-called egg-substitute powders. The latter contain little and sometimes no dried egg. These usually are composed of starch, coloring material, with a little nitrogenous material in the form of gelatine, casein, or albumin. Their food value cannot be compared with that of eggs. For the amount of nutriment contained in egg-substitute powders, their price is high.

THE PREPARATION OF EGGS FOR DELICATE QUICK BREADS.—In all the quick bread mixtures given thus far, the whites and yolks of eggs were beaten together. It was shown in Experiments 41 and 43 that more air could be inclosed in an egg mixture when the white and yolk were beaten separately. It is well, therefore, to beat each part of an egg separately when a delicate bread is desired.

The reason that meringues, unless cooked, fall after a time, is because some of the inclosed air has escaped. From this it is apparent why eggs used in quick breads should not be beaten until ready for use.

It is possible, also, by much stirring and careless mixing, to lose some of the air inclosed in a beaten egg white. When the egg is to be separated, the method of cutting and folding, as used in Foamy Omelet, should be used for mixing the egg whites with the other ingredients of a quick bread.

CREAM PUFF BATTER.—The flour of cream puff mixture is usually cooked before baking so that a paste is formed. When the mixture containing the flour paste is dropped on a flat surface, it does not spread to a great extent and holds its shape. It is possible to mix Cream Puffs in the same manner as Popovers. If this method is followed and uncooked flour is added to the batter, it is necessary to bake the cream puff mixture in muffin tins or gem pans.

The method of leavening Cream Puffs is similar to that used in leavening Popovers, i.e. by means of steam and air inclosed in beaten eggs.

CREAM PUFFS

1/2 cupful water 3 tablespoonfuls vegetable oil 1 tablespoonful butter 5/8 cupful flour 1/4 teaspoonful salt 2 eggs

Mix the water and fat and heat the mixture until the water boils. Add all of the flour and salt and mix thoroughly. Stir and cook until the ingredients are well blended and the paste does not stick to the sides of the pan. (Care should be taken not to cook the mixture too long. If the fat separates from the other ingredients, the puffs will not be successful.) While the mixture is hot, add the eggs, unbeaten, one at a time. Beat until thoroughly mixed. Drop by tablespoonfuls on an oiled baking-sheet, and bake at 450 degrees F., for 20 minutes, then at 325 degrees F., for 25 minutes. When cool slit one side open and fill with Cream or Chocolate Filling or Whipped Cream.

Cream Puffs may also be filled with creamed chicken or veal, or a salad mixture.

CREAM FILLING

1 cupful flour 3/4 cupful sugar 2 cupfuls scalded milk 1/2 tablespoonful butter 1 egg 1/4 teaspoonful salt 1 teaspoonful vanilla

Mix the flour and sugar together. Slowly add the hot milk. Pour the mixture into a double boiler and cook for 20 minutes. Remove from heat. Beat the egg, add the egg and butter to the flour and milk mixture. Return to the fire and cook over water until the egg is coagulated; then add the salt. Cool, and add flavoring.

For economy the butter may be omitted.

Chocolate Filling may be made by following the recipe for Cream Filling, increasing the sugar to 1 cupful and adding a paste made by cooking 1 square (or ounce) of chocolate with 1/4 cupful of water as directed in Chocolate Corn-starch Pudding.

QUESTIONS

Note the quantity of flour and water used in cream puff mixture. What kind of batter do these quantities of flour and moisture usually make? How do you account for the consistency of the cream puff batter when it is ready to bake?

From the difference in the methods of preparing Cream Puffs and Popovers before baking, explain the difference in the stiffness of the mixtures.

By what gas is the mixture lightened? By what means is this gas introduced into the mixture?

Why is it necessary to bake the mixture for so long a time?

What is the result of baking this mixture for too short a time?

In Cream Filling, what is the purpose of mixing the flour and sugar before cooking (see Experiment 24)?

Give two reasons for cooking this mixture in the double boiler, rather than directly over the flame.

How long a time does it take to thicken the flour mixture? Why is it necessary to cook it for 20 minutes?

What is the use of eggs in the filling? Why are they not cooked as long as the flour mixture?

Determine the number of Cream Puffs this recipe will make.

From U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition of the edible portions of whole eggs (see Figure 75), of egg yolk, and of egg white. Compare the last two. Which contains the more fat? Which contains the more protein? Which contains the more water? Which contains the more nutriment?

Tabulate the percentage composition of milk (see Figure 64).



RELATED WORK

LESSON CXXIV

FOOD REQUIREMENT

DAILY ENERGY REQUIREMENT.—One hears much concerning working efficiency, i.e. the ability to do the maximum amount of work of the highest type with a minimum waste of effort. There is no doubt that the kind and quantity of food that an individual consumes has much to do with his working efficiency, and that it is consequently a matter worthy of serious consideration. Enough gasoline is used in an automobile so that there is produced sufficient power to move the car at the desired speed. So sufficient food should be used by the individual that enough energy be supplied to his body for its greatest usefulness.

Since foods furnish the body with energy, the energy which the body spends in doing its work is a measure of the fuel food needed. If the body requires a certain amount of energy for its needs, this energy, measured in Calories, can be supplied by a definite quantity of combustible food. Hence, daily energy requirements can be measured in Calories.

Scientists have done much experimenting and investigating concerning the quantity of food that individuals require. They have concluded that many factors may be taken into consideration in determining daily food requirements or dietary standards. Some of these factors are: (1) weight; (2) occupation; (3) age.

(1) Relation of Weight, Size, and Shape to Daily Energy Requirement.—In general the quantity of food required increases with the size of an individual but not at the same rate as the body weight increases. Two persons may be equal in weight, yet very different in height and shape. A tall, slender person requires more food than a short, fleshy person of the same weight. For this reason, size and shape rather than weight are found more accurate in computing the daily food requirement. However, for practical purposes, energy requirement is generally based upon body weight.

(2) Relation of Occupation to Daily Energy Requirement.—From the previous consideration of energy, it is obvious that muscular exercise, even though very slight, requires some expenditure of energy. It has been found that, even during sleep and rest, energy is required to carry on the functions of the body (such as the beating of the heart, etc.). Since the energy for both the voluntary and involuntary activities of the body is furnished by the fuel foods, it is clear that one's occupation is an important factor in determining the kind and quantity of food an individual should use.

The man who is doing hard physical work needs more food than the man who sits quietly at his employment.

The following table, showing the energy required for different conditions of activity, has been formulated by scientists: [Footnote 96: Atwater and Benedict, United States Department of Agriculture, Yearbook 1904, p. 215.]

Man sleeping requires 65 Calories per hour Man sitting at rest requires 100 Calories per hour Man at light muscular exercise requires 170 Calories per hour Man at active muscular exercise requires 290 Calories per hour Man at severe muscular exercise requires 450 Calories per hour Man at very severe muscular exercise requires 600 Calories per hour

From these data, it is possible to compute the dietaries of people of different occupations. For example, the energy requirement for a bookkeeper (male) leading an inactive muscular life is:

8 hours sleep (65 Calories per hour) 520 Calories 9 hours work at desk (100 Calories per hour) 900 Calories 4 hours sitting at rest and reading (100 Calories per hour) 400 Calories 3 hours walking (170 Calories per hour) 510 Calories ——————- 2330 Calories

The energy requirement for a man of severe muscular activity, such as excavating, is:

8 hours sleep (65 Calories per hour) 520 Calories 8 hours excavating (450 Calories per hour) 3600 Calories 1 hour walking (170 Calories per hour) 170 Calories 7 hours sitting at rest (100 Calories per hour) 700 Calories ——————- 4990 Calories

Another authority [Footnote 97: "Textbook of Physiology," p. 141, Tigerstedt.] gives these data pertaining to men engaged in muscular work:

Shoemaker requires 2001-2400 Calories per day Weaver requires 2401-2700 Calories per day Carpenter or mason requires 2701-3200 Calories per day Farm laborer requires 3201-4100 Calories per day Excavator requires 4101-5000 Calories per day Lumberman requires 5000 or more Calories per day

The following data regarding the energy requirements of the average woman in some of her common occupations have been formulated [Footnote 98: See "Feeding the Family," p. 76, by Mary Swartz Rose, Ph.D.]:

At rest 1600-1800 Calories per day Sedentary occupations 2000-2200 Calories per day Milliners Teachers Bookkeepers Seamstresses Stenographers Machine operatives Occupations involving standing, walking, or manual labor 2200-2500 Calories per day Cooks in family groups Chamber maids General housekeepers Waitresses Occupations developing muscular strength 2500-3000 Calories per day Laundresses Cooks for large groups

(3) Relation of Age to Daily Energy Requirement.—Young children, i.e. those under eight or nine years of age, do not require as much food as adults. The food requirement of a child and of an adult is not proportional to weight, however. In proportion to his weight a child requires more food than an adult. The growing child needs food, not only to give energy to the body and rebuild tissue, but to build new tissue. An aged person needs less food to build new tissue. Furthermore, since an old person's strength is somewhat lessened, he needs less food to carry on the activities of the body. Hence, the aged person requires less food than the adult of middle life. The following table [Footnote 99: From "Chemistry of Food and Nutrition," Second Edition, by Henry C. Sherman, Ph.D., p. 197.] gives the differences in energy requirement of children from one to seventeen years inclusive. It is thought that after the age of seventeen, food requirement will depend quite as much upon occupation as upon age. Hence, the foregoing tables can be used to estimate energy requirement for all ages above seventeen:

Children of 1-2 years inclusive 1000-1200 Calories per day Children of 2-5 years inclusive 1200-1500 Calories per day Children of 6-9 years inclusive 1400-2000 Calories per day Girls of 10-13 years inclusive 1800-2400 Calories per day Boys of 10-13 years inclusive 2300-3000 Calories per day Girls of 14-17 years inclusive 2200-2600 Calories per day Boys of 14-17 years inclusive 2800-4000 Calories per day

The fact that the energy requirement of the boy from 10 to 17 years is greater than that of the girl of equal age is due probably to the greater restlessness or muscular activity of the boy.

DAILY PROTEIN REQUIREMENT.—If a person's energy requirement were 2500 Calories, sufficient energy might be supplied by using butter or beef steak for a day's ration. Yet this would be extremely unpalatable and would not meet the needs of the body. The body should be nourished by all the combustible foodstuffs,—carbohydrates, fat, and protein. Now the question arises: How many of the required Calories shall be supplied by each of these foodstuffs?

Too much or too little protein is often harmful and produces serious results. As mentioned previously, too much protein may cause intestinal disturbances, and an overtaxing of the excretory organs. On the other hand, the use of too little protein may produce imperfect nourishment. Concerning the quantity of protein used in diet, there has been much difference of opinion. Atwater, an American authority, thought that there should be a generous supply, i.e. a surplus of protein, to supply the demands of body-building. Chittenden, another American authority, believes in just enough protein to meet the demands of the body. However, the use of sufficient protein food to produce from ten to fifteen per cent of the total Calories has been found both practical and satisfactory.

Daily Carbohydrate and Fat Requirement.—Although protein may furnish the body with energy, it should not serve as the principal source of fuel. Its more essential function is to help build the body. If carbohydrates and fat are present with protein, the former supply energy and allow the protein to perform its more important function of body-building. There should always be enough carbohydrates and fat to furnish energy to the body, so that the protein can be used chiefly for body-building. In the growing period of youth or after a wasting disease, it might seem that "flesh" could be "put on" by increasing the quantity of bodybuilding food. But such is not the case. The most effective work in building the body can be accomplished by using a normal amount of food rich in protein and a generous supply of foods rich in ash, carbohydrates, fat, and vitamines. With such a combination, the protein can be used to best advantage for body-building.

For practical purposes, the following general statement concerning the carbohydrates and fat requirement is believed to be adequate: If the total Calories and the number of Calories yielded by protein meet the requirement of a dietary standard and the food composing the diet is varied in composition, the carbohydrates and fat will exist in satisfactory proportion.

DAILY ASH REQUIREMENT.—Since ash is not a combustible foodstuff, it cannot be included in the foodstuffs whose energy requirement can be measured. Although ash exists in small quantity in food, the use of certain ash constituents is considered as necessary as the use of protein. A diet may meet the total energy, the protein, the carbohydrate, and the fat requirements, yet may be lacking in certain essential mineral materials. It is especially necessary to include food containing phosphorus, iron, and calcium in one's diet.

THE APPETITE AND FOOD REQUIREMENT.—The appetite is the most common measure of daily food requirement. If one relies upon his appetite as an index of the quantity of food he should consume, and if his health and weight remain normal, the appetite may serve as a guide for daily food requirement. But one may be a little over weight or under weight, and yet have normal body functions.

There can be no doubt, however, that the whims of the appetite often lead to unwise selection of food. A study of food composition is absolutely essential in overcoming this fault. Lack of energy or loss of flesh may be due to improper feeding. If the needs of the body and the kind and quantity of food that will supply these needs are understood by the home- keeper, she may do much in maintaining the health, happiness, and usefulness of the members of the family.

WEIGHT AS AN INDEX TO PROPER NOURISHMENT.—It has been found that the diet of an individual has a most decided effect upon his weight. Dr. Thomas D. Wood has prepared tables showing the normal height and weight of girls and boys of various ages. These tables are most valuable in determining whether or not a girl or boy is of the proper weight for his height. If the weight of a girl or boy is less than it should be, he is likely to be malnourished.

HEIGHT AND WEIGHT TABLE FOR GIRLS

HEIGHT 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 INCHES YRS YRS YRS YRS YRS YRS YRS YRS YRS YRS YRS YRS YRS YRS

39 34 35 36 40 36 37 38 41 38 39 40 42 40 41 42 43 43 42 42 43 44 44 44 45 45 46 45 46 47 47 48 49 46 48 48 49 50 51 47 49 50 51 52 53 48 51 52 53 54 55 56 49 53 54 55 56 57 58 50 56 57 58 59 60 61 51 59 60 61 62 63 64 52 62 63 64 65 66 67 53 66 67 68 68 69 70 54 68 69 70 71 72 73 55 72 73 74 75 76 77 56 76 77 78 79 80 81 57 81 82 83 84 85 86 58 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 59 89 90 91 93 94 95 96 98 60 94 95 97 99 100 102 104 106 61 99 101 102 104 106 108 109 111 62 104 106 107 109 111 113 114 115 63 109 111 112 113 115 117 118 119 64 115 117 118 119 120 121 122 65 117 119 120 122 123 124 125 66 119 121 122 124 126 127 128 67 124 126 127 128 129 130 68 126 128 130 132 133 134 69 129 131 133 135 136 137 70 134 136 138 139 140 71 138 140 142 143 144 72 145 147 148 149

ABOUT WHAT A GIRL SHOULD GAIN EACH MONTH

Age Age 5 to 8 6 oz. 14 to 16 8 oz 8 to 11 8 oz. 16 to 18 4 oz 11 to 14 12 oz.

Weights and measures should be taken without shoes and in only the usual indoor clothes

CHILD HEALTH ORGANIZATION 156 Fifth Avenue, New York

Courtesy of Child Health Organization. Prepared by Dr. Thomas D. Wood.

HEIGHT AND WEIGHT TABLE FOR BOYS

HEIGHT 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 INCHES Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs

39 35 36 37 40 37 38 39 41 39 40 41 42 41 42 43 44 43 43 44 45 46 44 45 46 46 47 45 47 47 48 48 49 46 48 49 50 50 51 47 51 52 52 53 54 48 53 54 55 55 56 57 49 55 56 57 58 58 59 50 58 59 60 60 61 62 51 60 61 62 63 64 65 52 62 63 64 65 67 68 53 66 67 68 69 70 71 54 69 70 71 72 73 74 55 73 74 75 76 77 78 56 77 78 79 80 81 82 57 81 82 83 84 85 86 58 84 85 86 87 88 90 91 59 87 88 89 90 92 94 96 97 60 91 92 93 94 97 99 101 102 61 95 97 99 102 104 106 108 110 62 100 102 104 106 109 111 113 116 63 103 107 109 111 114 115 117 119 64 113 115 117 118 119 120 122 65 120 122 123 124 125 126 66 125 126 127 128 129 130 67 130 131 132 133 134 135 68 134 135 136 137 138 139 69 138 139 140 141 142 143 70 142 144 145 146 147 71 147 149 150 151 153 72 152 154 155 156 157 73 157 159 160 161 162 74 162 164 165 166 167 75 169 170 171 172 76 174 175 176 177

ABOUT WHAT A BOY SHOULD GAIN EACH MONTH

AGE AGE 5 to 8 6 oz 12 to 16 16 oz 8 to 12 8 oz 16 to 18 8 oz

Courtesy of Child Health Organization Prepared by Dr Thomas D Wood

Dr. Wood's tables also indicate the proper rate of increase in weight. The rate of increase in weight is thought to be quite as important as is the correct proportion between weight and height. The use of scales in the home and school is to be recommended. They furnish a means of determining whether the proper amount is being eaten.

QUESTIONS

Compute the energy requirement of at least two members of your family. Compute your own energy requirement from this table.

Determine your height and weight. How does your weight compare with the normal weight given in the table for one of your height? If you are under weight, discuss with your teacher the kind and quantity of food needed to increase your weight. At the end of a month, again determine your weight. How does the gain compare with that given in the table for one of your age?



LESSON CXXV

PLANNING, COOKING, AND SERVING A DINNER

Plan a dinner. [Footnote 100: See footnote 72.] Use seasonable foods and a meat-substitute. Follow the suggestions given in Lesson CV.

Plan the menu so that the cost of the materials used does not exceed 25 cents per person. Analyze the menu and see that it meets the requirements stated in Lesson CV.

Cook and serve the dinner. Follow the Russian or Compromise style of serving. Serve the dinner with a maid, provided the pupils find it useful to know how to serve with a maid either in their own homes or in the homes of others. [Footnote 101: See Suggestions for Teaching, Appendix), regarding service with and without a maid.]



LESSON CXXVI

REVIEW—MEAL COOKING

MENU

Potato Soup Lettuce Salad with French Dressing Muffins

See Lesson XIV regarding suggestions for the preparation of the lesson.



LESSON CXXVII

HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 102: See Lesson IX.]

SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.—Prepare muffins, baking powder biscuits, or baking powder loaf breads at least twice a week.

SUGGESTED AIMS: (1) To learn to work quickly. Note the time required to mix these quick breads. Strive to lessen the number of minutes each time you prepare them.

(2) To use available materials. Use the food-materials you have on hand,— such as sour or sweet milk, left-over cooked cereals, and different kinds of flours or meals.



DIVISION TWELVE

QUICK BREADS: SOFT DOUGHS

LESSON CXXVIII

METHOD OF MIXING FAT IN QUICK BREADS—DROP BISCUIT

MIXING FAT.—What method is used in mixing the fat in all batter quick breads (see previous lessons on Batters)?

In making quick breads, it is desirable to mix all ingredients thoroughly. Fat is mixed in a quick bread most easily and thoroughly by melting it and stirring it into the other ingredients, provided only that the quick bread mixture is thin, i.e. a batter.

When the quick bread is a stiff mixture, i.e. a dough, this method of mixing the fat is not considered satisfactory, although it has been found that biscuits of good quality can be made by adding melted fat, provided the dough is beaten thoroughly. Fat is usually added to doughs by working it, in solid form, into the dry ingredients, either with a knife or with the fingers. (In which method of mixing—with the knife or with the fingers—can the mixture be kept cooler? Which is the cleaner method?) If the fingers are used for mixing the fat, it is well to work it into the flour with the tips of the fingers rather than to rub the ingredients between the palms of the hands.

SOFT DOUGHS.—Doughs are most easily mixed by using a knife instead of a spoon. A soft dough contains approximately three parts of flour to one part of moisture. Baking Powder Biscuit is a typical soft dough mixture.

DROP BISCUITS

2 cupfuls flour 4 teaspoonfuls baking powder 1/2 teaspoonful salt 2 tablespoonfuls fat Milk or water, about 3/4 cupful

Mix the dry ingredients; then work the fat into the mixture with the tips of the fingers, or cut it in thoroughly with a knife. With a knife mix the liquid with the dry ingredients. The mixture is of proper consistency when it may be dropped from the spoon without spreading. Drop by spoonfuls on an oiled pan, or into oiled muffin tins. Bake in a hot oven (475 degrees F.) from 12 to 15 minutes.

FRUIT PUDDING

Place sliced fruit—fresh, canned, or dried—in an oiled baking-dish. Cover the fruit with a biscuit mixture, made by using the ingredients in the same proportion as for Drop Biscuits. Two or three times as much fat as the given quantity may be used. Bake until the fruit is tender and the batter is firm and brown, usually from 15 to 30 minutes. Serve with cream or fruit sauce. Plain cream may be used, or the cream may be whipped, or sweetened and flavored with a little nutmeg or vanilla.

WHIPPED CREAM SAUCE

1 cupful whipped cream 1 egg white 1/3 cupful powdered sugar 1/2 teaspoonful vanilla

Chill the cream; add the unbeaten egg; then beat with an egg beater (for method of whipping cream see Lesson XLVIII). Add the sugar and vanilla.

QUESTIONS

Explain why the fat in Drop Biscuit is not added in the same manner as in pour batters.

If the fat is to be mixed with the dry ingredients, why rub the ingredients together between the fingers rather than between the palms of the hands?

Compare as to taste and appearance the biscuits made with lard or vegetable fat with those made with butter.

Why should not a tin pan be used for the fruit pudding?

Mention at least four kinds of fruit that could be used for the pudding and tell how the use of some kinds of fruit would modify the time of baking.

Why does the quantity of liquid given in Drop Biscuits vary (see Pour Batter and Gluten)?

Why is it necessary to surround the cream with ice water while whipping it (see Whipping Cream)?



LESSON CXXIX

QUANTITY OF FAT IN QUICK BREADS—SHORT CAKE

"Shortening."—The tenderness of a quick bread is an important consideration. It is dependent upon the quantity of fat in the bread. Oil and water do not mix (see Experiment 35). Hence when much fat is used in a quick bread, particles of dough or batter, which contain both fat and moisture, do not adhere firmly. Quick bread containing much fat becomes tender, that is, it crumbles readily.

In preparing modified biscuit mixtures,—short cakes, fruit dumplings, etc.,—in which the quantity of fat is increased, make very careful comparisons between the "rich" or "short" breads and those containing the standard quantity of fat. In making observations, note the following:

(a) ease or difficulty in removing from the pan without breaking, (b) tenderness or toughness, (c) difference in flavor.

FRUIT SHORT CAKE

Make a biscuit mixture, containing two or three times the quantity of fat used in biscuit mixture. Place one half of the mixture in an oiled cake pan, then spread it with a scant quantity of melted butter or substitute. Add the remainder of the mixture and bake at 450 degrees F., for 20 minutes. Remove from the pan, and place on a cake cooler for a few minutes. Split the cake open and fill with crushed and sweetened fruits. Place uncrushed fruits on the top, and serve with plain cream or Whipped Cream or Fruit Sauce; or cover the cake with a meringue, garnish with whole fruit, and serve with a Soft Custard Sauce.

1/4 cupful of sugar may be added to the dry ingredients of Short Cake.

QUESTIONS

What general statement can you make with regard to the effect of increasing the fat in quick breads?

Knowing the change that takes place in a quick bread, when the quantity of fat is increased, state the effect of adding too much fat.

What is the purpose of using melted butter or substitute in the Short Cake mixture?

Mention some fruits, or fruit combinations, that would be palatable in a Short Cake.

How many persons can be served with a Short Cake made with 2 cupfuls of flour?



LESSON CXXX

"CUT" BISCUIT

USE OF THE ROLLING PIN.—When dough is to be rolled and cut into biscuits, it needs to be a little stiffer than for Drop Biscuits. It should, however, be a soft dough. Biscuit dough should not be pressed down with a rolling motion, but should be deftly and gently "patted" out with several successive "touches" with the rolling pin.

In using the rolling pin for stiff doughs, when more pressure should be exerted, the pin should be lifted up at the end of each stroke.

BAKING POWDER BISCUITS

2 cupfuls flour 1/2 teaspoonful salt 4 teaspoonfuls baking powder 2 tablespoonfuls fat Milk or water, about 2/3 cupful

Mix as in drop biscuits, using less milk, so that the dough is just stiff enough to roll out. Roll gently to 1/2 inch thickness on a slightly floured board, and cut into small biscuits. If any dry flour clings to the top of the biscuits, moisten it with a little milk or water. Place on a slightly oiled pan, and bake in a hot oven (475 degrees F.) from 12 to 15 minutes. Serve hot. They may be placed on a folded napkin or doily.

APPLE DUMPLINGS

Make Baking Powder Biscuit dough. Roll until 1/4 inch thick and cut into pieces. Place an apple (cored and pared) in the center of each piece. Fold the dough over the fruit and bake (375 degrees F.) or steam for 1/2 hour, or until the apples are soft. The dumplings may be browned in the oven after steaming.

Rich biscuit dough or pastry may be used for Apple Dumplings. Other fruits may be used instead of apples.

FRUIT ROLLS

Make a biscuit mixture, using 4 tablespoonfuls of fat instead of 2 tablespoonfuls, as given in the recipe for Baking Powder Biscuits. Gently roll to 1/4 inch thickness, and spread the following ingredients over it:

1 tablespoonful butter or substitute 2 tablespoonfuls sugar 1/2 teaspoonful cinnamon Fruit

For the fruit use:

1/2 cupful dried currants, or 1/3 cupful raisins and 2 tablespoonfuls citron, or 2 cupfuls chopped apples

Roll as jelly roll, then cut into pieces 3/4 inch thick and place (cut side down) on buttered tins. Bake in a hot oven (450 degrees F.) 15 to 30 minutes. If apples are used, serve the roll with cream and sugar as a dessert. If the dried fruits are used, serve the roll in place of a hot bread or cake.

QUESTIONS

Compare recipes for "drop" and "cut" biscuits. How do they differ?

Why should biscuits be "patted" out rather than rolled out with the rolling pin?

If dry flour clings to the top of the biscuits after cutting, what is the result after baking? How can this be remedied?

How can the biscuit cutter and rolling pin be prevented from sticking to the dough?

Why are biscuits sometimes served on a napkin or doily?

Write a recipe for Baking Powder Biscuits, using 3 cupfuls of flour as the basis.

How many apples of medium size are required for Apple Dumplings, when 2 cupfuls of flour are used?

Why do Apple Dumplings require a longer time for baking than Baking Powder Biscuits?

How should citron be cut for use in cooking?

If apples are to be used for the fruit of Fruit Rolls, give in order the measuring, the preparation, and the mixing of the materials.



RELATED WORK

LESSON CXXXI

MEASUREMENT OF THE FUEL VALUE OF FOOD APPLIED TO DAILY FOOD REQUIREMENT

Practical Method of Diet Calculation.—The 100-Calorie portions can be used in a very practical way for computing the fuel value of one's daily diet. In Lesson CXVI the weights of 100-Calorie portions of flour, butter, sugar, etc., were determined, then these portions were weighed and measured. In much the same way, tables have been prepared containing the weight and measure of 100-Calorie portions. If such a table is read and the quantity of the various ordinary foods that will produce 100 Calories of heat is kept in mind, the computation of the meal becomes very simple.

If a person knows his energy requirement, he can select such quantities of food for the day as will conform with the ideal standard. The quantity of food to be used at each meal is a matter of personal choice. The important point is to have the food of the entire day conform to the standard. However, in computing the energy value of the foods of each meal, some find it convenient to divide the day's ration. The following is a convenient division: One third for breakfast, one fourth for luncheon, and five twelfths for dinner.

But the division may vary with individual needs. Ascertaining one's energy requirement and deciding upon a certain division for the three meals, one can very easily select such quantities of foods for each meal as will conform with the ideal standard. If the energy requirement of a girl of fourteen years is 2200 Calories, her breakfast may yield approximately 750 Calories, her luncheon 550 Calories, and her dinner 900 Calories. A luncheon consisting of an omelet made with one egg (50), one medium slice of homemade bread (100), orange marmalade (100), butter for bread (100), large banana (100), and a small glass of milk (100) would yield sufficient nourishment according to the requirement above.

If it is desired to compute the Calories produced by the protein of a meal, data can be obtained from the table also (see Calories Derived from Protein).

The calculation of the protein content of the luncheon above is:

Number of Calories derived from protein of egg 18.2 Number of Calories derived from protein of bread 13.8 Number of Calories derived from protein of marmalade 0.7 Number of Calories derived from protein of butter 0.5 Number of Calories derived from protein of banana 5.3 Number of Calories derived from protein of milk 19.1 —— Number of Calories derived from protein of entire meal 57.6

If one tenth of the total energy requirement is taken as the desired protein requirement, the above luncheon approaches the ideal.

The Form C given below will be found convenient to use in calculating the fuel value of menus from 100-Calorie portions.

QUESTIONS

Calculate your own breakfast, luncheon, and dinner energy requirement, and those of at least two members of your family.

From the table of 100-Calorie portions estimate the fuel value of all your meals served either at your home or at school for several days. Compare the result with the ideal energy requirement obtained above. If the results vary greatly, strive to select the proper kind and quantity of foods so that the total Calories and Calories derived from protein approach the ideal.

FORM C: CALCULATION OF 100-CALORIE PORTIONS

Meal: Number Served: Food Quantity Number Total Calories Total Cost Total of 100- Calories Produced Calories of 100- Cost Calorie by Protein Produced Calorie Portions in 100- by Protein Portion Calorie Portion

Total Total for One Person

Percent of Total Calories produced by calories derived from Protein: Signature: Date:

TABLE OF 100-Calorie PORTIONS

[Footnote 103: The approximate measure of 100-Calorie portions is based in part upon "Table of 100 Food Units," compiled by Dr. Irving Fisher. The weight in ounces of 100-Calorie portions and Calories derived from protein are based upon data found on p. 410 of "Chemistry of Food and Nutrition," by Henry C. Sherman, Ph. D. Items marked "*" are from "Feeding the Family," by Mary Swartz Rose, Table III, p. 355.]

EDIBLE PORTIONS APPROXIMATE MEASURE WEIGHT CALORIES OF 100-CALORIE IN OUNCES DERIVED PORTION OF 100- FROM CALORIE PROTEIN PORTION Almonds 15 average 0.5 12.6 Apples 2 medium 5.6 2.5 Apricots, fresh 2 large 6.1 7.7 Asparagus, cooked 2 servings 7.5 17.9 Bacon, smoked (uncooked) 1 thin slice, small 0.6 6.7 Bananas 1 large 3.6 5.3 Beans, baked, canned 1 small serving (1/2 cupful) 2.8 21.5 string, canned 5 servings 17.2 21.5 lima, canned 1 large saucedish 4.6 20.8 Beef, corned 1.2 21.2 dried, salted, and smoked 4 large slices 2.0 67.2 *loaf Slice 4in.x6in.x1/8in. 1.4 40.0 porterhouse steak 1 serving 1.3 32.4 ribs, lean 1 average serving 1.9 42.3 ribs, fat 0.9 15.6 round, free from visible fat 1 generous serving 3.1 80.7 rump, lean 1.7 41.0 rump, fat 0.9 17.5 *stew with vegetables 2/5 cupful 3.0 16.0 sirloin steak 1 average serving 1.4 31.0 Beets, cooked 3 servings 8.9 23.2 *Biscuits, baking powder 2 small 1.3 11.0 *Blanc Mange 1/4 cupful 1.9 8.0 Brazil nuts 3 average size 0.5 10.2 Bread, graham 1 thick slice 1.3 13.5 toasted 2 medium slices (baker's) 1.2 15.2 white homemade 1 medium slice 1.3 13.8 average 1 thick slice 1.3 14.0 whole wheat 1 thick slice 1.4 15.9 Buckwheat flour 1/4 cupful 1.0 7.4 Butter 1 tablespoonful(ordinary pat) 0.5 0.5 Buttermilk 1 1/4 cupfuls (1 1/2 9.9 33.6 glasses) Cabbage 2 servings 11.2 20.3 *Cake, chocolate Piece 2 1/2" x 2 1/2" 0.9 8.0 x 7/8" *Cake, one egg Piece 1 3/4" x 1 3/4" 1.0 8.0 x 1 3/4" Calf's-foot jelly 4.1 19.8 Carrots, fresh 2 medium 7.8 9.7 Cauliflower (as purchased) 11.6 23.6 Celery 19.1 23.8 Celery soup, canned 2 servings 6.6 15.7 Cheese, American pale (as purchased) 1 1/2 cubic inches 0.8 26.5 American red (as purchased) 1 1/2 cubic inches 0.8 20.0 Cheddar (as purchased) 1 1/2 cubic inches 0.8 24.4 Cottage 4 cubic inches (1/2 cupful) 3.2 76.1 Neufchatel 1 1/2 cubic inches 1.1 23.2 (1/4 cupful) (1/2 small package) Roquefort (as purchased) 1.0 25.3 Swiss (as purchased) 1 1/3 cubic inches 0.8 25.4 Chicken, broilers 1 large serving 3.3 79.1 Chocolate "generous half" square 0.6 8.3 *Chocolate (beverage half milk and half water) 1/2 cupful (scant) 4.1 10.0 Cocoa 2 1/2 tablespoonfuls 0.7 17.3 *Cocoa (beverage, half milk and half water) 3/4 cupful 5.5 14.0 Cod, salt 2 1/2 tablespoonfuls 3.4 97.5 *Cookies 2, 2 1/4 in. diameter 0.9 6.0 Corn, green (as purchased) 1 side dish 3.6 11.4 Corn-meal 2 tablespoonfuls 1.0 10.3 Crackers, graham.. 3 crackers 0.9 9.6 soda 3 crackers 0.9 9.4 water 3 crackers 0.9 10.3 Cranberries(as purchased) 1 cupful (cooked) 7.5 3.4 Cream 1/4 cupful 1.8 5.0 Cucumbers 2 large 20.3 18.4 *Custard, cup 1/3 cupful 3.3 17.0 Dates, dried 4 medium 1.0 2.4 Doughnuts 1/2 doughnut 0.8 6.2 Eggs, uncooked 1 1/2 medium or 2 small 2.4 36.4 Farina 1.0 12.3 Figs, dried 1 large 1.1 5.5 Flour, rye 1/4 cupful 1.0 7.9 wheat, entire 1/4 cupful 1.0 15.5 wheat, graham 1/4 cupful 1.0 14.9 wheat, average high and medium 1/4 cupful 1.0 12.8 Gelatine 4 tablespoonfuls 1.0 98.7 *Gingerbread Piece 1 in. x 2in. x 2 in. 1.2 8.0 Grapes 1 large bunch 3.7 5.4 Haddock 4.9 96.3 Halibut steaks 1 average serving 2.9 61.8 Ham, fresh, lean 1.5 44.0 fresh, medium 1 average serving 1.1 19.0 smoked, lean 1.3 30.1 Herring, whole 2.5 54.6 Hominy, uncooked 1/4 cupful 1.0 9.3 *Ice cream, vanilla 1/4 cupful 2.0 6.0 Lamb, chops, broiled 1 small chop 1.0 24.3 leg, roast 1 average serving 1.8 41.0 Lard, refined 1 tablespoonful (scant) 0.4 (—) Lemons 3 medium 8.0 9.0 Lettuce 50 large leaves 20.4 25.2 Liver, veal, uncooked 2 small servings 2.9 61.6 *Macaroni and cheese 1/3 cupful 2.1 17.0 Macaroni, uncooked. 1/4 cupful(4 sticks) 1.0 15.0 Macaroons 2 0.8 6.2 Mackerel, uncooked 1 large serving 2.5 53.9 salt 1.2 29.5 Marmalade, orange 1 tablespoonful 1.0 0.7 Milk, condensed, sweetened 1 1/16 cupfuls 1.1 10.9 skimmed 1 1/4 cupfuls (scant) 9.6 37.1 whole 5/8 cupful (generous half glass) 5.1 19.1 Molasses, cane 1/8 cupful 1.2 3.4 *Muffins, corn-meal 3/4 muffin 1.2 13.0 *Muffins, wheat 4/5 muffin 1.2 12.0 Muskmelons 1/2 average serving 8.9 6.0 Mutton, leg 1 average serving 1.8 41.2 Oatmeal, uncooked 1/8 cupful 0.9 16.1 Olives, green 7 to 10 1.2 1.5 Onions, fresh 2 medium 7.3 13.2 Oranges 1 very large 6.9 6.2 Oysters, canned 5 oysters 4.9 48.6 Parsnips 1 large 5.4 9.9 Peaches, canned 1 large serving 7.5 6.0 fresh 4 medium 8.5 6.8 Peanuts 10 to 12 (double kernels) 0.6 18.6 Peas, canned 2 servings 6.3 25.9 Peas, dried, uncooked 2 tablespoonfuls 1.0 27.6 green 1 generous serving 3.5 28.0 Pies, apple 1/3 piece 1.3 4.6 custard 1/3 piece 2.0 9.4 lemon 1/3 piece 1.4 5.6 mince 1/4 piece 1.2 8.1 squash 1/3 piece 2.0 9.9 Pineapples, fresh 5 slices 8.2 3.7 canned 1 small serving 2.3 1.0 Pork, chops, medium 1 very small serving 1.1 19.9 fat, salt [Footnote 104: As purchased.] 0.5 1.0 *Potatoes, creamed 2/5 cupful 2.7 9.0 Potatoes, white, uncooked 1 medium 4.2 10.6 Potatoes, sweet, uncooked 1/2 medium 2.9 5.8 Prunes, dried 3 large 1.2 2.8 Raisins 1/8 cupful 1.0 3.0 (packed solid) Rhubarb, uncooked 3 1/2 cupfuls (scant) 15.3 10.4 *Rice Pudding 1/4 cupful 2.2 12.0 Rice, uncooked 2 tablespoonfuls 1.0 9.3 Salmon, whole 1 small serving 1.7 43.1 Sauce, white 1/4 cupful 2.4 8.0 *Salmon, loaf 1/4 cupful 2.1 37.0 Shad, whole 1 average serving 2.2 45.9 Shredded wheat 1 biscuit 1.0 11.3 *Soup, corn 1/2 cupful 3.9 12.0 potato 1/2 cupful (scant) 4.2 15.0 cream of tomato 3/8 cupful 3.2 11.0 Spinach, fresh 3 ordinary servings 14.7 35.0 [Footnote 105: as (after cooking) purchased] Succotash, canned 1 average serving 3.6 14.7 Sugar 3 lumps, 5 teaspoonfuls granulated 0.9 (—) 6 1/2 teaspoonfuls powdered sugar Tapioca, apple 1/4 cupful 3.6 0.7 Tomatoes, fresh 4 average servings 15.5 15.8 canned 1 3/4 cupfuls 15.6 21.3 Turkey 1 serving 1.2 28.7 Turnips 2 large servings 9.0 13.3 (2 turnips) Veal, cutlet 2.3 53.6 fore quarter 2.3 52.8 hind quarter 2.3 53.0 Walnuts, California 4 whole nuts 0.5 10.3 Wheat, cracked 1.0 12.4 White fish 2.4 61.4 Zwieback 1 thick slice 0.8 9.4



LESSON CXXXII

PLANNING, COOKING, AND SERVING A DINNER

Plan a dinner. [Footnote 106: See Footnote 72.] Use seasonable foods. Follow the suggestions given in Lesson CV. Plan the menu so that the cost of the materials does not exceed 30 cents per person. From the Table of 100-Calorie Portions estimate the total Calories and the Calories derived from protein produced by the foods of your menu. How do the total Calories compare with the dinner energy requirement of an average man or woman? Are the Calories derived from protein from 10 to 15 per cent of the total Calories? If necessary, change your menu so that its total Calories meet the dinner energy requirements of an average man or woman and its Calories derived from protein are from 10 to 15 per cent of the total Calories. The pupil should note that the Calorific value of meals is usually correct if the suggestions for menu-making given in Lesson CV are followed.

Cook and serve the dinner. Follow the Russian or Compromise Style of serving. Serve the dinner with a maid. [Footnote 107: See Footnote 101.]



LESSON CXXXIII

REVIEW—MEAL COOKING

MENU

Rolled Beef Steak Stuffed Baked Potato Drop Biscuits

See Lesson XIV for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson.



LESSON CXXXIV

HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 108: See Lesson IX.]

SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.—Plan and cook meals.

From the Table of 100-Calorie Portions estimate the fuel value of the meals you prepare.

SUGGESTED AIMS: To compare the fuel value of the meals with the energy requirements secured in answering the Questions in Lesson CXXXI. To use these comparisons as a basis on which to plan meals more nearly approaching the desired energy requirements.



DIVISION THIRTEEN

YEAST BREADS: STIFF DOUGHS

LESSON CXXXV

YEAST—LOAF BREAD

EXPERIMENT 77: CONDITIONS FOR GROWTH OF THE YEAST PLANT.—(a) Mix 1 tablespoonful of flour, 1 tablespoonful of sugar, 3/4 cake compressed yeast, and 5 tablespoonfuls of cold water. Put 1 tablespoonful of the mixture in a test tube and mark the tube "a." Fill the tube nearly full of lukewarm water and stand in a warm place for 15 minutes. Examine, noting especially the appearance at the top of the test tube. What kind of substance (gas, liquid, or solid) has been formed by the growth of the yeast plants?

(b) Put 1 teaspoonful of the yeast mixture in a test tube, and fill nearly full of boiling water. Label it "b" and after 15 minutes examine. Is there any change in the contents of the tube? What has happened to the yeast plants?

(c) Put 1 teaspoonful of the yeast mixture in a test tube, fill nearly full of cold water, and label it "c." Surround it with cracked ice or, if the weather is cold, place it out of doors. After 15 minutes examine. Is there any change in the contents of the tube? Why do not the yeast plants grow?

(d) Surround the tube marked "c" with lukewarm water and stand in a warm place. After 15 minutes examine. Are the yeast plants growing? Does freezing kill yeast plants?

(e) Mix 1/8 cake yeast with a little lukewarm water. Stand in a warm place and after 15 minutes examine. Will yeast grow in water alone?

(f) Mix 1/8 cake yeast, 1 tablespoonful of sugar, and a little lukewarm water. Set aside in a warm place so that the yeast plants may grow. Then examine under the microscope. Are there any budding yeast cells? Make a drawing of the plants as they appear under the microscope.

Draw at least two practical conclusions from these experiments as to the use and care of yeast for bread making



PROPERTIES OF YEAST.—Yeast consists of a mass of microscopic plants (see Figure 86). When placed under proper conditions these plants grow rapidly, and in so doing they separate the sugar that exists in flour into carbon dioxide and alcohol. The carbon dioxide lightens dough. The alcohol passes off as vapor in baking.

Plants need moisture, warmth, light, and the food that is furnished by the air and soil for their growth. Yeast plants require all of these except light. They are not green plants, hence they need no light. Moisture is obtained from the water, milk, or other liquids used in bread dough. Yeast thrives at a temperature of 90 degrees F. It is killed by a temperature above 130 degrees F. Hence the yeast is mixed with lukewarm water. The other liquids that are added to it are of the same temperature. Also, the dough is placed in a warm place while it is rising, or while the yeast plants are growing. The food required for the rapid growth of the yeast is obtained from the protein and carbohydrates in the flour.

Compressed yeast cakes which are wrapped in tinfoil and received fresh at the market every day or two are the most satisfactory to use. This yeast must be fresh for successful bread making. It is fresh when it is of a light color, is free from dark streaks, and is crumbly in texture.

Stiff Dough.—Approximately four parts of flour to one of moisture are used for stiff doughs. When sufficient flour has been added to stiff dough, it should not cling to the sides of the mixing bowl. This is an indication to the pupil of the proper stiffness of the dough. The test applies, however, only when there is no coating of flour over the dough. One should remember that the softest dough will not "stick," if covered generously with flour.

General Suggestions for Bread Making.—Use wheat bread flour, or a combination of wheat bread flour with whole wheat, or graham flour, or with flour or meal made from other grains, in making bread. Flour should be kept in a dry place. It is well to warm flour for bread before using.

If milk is used, scald or boil it to prevent it from souring. Water should be boiled and then cooled (see Why Foods Spoil).

With 1 pint of liquid 1/2 to 1 cake of yeast should be used. When it is desired to mix and bake bread in a few hours, a greater quantity of yeast may be used. If the yeast is fresh, most satisfactory results are secured when this is done. The use of much yeast, however, adds to the cost of bread. The less quantity of yeast (1/2 cake) is used when the dough is allowed to rise overnight. Mix 1 yeast cake in 1 cupful of lukewarm water before adding the rest of the liquid.

It is desirable to use sufficient yeast and to subject it to desirable conditions so that the dough will rise quickly. If the rising process occupies much time, certain kinds of bacteria which may be present in the yeast or other materials may act upon the alcohol present in the risen dough and convert it into acid. This produces sour dough and consequently bread of sour taste and odor.

Although it is customary to allow bread to rise twice, tasty bread may be secured by one rising. Bread raised only once, however, is usually of uneven grain, because the carbon dioxide bubbles formed during rising are uneven in size or are unevenly distributed. By kneading bread, the larger bubbles are broken or distributed more evenly through the dough. Since considerable gas is pressed out by kneading, it is necessary to allow the dough to rise a second time. It is well to make the dough into small loaves, and place them in small pans, so that the bread will be baked through.

Loaves of bread should bake at least 1 hour at a temperature varying from 375 degrees F. to 400 degrees F. During the first 20 minutes they should rise but slightly and just begin to brown; during the second 20 minutes they should continue to brown; during the last 20 minutes they should shrink from the sides of the pan, while still continuing to brown.

To soften the crust, rub it with a bit of butter or substitute a few minutes before taking from the oven and again after removing from the oven. After baking, place the loaves of bread on a bread cooler, or arrange them in such a way that the air may reach them on all sides. When cool, place in a covered tin box.

BREAD (2 loaves)

2 cupfuls hot water or milk and water 2 teaspoonfuls salt 2 teaspoonfuls sugar 1/2 tablespoonful fat 1/2 to 1 cake compressed yeast 1/2 cupful lukewarm water Bread flour (7 to 8 cupfuls)

Boil the water or milk and water. Pour it into a bowl and add the salt, sugar, and fat. Stir until the salt and sugar are dissolved, and the fat is melted. Mix the yeast with lukewarm water. When the first mixture is cooled to lukewarm temperature, add the yeast mixture to it. Then add flour enough to make it of the proper consistency (see Stiff Dough), using a knife for mixing. Turn out on a floured board, and knead until soft and elastic. Return the dough to the bowl, moisten, cover, and let rise until doubled in bulk. Then divide it into loaves, or shape into biscuits. Cover and allow the loaves or biscuit to rise in the pan in which they are to be baked until they are doubled in bulk. Bake the biscuits 30 minutes in a hot oven and the bread about 60 minutes in a moderate oven (see Oven Thermometers and Temperatures).

QUESTIONS

Why should the flour for bread be warmed before using?

What should be the temperature of all materials mixed with yeast? Why?

What should be the difference in the temperature of the oven for loaf bread and for biscuits? Explain.

Why should bread be stored in a covered tin box?

At what temperatures should biscuits and loaf bread bake? Why are these foods baked at different temperatures?

For how long a time should biscuits and bread bake? Explain the difference in the length of time of baking each.



LESSON CXXXVI

WHEAT FLOUR—BREAD SPONGE

EXPERIMENT 78: PROTEIN IN FLOUR.—Make a stiff dough, using 2 tablespoonfuls of bread flour and about 1/2 tablespoonful of water. Knead well, and allow to stand for 20 minutes. Then tie the dough in cheese- cloth, place it in a bowl of water, and knead for a few minutes.

Pour a little of the water in a test tube; drain the remainder of the water from the dough. Add more water to the bowl. Again knead the dough under the clean water.

Examine the material in the cloth. What is its color? Feel and pull it. Put a little on a plate to dry, and bake some in the oven. Examine after drying and baking. How has it changed in size by heating?

Test the water in the test tube for starch.

GLUTEN.—The material left in the cloth consists largely of protein. If flour is mixed with water, gluten is formed from the two kinds of protein that are to be found in all wheat flours. Gluten is yellowish gray in color, is extremely elastic and sticky, and, if moistened and heated, expands to many times its original bulk. These qualities of gluten are most desirable for good yeast bread; hence, the more protein that flour contains, the better it is for bread making. As has been stated, some flours contain more protein than others. The protein of wheat as well as of other grains is incomplete, hence grains need to be supplemented with other kinds of protein food.

WHEAT FLOUR.—The quantity of protein in flour is not only dependent upon the portion of the wheat kernel used in making the flour (see Difference in Wheat Flours), but also upon the kind of wheat from which the flour is made. Spring wheat, the seeds of which are sown in the springtime, usually contains more protein than winter wheat, the seeds of which are sown in the fall. The flour made from spring wheat is called hard wheat flour or bread flour. This flour is creamy in color, rather gritty in feeling, and when pressed in the hand does not retain the impression of the fingers. Flour made from winter wheat is called soft wheat flour or pastry flour. This is white, very fine and velvety in feeling, and easily retains the impression of the fingers.

On account of the greater quantity of protein in bread flour, this flour absorbs more moisture than pastry flour. Less bread flour than pastry flour, therefore, is required for the bread mixture. If bread flour is substituted for pastry flour, its quantity should be decreased,—2 tablespoonfuls for each cupful.

DRY YEAST SPONGE.—It is generally agreed that compressed yeast is more satisfactory for bread making than dry yeast. By the use of the former, the method is shorter, and the "rising" can take place during the daytime and be checked at the proper time. The use of dry yeast, however, is necessary under some conditions. For this kind of yeast cake, the yeast is made into a stiff dough by mixing it with starch or meal, and is then dried. In the dry state, yeast plants do not grow, but remain inactive until they are subjected to conditions favorable for growth. In order that dry yeast may begin to grow, it is necessary to make a sponge of the materials used in bread making. A sponge is a batter containing half as much flour as is required for the stiff dough. A thin mixture rises more quickly than does a stiff dough; hence the advantage of "starting" dry yeast in a sponge.

The growth of yeast is somewhat retarded by salt and spices. Sugar in small quantity aids rapid growth; much sugar delays the rising of bread. Much fat and many eggs also make the process slower. In the preparation of buns, when much fat and sugar and many eggs are to be used, it is advisable to make a sponge. These materials are not to be added, however, until the sponge is stiffened. The yeast thus gets a good "start" before the eggs, etc., are added.

BREAD (made with dry yeast) (2 loaves)

2 cupfuls water 1/2 cake dry yeast 2 teaspoonfuls salt 2 teaspoonfuls sugar 1 tablespoonful fat 6 cupfuls (or more) bread flour

Soak the yeast in the water (lukewarm) until softened. Then add the salt, sugar, and fat. Stir until the salt and sugar are dissolved, and the fat is melted. Add one half the given quantity of flour. Beat until the mixture is smooth; cover. Let rise until very porous and foamy. Add enough flour to make a stiff dough; knead; and allow to rise until doubled in bulk. Proceed as for bread made with compressed yeast.

SCORE CARD FOR BREAD [Footnote 109: "Selection and Preparation of Food," by Bevier and Van Meter, p. 82.]—DETERMINING ITS QUALITY

Flavor 35 Lightness 15 Grain and texture 20 Crust (color, depth, texture) 10 Crumb (color, moisture) 10 Shape and size 10 —- Total 100

QUESTIONS

Under what conditions would dry yeast be used in bread making?

For what reason is bread dough kneaded?

What is the test for sufficient kneading of bread dough?

In what part of the country is spring wheat grown? Winter wheat?

How are the flours distinguished that are made from these different kinds of wheat?

From U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition of winter and of spring wheat flour.

Which contains the more protein; which, the more carbohydrates? Compare the quantity of ash in each.

Knowing the method of leavening, the time required for raising, and the properties of gluten, explain why spring wheat flour is better adapted to yeast breads than to quick breads.

What is the price per sack of pastry and of bread flour?

What is the price per cake of compressed yeast? What is the price per package of dry yeast? How many cakes in a package?



LESSON CXXXVII

MODIFICATIONS OF PLAIN WHITE BREAD

BREADS OTHER THAN WHEAT.—As mentioned previously, wheat is the most popular grain in this country, largely because we are most used to it, not because it is a better food than other cereals. The use of different starchy materials and grains, especially the whole cereals, is advised to give variation not only in flavor, but in nutritive content. Yeast breads containing cereals other than wheat are more satisfactory in texture and in size of loaf when they are made by combining some wheat with the other grains.

The housekeeper of olden days considered the potato most essential for bread making. It is possible to make good bread by using 1/3 as much mashed potato as wheat flour. Potato bread is moist; it keeps better than bread made entirely with wheat. It has been observed that bread containing potatoes or potato water rises quickly. It is possible that the growth of the yeast is stimulated by potato. Although bread containing potatoes is light, it is not as delicate or "fluffy" as plain wheat bread.

Since potatoes contain much moisture, the quantity of liquid used in making potato bread should be lessened. Because bread dough containing potatoes softens as it rises, sufficient flour should be added to make it very stiff or more flour added while kneading.

Much experimenting with bread during the World War showed that bread containing cereals other than wheat is more satisfactory when potatoes are used in making it. It was found that less of wheat and more of the other grains could be used when potatoes were added to the dough.

Bread made of grains other than wheat requires a greater quantity of yeast than wheat bread. The following explanation may account for this fact: Some recent scientific investigations point out the fact that the activity of yeast is increased when vinegar or other weak acid material is added to bread dough. Since the proteins of cereals other than wheat absorb more of the free acid of the dough than do the proteins of wheat, the acidity of the dough is lessened. Hence more yeast is required to leaven dough containing grains other than wheat.

GRAHAM BREAD

Use one half white bread flour and one half graham flour in the recipe given for Bread in order to make Graham Bread. One fourth cupful of molasses may be substituted for the sugar. Mix and bake as white bread.

Some consider that it is much more satisfactory to make a sponge when using graham flour. If this is done, first make a sponge using only one half the given quantity of flour. Let the mixture rise, then add the remainder of the flour, and proceed as in making white wheat bread.

WHOLE WHEAT BREAD

Follow the recipe for Bread, substituting whole wheat for the fine wheat bread flour, but make a soft, not stiff dough.

Raisin Bread may be made by adding 2 cupfuls of seeded raisins to whole wheat bread mixture and increasing the sugar to 1/4 cupful or substituting 1/3 cupful molasses for the sugar. Use the greater quantity of yeast. Add the raisins to the mixture before adding the flour.

POTATO BREAD (2 loaves)

2 cupfuls dry mashed potatoes 1 cupful water in which potatoes were cooked 1 tablespoonful salt 1/2 cupful lukewarm water 2 tablespoonfuls sugar 1 tablespoonful fat 1/2 to 1 cake compressed yeast 5 1/2 to 6 cupfuls wheat bread flour

Pare 6 medium-sized potatoes. Cut into pieces and cook in boiling water until tender. Drain the water from the potatoes, but save the potato water to use as moisture for the dough, and for mixing with the yeast. Mash the potatoes; add the potato water, salt, sugar, and fat. Then proceed as directed for Bread.

OATMEAL-POTATO BREAD (2 loaves)

1 1/2 cupfuls potato water 2 cupfuls rolled oats 1 tablespoonful salt 2 teaspoonfuls sugar Wheat bread flour, about 6 cupfuls 1 tablespoonful fat 2 cupfuls dry mashed potatoes 1 cake compressed yeast 1 tablespoonful lukewarm water

Heat the liquid to boiling point. Pour it over the rolled oats. Add the salt, sugar, and fat. Stir and let stand until the mixture is lukewarm. Add the potatoes, then proceed as for plain bread. Let the dough rise in the pans until it is from 2 1/4 to 2 1/2 times its original bulk.

QUESTIONS

From U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition of white, of graham, and of whole wheat bread.

Under what conditions should a sponge be made when compressed yeast is used?

What kind of bread is most satisfactory in high altitudes, i.e. where the climate is dry? Explain.

Why is potato water a more valuable liquid for bread making than water?

What is the purpose of adding boiling water to rolled oats in making Oatmeal-Potato Bread (see Substituting Other Cereals for Wheat Flour)?

Compare the quantity of yeast used in Oatmeal-Potato Bread with that used in plain wheat bread. Account for the difference.



LESSON CXXXVIII

ROLLS AND BUNS

PLAIN ROLLS OR BISCUITS

For rolls or biscuits use the recipe for Bread, adding twice the quantity of fat, and using milk for part of the liquid. Or they may be made by kneading more fat into any bread dough. Knead well after the first rising; then cut into pieces half the size of an egg, and shape into balls. Place the balls some distance apart in a pan or place the balls so that one touches another. The latter plan of placing in the pan produces biscuits having a small amount of crust. Allow the biscuits to rise to double their bulk; then bake in a hot oven.

PARKER HOUSE ROLLS

2 cupfuls hot milk and water 3 tablespoonfuls fat 2 tablespoonfuls sugar 1 teaspoonful salt 1 yeast cake 1/4 cupful lukewarm water Bread flour

Make a sponge of the ingredients, using 3 cupfuls of flour. Beat thoroughly, cover, and let rise until light. Then add enough flour to knead. Knead, cover, and allow to rise until doubled in bulk. Knead again slightly, and roll out on a floured board until 1/3 of an inch in thickness. Cut into rounds with a biscuit cutter; put a bit of butter or substitute near the edge of the biscuit; fold; and press the edges together. Place in an oiled pan; cover. Let rise until double in bulk, and bake at 425 degrees F. from 20 to 30 minutes.

The crust may be glazed with a mixture of milk and sugar a few minutes before removing the biscuits from the oven. Use 1 part sugar to 2 parts milk. Diluted egg white also may be used for glazing.

A corn-starch paste is sometimes used for glazing. It is made as follows: Mix 2 teaspoonfuls of corn-starch with the same quantity of cold water. Add 3/4 cupful of boiling water; stir and cook for 5 minutes. Brush this over the top of the rolls, sprinkle with sugar. Return the rolls to the oven and continue baking until the crust is browned.

POTATO YEAST ROLLS

Use the recipe for Parker House Rolls as a basic rule. In preparing the sponge, use 2 cupfuls of dry mashed potatoes instead of flour. Decrease the liquid to 1 cupful. Increase the quantity of salt to 1 tablespoonful. When the sponge is light, add sufficient wheat flour to make the dough of the proper consistency. Proceed as for plain wheat rolls.

Rye flour may be used instead of wheat in preparing these rolls.

CINNAMON BUNS

Use one half of the recipe for Parker House Rolls. After the dough has risen, roll until 1/4 inch thick, and spread with the following:

1/2 cupful butter or butter and other fat softened 2 tablespoonfuls cinnamon 1 cupful currants or raisins 1 cupful brown sugar

Roll the dough as for Jelly Roll or for Fruit Rolls and cut into slices 1 inch thick. Place in well-oiled pans or muffin tins, with a cut surface resting on the pan. When very light, bake in a moderate oven about 30 minutes. The buns may be basted with molasses or sugar, or with a milk and sugar mixture (see Parker House Rolls). Add 1 teaspoonful of the basting material to each bun 15 minutes before removing from the oven.

BISCUITS WITH PRUNE OR RAISIN FILLING

1 cupful milk 1 cupful water 2 tablespoonfuls sugar 1 teaspoonful salt 3 tablespoonfuls fat 1 to 3 eggs 2 cakes compressed yeast 1/4 cupful lukewarm water Bread flour (about 7 cupfuls)

Heat the milk and water. Turn into a bowl and add the sugar, salt, and fat. Let the mixture stand until it is lukewarm in temperature. Mix the yeast with the lukewarm water and add it to the lukewarm milk mixture. Break the egg; beat the white and yolk separately. Add the egg to the other ingredients.

Through a sifter, add enough flour to knead. Knead and roll out on a floured board until about 1 inch in thickness. Cut into rounds with a biscuit cutter. Make a depression in the center of each biscuit, fill with prunes or raisins prepared as directed below.

Place the biscuits on greased pans, let them rise (in a warm place) until doubled in bulk; bake in a hot oven.

PRUNE OR RAISIN FILLING

1 pound dried prunes or 1 1/2 cupfuls seeded raisins 1 teaspoonful cinnamon 1/8 teaspoonful cloves 2 tablespoonfuls lemon juice 1/4 teaspoonful salt Sugar

Soak the fruit in enough water to cover overnight or for several hours. Cook as directed on until the fruit is tender and the water is almost evaporated. If prunes are used, remove the stones. Add the spices, lemon juice, and salt. Also add sugar "to taste."

QUESTIONS

Why should a sponge be made when eggs are to be added to the yeast mixture?

What would be the disadvantage in adding them to a dough, after the dough had stiffened?

What must be done to produce biscuits having much crust rather than little crust?

What care should be taken in regulating the temperature of the oven when baking Cinnamon Buns, especially if they are to be basted during baking?

How many times are Biscuits with Prune or Raisin Filling allowed to rise? How does yeast bread made with one rising differ from that made with several risings?

Why is it necessary to cook the fruit used for filling for biscuits until the water is almost evaporated? What would be the effect on the biscuits of much moisture in the filling?



RELATED WORK

LESSON CXXXIX

FOOD FOR GIRLS AND BOYS

THE YOUNG GIRL.—Adolescence is a period of great activity and growth. Much physical development characterizes the years of youth.

During the time of rapid growth, it is very easy to acquire craving not only for sweets, but for condiments and highly seasoned and spiced foods and for foods of decided and contrasting flavor. As previously explained, such foods used excessively are harmful. It is especially necessary that a girl growing into womanhood use foods which furnish building and energy- giving nutrients in sufficient quantity as well as materials to promote growth.

Going without breakfast may be the cause of headaches, poorly prepared lessons, and in some cases irritability or bad dispositions. When the morning meal is omitted, an undue quantity of food is apt to be eaten at noon. In many schools, work is resumed immediately or shortly after luncheon. The digestion of a large quantity of hearty food interferes with mental effort.

THE HUNGRY BOY belongs to the period of adolescence. It is perfectly natural for the growing boy to be hungry. Indeed during the time from twelve to seventeen years, more food is consumed by the average youth than by an adult. If three meals a day are to satisfy the hungry boy, a nourishing diet must be eaten. Concentrated, but easily digested foods, such as eggs, cereals, meat, starchy and nitrogenous vegetables for building and energy as well as foods which supply mineral matter such as fruits and succulent vegetables, are needed.

The use of milk and cocoa rather than tea and coffee should be encouraged. It is especially necessary that milk with its growth-promoting materials and valuable proteins be included in the diet of a growing youth. If coffee must be used, let it be cereal coffee.

For the boy who would "make the team" and excel in athletics the matter of a proper food selection is most important. The athlete must give serious consideration to his diet.

FOOD PLANS FOR GIRLS AND BOYS.—According to the table given on previously, the diet of a girl from fourteen to seventeen should supply Calories averaging 2400, while that of a boy of the same age should supply Calories averaging 3400. [Footnote 110: The reason why the energy requirements of a boy exceeds that of a girl of the adolescent period is stated on previously.]

The following plans for a day's diet for the girl and boy of fourteen to seventeen years are offered as suggestions for wholesome food combinations:

FOODS APPROXIMATE CALORIES

Breakfast. Fruits, fresh or cooked 75-100 Cereal with Whole Milk and Sugar 200-250 Toast and Butter (2 to 3 slices) 300-450 Cocoa or Whole Milk 120-150

Luncheon. Cream Soup 150-175 Meat Substitute 200-300 Bread and Butter (1 to 2 slices) 150-300 Rice or Tapioca Pudding or Blanc Mange 150-200 Cocoa or Whole Milk 120-150

Dinner. Egg-dish or Meat 200-300 Starchy Vegetable or Cereal 100-125 Succulent Vegetable or Salad 50-150 Bread and Butter (1 to 2 slices) 150-300 Baked Custard or Ice Cream with Chocolate Sauce 250-300 Cereal Coffee (with Sugar, and Top Milk) or Whole Milk 125-150 ————- 2340-3400

THE SCHOOL LUNCHEON.—Girls and boys of high school age invariably lunch at school, or a luncheon is brought from home and eaten at school. If a pupil buys his luncheon at school, hot, wholesome, nourishing foods such as cream-soup vegetables, eggs, cereal puddings, cocoa, and milk should be purchased. It is unfortunate if pastry and sweets are chosen to the exclusion of the foods just mentioned.

In case the plainer foods are selected, it is a mistake for the pupil to narrow his purchase to a very few foods such as meat, potatoes, and pastry. Too often pupils get in the habit of choosing foods which furnish too little variety in composition. Learning to like many different foods is a characteristic one should strive to develop. When one abolishes food prejudices and "eats everything" that is wholesome, the possibility of securing a well-balanced meal to meet the needs of the body is increased.

LUNCHEON MENUS.—The quantity and kind of food that should be eaten at luncheon depends largely upon the kind and quantity of foods eaten at breakfast and dinner or supper. Some eat more breakfast than luncheon while others follow the reverse plan. It has been found, however, that a luncheon yielding from 750 to 1000 Calories furnishes adequate nutriment for the average youth, provided of course the foods are well balanced in composition. Suggestive luncheon menus for school girls and boys follow. (The luncheon which is carried from home is discussed in Lesson CXLIX.)

FOOD CALORIES DERIVED TOTAL FROM PROTEIN CALORIES

1 serving macaroni and cheese (1 cupful) 34.0 200.00 1 slice bread and butter 14.2 150.00 1 portion gingerbread (2 ounces) 14.0 200.00 1 medium baked apple with whole milk 6.8 128.00 1 serving cocoa (3/4 cupful) 16.1 118.40 —— ——— 85.1 796.40

1 serving vegetable soup (1 cupful) 21.28 148.22 1 cheese and peanut sandwich 43.47 270.00 1 large orange 6.20 100.00 1 portion cake (2 ounces) 14.00 200.00 1 glass milk (7/8 cupful) 26.60 140.00 ——— ——— 111.55 858.22

1 serving cream of tomato soup (1 cupful) 25.07 178.4 3 soda crackers 9.4 100.0 1 ham sandwich 51.1 316.4 1 portion ice cream (1/8 quart) 7.66 199.2 1 large banana 5.3 100.0 1 glass milk (7/8 cupful) 26.6 140.0 ——— ——— 125.13 1034.0

QUESTIONS

Plan a week's series of school luncheons containing foods which may be obtained at home or at school or at any other place where you eat your luncheon. Calculate the total Calorific value of the menus. Also determine the per cent of Calories derived from protein.



LESSON CXL

PLANNING A DAY'S DIET—COOKING AND SERVING A MEAL

Plan [Footnote 111: See Footnote 72] a day's diet containing the kinds of foods suitable for you and other members of your class and furnishing sufficient Calories to meet the energy-requirement of girls of your age. (Follow the suggestions given in Lesson CV and CXXXIX.) Determine the per cent of the total Calories produced by Calories derived from protein. Compute the cost of the meal.

Cook and serve one of the meals of the day's diet. Follow the English or family style of serving,—either with or without a maid.



LESSON CXLI

REVIEW: MEAL COOKING

MENU

Bread (or Raised Biscuits) Cranberry Jelly (or Fruit Sauce)

See Lesson XIV for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson.



LESSON CXLII

HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 112: See Lesson IX.]

SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.—Bake yeast bread or raised biscuits at your home at least once a week.

SUGGESTED AIMS: (1) To improve the quality of the bread. Score your products each time you prepare them. By careful observation and by consultation with your teacher, determine the cause of any undesirable quality your breads may have and then strive at the next baking to correct your mistakes.

(2) To compare homemade and baker's bread. Determine the weight and cost of a loaf of homemade and baker's bread. Compute the cost per pound of each. Compare the flavor and satisfying qualities of each. Consult other members of your family regarding these two qualities. Name the advantages and disadvantages of baking bread at home.



DIVISION FOURTEEN

CAKE

LESSON CXLIII

CAKE WITHOUT FAT—SPONGE CAKE

COMPARISON OF SPONGE CAKE AND POPOVERS.—See the recipe for Popovers. Compare it with the recipe for Sponge Cake I.

SPONGE CAKE NO. I

4 egg yolks 1 cupful sugar 1 teaspoonful lemon juice Grated rind of 1/2 lemon 4 egg whites 1/2 teaspoonful salt 1 cupful flour

What two ingredients are similar in these recipes? What ingredients does Sponge Cake contain which do not exist in Popovers? What ingredients in Popovers are omitted in Sponge Cake? Note the number of eggs in each. What is the wetting material in Popovers? In Sponge Cake? By what means are Popovers lightened? Sponge Cake? How do you account for the difference in the number of eggs?

NOTE.—A typical Sponge Cake contains no baking powder or moisture except that contained in the eggs and flavoring material. To make a cheaper cake, the following modification may be made: Instead of 4 eggs, 2 eggs with 1/4 cupful of water and 1 teaspoonful of baking powder may be used.

METHOD OF MIXING SPONGE CAKE. Beat the yolks of the eggs until thick and lemon-colored. Add the sugar and continue beating; then add the flavoring and any other liquid that the recipe may call for. Beat the mixture well. Add the salt to the egg whites and beat until the whites are stiff. Sift the flour (and baking powder if used) several times. Add part of the dry ingredients through the sifter to the yolk mixture, then add some of the egg whites. Repeat until all the dry ingredients and the egg whites have been added. Mix by cutting and folding the ingredients. Turn at once into an unoiled pan. Bake in a moderate oven (325 degrees F.) for 50 or 60 minutes.

BAKING SPONGE CAKES.—The baking of a cake, as well as the manner of mixing the ingredients and the quality of the ingredients themselves, determines the success of the cake. A practical test for the temperature of the oven is the placing of a bit of flour or white paper in the oven. If at the end of 5 minutes the paper or flour is slightly browned, the oven is of proper temperature for sponge cakes or cakes without fat. The time required to bake a cake should be divided into quarters. During the first quarter the cake should begin to rise; during the second quarter it should continue to rise and begin to brown; during the third quarter it should continue to brown, and the fourth quarter it should finish baking.

If the mixing and the baking have been successful, failure may result after removing the cake from the oven. It should not be placed in a cold place or in a draft. Invert the cake pan on a wire rack and allow the cake to remain until cool. Remove the cake from the pan, and store in a covered tin box.

SPONGE CAKE NO. II

2 or 3 egg yolks l 1/2 cupfuls sugar 1 tablespoonful lemon juice 3/4 cupful water 2 cupfuls flour 1/2 teaspoonful salt 2 teaspoonfuls baking powder 2 or 3 egg whites

Mix and bake according to the directions given above. It is advisable to oil the pan for this cake.

WASHINGTON PIE

Sponge Cake with Cream Filling is termed Washington Pie. Follow the recipe for Cream Filling and put it between the layers of Sponge Cake, or as a filling between split sheets of a loaf or thick sheet of Sponge Cake.

QUESTIONS

What is the purpose of cutting and folding the egg whites and the dry ingredients into a sponge cake mixture?

Why is it necessary to add moisture and baking powder to Sponge Cake No. II?

What is the effect of too cool an oven on Sponge Cake?



LESSON CXLIV

CAKE CONTAINING FAT—ONE-EGG CAKE

CLASSES OF CAKES.—Cakes are commonly divided into two classes: (a) Cakes without fat and (b) Cakes containing fat. Sponge Cake is an example of the first class and the One-egg Cake given below is an example of the second class. The method of mixing cakes containing fat differs from the method of mixing cakes without fat. The temperature of the oven and the length of time required for baking also differ for the two classes of cakes.

COMPARISON OF ONE-EGG CAKE AND MUFFINS.—See the recipe for Plain Muffins. Compare it with the following recipe.

ONE-EGG CAKE [Footnote 113: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.—If a richer cake is desired, follow the Plain Cake recipe given in Lesson CXLV.]

2 cupfuls flour 3 1/2 teaspoonfuls baking powder 1/2 teaspoonful salt 3/4 to 1 cupful sugar 1 egg 1 cupful milk or water 1 teaspoonful flavoring 2 to 4 tablespoonfuls fat

What ingredient does cake contain that is not present in muffins? What two ingredients exist in greater quantity in cake than in muffins?

THE INGREDIENTS OF A CAKE CONTAINING FAT.—Materials of the best quality should be used for cakes. Pastry flour and the finest granulated sugar are necessary ingredients.

In determining the kind of fat to use in a cake, one should consider all of the ingredients in a recipe, and then decide which one will give the most pronounced flavor to the combined materials. If a cake contains so much fat that the fat will be one of the predominating flavoring ingredients, table butter should be used alone or combined with some bland fat. When but little fat is used in Plain Cake, there is little difference in the flavor of cake made with butter or substitutes. Oleomargarine, tried-out chicken fat, suet, lard, or vegetable fat may be used for spice cakes or other highly flavored cakes. Cake is one of the foods whose ingredients require the greatest accuracy and care in measuring. When a cake contains much fat, the latter can usually be more easily and accurately weighed than measured.

METHOD OF MIXING CAKE CONTAINING FAT.—Since cakes contain much more fat and sugar than muffins, a different method of mixing the fat with the other ingredients of the cake has been used quite generally. The fat and sugar have usually been blended by creaming them.

However, many experiments in the mixing and baking of cakes have been made. These show that a cake of good quality may be made by following the method of mixing fat in a muffin mixture, i.e. melting the fat and adding it to other ingredients. The following is the method of mixing cake when melted fat is used:

Beat the eggs, add the sugar, liquid, and flavoring. Melt the fat and add it to the other ingredients. Mix the dry ingredients, i.e. the flour, baking powder, and salt. Add these through a sifter to the egg and sugar mixture. Beat from 1 to 2 minutes.

In cake mixing, the yolks and the whites of the eggs are often separated. When this is done, the yolks and sugar are blended, the moisture, flavoring, melted fat, and dry ingredients are added, the mixture beaten, and finally the beaten whites are folded in.

In combining cake ingredients, great care must be taken to mix all ingredients thoroughly. Cakes, except those containing very little moisture and much fat, such as Jumbles or Pound Cake, can be made satisfactorily by adding melted fat. It has been estimated that half as much time is required for mixing a cake in which melted fat is used as one in which the fat is creamed. It has been found [Footnote 114: See Journal Home Economics, Vol. X, pp. 542-7, December, 1918.] that the amount of mixing and the preparation of ingredients in a cake are much more important factors than the manner of combining the ingredients. Too little beating makes a cake of coarse, crumbly mixture. Too much beating makes it compact in texture with "tunnels" through it.

PREPARING THE PANS FOR CAKES CONTAINING FAT.—The pans for cakes that contain fat should be well oiled. It is well to line the pans with paper and to oil the paper thoroughly, or to oil the pans well and to sprinkle a little flour over them before adding the cake batter.

BAKING LAYER AND LOAF CAKES.—If a bit of flour or white paper is delicately browned after being placed for 2 minutes in the oven, the oven is of proper temperature for layer cakes containing fat. For a loaf cake the oven should be cooler, since a longer time for baking is required. It is especially important that a crust does not form over the top of a cake before the cake has risen, or before it has been in the oven one fourth of the time required (see Baking Sponge Cakes). To avoid this, the temperature of the oven should be quite low when a thick loaf cake is first placed in it. Some housekeepers find it most satisfactory to cover the top of a pan containing loaf cake with paper until the cake has risen. In general, layer cakes require 20 to 35 minutes for baking and loaf cakes from 40 minutes to 1 1/2 hours. Shortly after taking from the oven, cake containing fat may be removed from the pan, and placed on a wire cake cooler or towel until cold. In a heat-regulated oven, bake layer cakes at 375 degrees F., and loaf cakes at 350 degrees F.

THE QUALITY OF CAKE.—Desirable cake is tender and light, but of fine grain. The quantity of eggs, sugar, fat, and moisture affects these qualities. Too much sugar makes a cake of coarse grain and of waxy or tough texture. On the other hand, a cake containing too little sugar is not as fine grained as one having "just enough."

A cake in which there is too much fat is crisp or crumbly,—i.e. it will not hold its shape. Too little fat may make it tough in texture. Generally the more fat a cake contains the smaller the quantity of moisture needed. Note that the One-egg Cake recipe contains 1 cupful of liquid, but when the fat is increased to 1/2 cupful, the moisture is decreased to 2/3 cupful (see Plain Cake recipe).

Many eggs without a proportionate quantity of fat and sugar produce a tough cake. The toughness occasioned by eggs, may be offset, of course, by the tenderness produced by fat. It is a most interesting study to compare cake recipes. Some are well proportioned, others could be greatly improved by variations in the quantity of ingredients.

The flavor of a cake is largely affected by the proportion of ingredients in a cake. For the sake of economy, however, certain ingredients, especially fat and eggs, must be decreased even though texture, grain, and flavor are sacrificed. The matter of wholesomeness must also be taken into consideration. Many persons can eat with comfort plain cakes, i.e. those containing little fat and a moderate quantity of sugar, while rich cakes distress them.

SCORE CARD FOR CAKE,—DETERMINING ITS QUALITY

Flavor 40 Lightness 20 Grain and texture 15 Baking (crust and color) 15 Appearance (shape and icing) 10 —- Total 100

QUESTIONS

How should cake batter be spread in the pan to prevent it from rising higher in the center than at the edges?

What is the purpose of placing the warm cake on a cake cooler or on a cloth? Mention some substitute other than a cloth for a wire cake cooler. Why not place the warm cake inverted on the cake cooler?