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[FIGURE 76—THE COMPOSITION OF LEGUMES AND CORN (Revised edition.)]
Cover the bread crumbs with milk, and soak them until soft. Chop the peanuts very fine, and mix with the baking powder; beat the egg. Mix thoroughly all the ingredients, and turn into an oiled bread pan. Bake about 45 minutes in a moderate oven. Serve hot with Tomato Sauce.
Commercial salted peanuts may be used for Peanut Roast.
QUESTIONS
From U.S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 28, find the percentage of protein in Cream and Cottage Cheese, eggs (see Figure 75), walnuts, peanuts, dried peas, and beans (see Figure 76), and beef. How many ounces of protein does a pound of each of these foods contain? What is the price per pound of each of these foods? Which food is the cheapest source of protein?
Why are bread crumbs a valuable addition to Scalloped Eggs with Cheese (see Figure 77)?
Name other meat-substitute foods and dishes.
LESSON CIV
MEAT EXTENDERS AND ONE-DISH MEALS
MEAT EXTENDERS.—The flavor of meat is generally liked. Doubtless the flavor accounts more than any other characteristic for the popularity of meat. By using a small quantity of meat and combining it with various cereals and vegetables, the flavor of meat permeates the mixture although its quantity is reduced and price consequently lowered. Foods containing such a combination of food materials are termed meat extenders. Those desiring to reduce the quantity of meat consumed either for the sake of health or economy will find meat-extending dishes desirable.
ONE-DISH MEALS.—When many demands other than those of housekeeping are made upon homekeepers it is often wise to lessen housekeeping duties. It is both possible and satisfactory to cook an entire meal in one dish. A meal consisting of one dish with a few accessories is termed a one-dish meal. It is obvious that the one-dish meal is both simple and economical; it saves time, fuel, and food; it is a wise conservation measure.
In preparing the one-dish meal use a combination of two or more of the following groups of food:
(1) Vegetables,
(2) Milk, or cheese, or eggs, or fish, or meat, or beans, or nuts,
(3) Cereal, such as corn, barley, rice, oats, or buckwheat.
To two or more of these groups of food a small amount of fat or oil is generally added.
The use of such foods with a dessert or fruit or a plain salad makes a meal that satisfies the most exacting.
It is most interesting to select foods from the groups above that would "eat well" together. The one-dish meal gives one the opportunity for a fascinating study of food combinations. If the casserole or fireless cooker is used in their preparation, the possibilities are limitless.
An examination of the meat-substitute dishes and meat extenders will show that most of these foods make one-dish meals.
MUTTON WITH BARLEY
1 pound mutton 1 onion 1/2 cupful pearled barley 2 quarts water, boiling 4 potatoes Celery leaves (fresh or dried) 1 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt
Cut the fat from the meat, cut the meat into pieces. Put the fat and sliced onion in a frying pan. Brown the meat in the fat. Add the barley and water and let the mixture cook at simmering temperature for at least 1 1/2 hours. Pare the potatoes, cut them into quarters. Add the potatoes and celery leaves and cook the mixture at boiling temperature until the potatoes are tender. Serve hot.
(Adapted from Department of Agriculture Leaflet.)
TAMALE PIE
3/4 cupful corn-meal 1 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt 3 cupfuls boiling water 1 onion 1 tablespoonful fat 1 pound chopped meat 2 cupfuls tomatoes Dash Cayenne pepper, or 1 small chopped sweet pepper 1 1/4 teaspoonfuls salt
Make a mush by stirring the corn-meal and 1 1/2 teaspoons salt into boiling water. Cook in a double boiler or over water for 45 minutes. Brown the onion in the fat, add the chopped meat, and stir until the red color disappears. Add the tomato, pepper, and salt. Grease a baking-dish, put in a layer of corn-meal mush, add the seasoned meat, and cover with mush. Bake 30 minutes.
(Adapted from United States Department of Agriculture Leaflet.)
CREOLE STEW
1 pound lean beef or 1 medium fowl 1 tablespoonful fat 1/4 cupful chopped onion 1/2 cupful chopped sweet peppers 1 cupful boiling water 1/2 cupful rice 1 cupful carrots or okra (cut into small pieces) 2 cupfuls tomatoes 2 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt
Cut the meat into small pieces or cut the fowl into joints. In a frying pan melt the fat, add the onions, peppers, meat, or chicken. Brown for a few minutes.
Pour these materials into a casserole or kettle of the fireless cooker and add the other ingredients. If the casserole is used, cook at simmering temperature for 2 hours. If the stew is to be cooked in the fireless cooker, cook it directly over the flame for 1/2 hour and then place it in the fireless cooker from 2 to 3 hours. Serve hot.
With chicken and okra this is the famous Creole Chicken of the South.
(Adapted from United States Department of Agriculture Leaflet.)
QUESTIONS
Make a list of meat-extending dishes.
Make a list of foods suitable for the main food of one-dish meals.
How many persons will one pound of meat serve?
How many persons will the dishes of this lesson (each containing one pound of meat) serve?
Tell why the foods comprising these dishes are desirable food combinations.
RELATED WORK
LESSON CV
MENU-MAKING
REPRESENTATION OF ALL ESSENTIALS OF DIET.—All the foodstuffs or nutrients should be represented in the foods of a meal, or at least in the foods composing a day's diet. The meal, or the day's ration, should consist of:
Food rich in carbohydrates and fat, to supply energy to the body.
Food rich in protein [Footnote 70: Protein is not only a body-builder, but also a fuel. But since it should be used chiefly for body-building (see Daily Carbohydrate and Fat Requirement) its energy-giving power is not considered in meal planning.] and ash, to build the body.
Food in the form of ash and water, to regulate the processes of the body.
Food containing vitamines, to promote the health and growth of the body.
Food containing cellulose, to give bulk to diet.
Water is supplied to some extent with almost all the foods of a meal, but as mentioned previously, a generous quantity should be used as a beverage.
A consideration of the kinds of food to meet the different needs of the body follows:
A. Food for Energy.—Although both starch and sugar are carbohydrates which furnish energy to the body, this need of the body should be supplied for the most part by starch. The harmful effects of excessive sugar eating were mentioned previously.
A certain amount of fat is needed for energy-giving. A meal containing fat "stays by" a person for a longer time than one devoid of foods rich in fat. This is because fat is more slowly digested than other foodstuffs. Hence a vigorous person leading an active outdoor life may feel much more comfortable when fat is included in his diet. On the other hand, those exercising little find that fat-rich foods distress them greatly, since they are too slowly digested. For many persons, the use of much fat is harmful. Since butter contains the fat-soluble vitamine, it is valuable not only for energy-giving, but for growth-promoting.
B. Food for Body-building and Repairing.—Both protein and ash are needed for body-building. The former foodstuff contains the element nitrogen,—one of the necessary elements for the growth and maintenance of the body.
Since there are several kinds of food containing protein, the question arises whether protein is best supplied by meat, eggs, milk, cheese, or vegetable protein foods. There are some who contend that meat is the least desirable source of protein food. The use of much meat may lead to the formation of an excess of uric acid which is eliminated by some persons with difficulty. It may also cause intestinal putrefaction.
Many find that by using meat once a day their health is normal. Others find that by using meat but several times a week a more desirable condition is maintained. Doubtless many people would find themselves much benefited by using less meat. If the quantity of meat eaten is greatly lessened, care should be taken that protein is supplied by other foods, such as eggs, legumes, cheese, and the various meat-substitute dishes. Care should also be taken to see that complete proteins are included in diet. If foods containing incomplete protein such as some of the legumes and cereals are used for body-building, they should be supplemented by foods rich in complete protein such as milk and eggs. If much meat is eaten, a generous quantity of water and of fresh vegetables and fruits should be used.
While all the mineral materials found in the body [Footnote 71: The ash constituents existing in the body in largest quantity are:
Sulphur Chlorine Calcium Iron Sodium Magnesium Potassium Phosphorus
] are necessary for its growth and maintenance, calcium, phosphorus, and iron are the elements most likely to be used in insufficient quantities (see Figures 78, 79, and 80).
Calcium is needed for building the hard tissues such as the teeth and bones. A diet deficient in calcium is sometimes the cause of poor teeth. Calcium is equally important for body-regulating functions. It is especially necessary that calcium-rich food be given to children.
The most practical and effective way of obtaining calcium is to use a generous supply of milk. Cheese, eggs, and the leaves and stems of plant-foods are also valuable sources of calcium.
Milk, egg yolk, cheese, whole grains, and vegetables are the most satisfactory sources of phosphorus. A free use of these foods is especially desirable since it has been found that phosphorus is quite as necessary as nitrogen. The whole grains are a very valuable source of ash. Many of the ash constituents in cereals are found next to the outer coat of bran, hence fine white flour is not so rich in ash as whole wheat flour.
In the formation of blood and for the welfare of the body as a whole, iron is needed. For this reason, it is often a constituent of "tonics." If foods rich in iron were more generally used, the body would not be so likely to get into a condition requiring such tonics. The iron found in eggs, milk, and vegetable foods is thought to be more completely assimilated than that found in meat. Spinach and prunes are valuable sources of iron. This is one of the reasons why they are most desirable foods for children. The need of eggs, dried fruits, fresh vegetables, and whole grain in diet to furnish iron should be emphasized.
Sulphur is one of the necessary elements of the body. It is usually found, however, as a component of protein; hence if enough protein is supplied to the diet, sulphur will be present in sufficient quantity.
As mentioned, leafy vegetables not only supply calcium but sodium and chlorine,—two of the needed minerals of the body. If fresh vegetables and fruits along with foods rich in calcium, iron, and phosphorus are used, and these foods are cooked and served so as to retain all their nutriment, one can be assured that the diet contains all the necessary ash constituents.
C. Food for Regulating.—Although ash is needed for body-building, it also serves to regulate certain body processes as explained previously. Hence if the mineral matter valuable for building is used, the body is also supplied with regulating materials.
D. Food for Promoting Growth.—A discussion of vitamines,—the materials essential for growth of the body and the maintenance of health,—was given in a previous lesson. It is most necessary that foods rich in vitamines be included in diet.
E. Food for Bulk.—The use of foods containing cellulose, which adds bulk to diet, is needed by most persons. Many foods rich in mineral matter also contain much cellulose. Vegetables, fruits, and whole grains furnish both of these materials.
OTHER FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN MENU-MAKING.—For successful menu- making, a number of factors other than the selection of foods to meet the needs of the body should be considered. A discussion of these follows:
A. Appetizing Foods.—If the appetite needs stimulation, foods which have an appetizing effect may be used for the first course of meals. Fruit is very often served for the first course of a breakfast and sometimes for the first course of a luncheon. Soup may serve as the appetizer of either a luncheon or dinner. Cream soup being especially nourishing because of its milk content not only serves as an appetizing food, but as one of the nutritious foods of a meal.
B. Foods of Contrasting Flavor.—If beef or some other protein-rich food is chosen for the main dish of a meal (such as dinner), root vegetables or grains rich in starch, but bland in flavor, are good additions. By combining foods of decided flavor with those of less pronounced taste and those rich in one foodstuff with those abounding in another nutrient, combinations that are both pleasing and varied in flavor may be secured. A housekeeper needs to use "imagination" in selecting foods that will taste well together.
C. Variation of Foods.—The same food should not be used twice in the same meal, even though it is prepared in a different form. It would be monotonous to serve tomato soup and tomato salad, or bean soup and baked beans at the same meal. Neither would one care to have hash served for both breakfast and luncheon on the same day. Of course such foods as bread and butter may be used with every meal.
D. Moist and Dry Foods.—A combination of "moist" and "dry" foods is more pleasing than a combination of foods of equal dryness or moisture. This does not mean that dry foods should be "rinsed down" with liquids; that is unwise from a physiological standpoint. To the majority of persons, creamed potatoes are more desirable with broiled steak than plain boiled potatoes. The latter would be more pleasing with meat served with a sauce or gravy.
E. Sweet Foods.—A sweet food should not be eaten at the beginning of a meal. Such sugar-rich foods as preserves and jellies may be served with the main course of a meal or at its close. As explained previously, the sugar is then diluted with other food materials and proves less irritating. If desserts are included in a menu, the practice of serving them at the close of a meal is desirable from a dietetic viewpoint. When the appetite is partially appeased, there is less tendency to eat large quantities of sweet foods.
A dessert that is rich in both fat and sugar such as pastry should be served only with a light meal, while a light dessert such as fruit or gelatine may be used at the close of a heavy meal.
Very often dried fruits and nuts are used as accessories after a meal. They are then often digested with difficulty, because the meal itself has taxed the digestive organs. These foods should be considered as a part of the meal and should not be added after enough other nutrients have been eaten. There is no reason why a wholesome dessert should not be considered one of the nutritious foods of a meal.
F. Milk and Beverages.—Since milk is necessary for perfect nourishment it is well for adults to use it as a beverage for at least one meal each day. Children should use it at all meals. If milk is distasteful to any or all members of a family, cocoa made with much milk may be served in its stead. In meal planning, a housekeeper should see to it that the proper quantity of milk either as a beverage or constituent of such dishes as cream soup, vegetables, and custards is used by each member of the family.
When tea and coffee are included in meal plans, the fact that these beverages have no food value except the milk and sugar added to them, should be taken into consideration.
G. Foods on Hand.—When menus are made the thrifty housekeeper considers those materials she has on hand and especially those which would spoil if not used at once. Very often left-over material serves as a basis on which to plan one or more meals.
A housekeeper may drain from a vegetable the water in which it was cooked. But she sees in it for the next meal or for the next day several possible uses. The vegetable stock may be used in soup or it may be combined with milk or cheese and serve as a sauce for some left-over vegetable. Bread crumbs combined with milk, peanuts, or egg make a tasty meat substitute one week; or they may be utilized in making bread pudding the second week; a scalloped dish the third week; and a meat loaf the fourth. If several pieces of dry cake are on hand, a tasty dessert may be made by pouring over them some hot sauce such as apple or chocolate. Dry cake may also be crumbed and used in place of flour and sugar in a steamed pudding.
It is possible, of course, for a housekeeper to spend an undue amount of time in utilizing left-overs or to defeat her efforts in thrift and buy expensive supplementary foods in order to use food on hand. Often it is wise to cook just enough so that there are no left-overs. On the other hand, it is sometimes economical as far as fuel and time are concerned to plan to cook enough food at one time for more than one meal. This is especially true of foods requiring long cooking such as baked beans and other dried foods.
MENU PLANS.—Serving meals in a number of courses should be attempted only where the housekeeper is assisted in her work. For everyday living the meals of most families are served only in one or two courses.
Although there are a great many things to be considered in menu-making, it is not necessary to use a great variety of foods to meet the requirements of successful meal planning. A breakfast consisting of fruit, rolled oats, and top milk, for example, is simple, but it embraces all the factors involved in the planning of a desirable meal.
As previously mentioned, the groups of foods may serve as a basis for menu planning. After selecting foods from each group that are seasonable, economic, and that will "taste well" together it is wise to analyze the menu. See if it contains all the essentials of diet to meet the needs of the body as explained previously. Some housekeepers find it helpful to have lists of dishes found to be satisfactory for serving, such as lists of meat dishes, vegetables, salads, desserts, etc., and glance over these when planning meals.
The menu plans which follow are merely suggestive. Both simple and more elaborate menus are given for each of the three meals.
A breakfast may consist of:
Fruit Cereal or Eggs and Toast Beverage
or
Fruit or Cereal (or both) Meat, Egg, or Vegetable Bread and Butter Beverage
A luncheon or supper may consist of:
Cream Soup Bread and Butter Salad or fruit Beverage
or
Fruit or Cream Soup {Fish or Meat Substitutes {Vegetables {Bread and Butter Salad Dessert Beverage
A dinner may consist of:
{Meat {Vegetables {Bread and Butter Salad or Dessert Beverage
or
Clear Soup Fish {Meat {Vegetables {Bread With or Without Butter Salad Dessert Beverage
QUESTIONS
Mention several combinations of two or more foods that are varied in moisture, dryness, and composition, and that are of contrasting flavor. Give reasons for making the combinations.
Make out suitable menus in your home for a week. Compute the cost of the week's menus. If the cost does not come within the limit that can be spent for food in your home, change the menus so that the cost does not exceed the food allowance.
LESSON CVI
PLANNING, COOKING, AND SERVING A LUNCHEON OR SUPPER
Plan a luncheon or supper, [Footnote 72: If the laboratory period is limited to 90 minutes, all this time will be required to cook and serve the meal and wash the dishes. Hence, it will be necessary to do the meal planning in a previous lesson.] making it a one-dish meal or using a meat substitute instead of meat. Also use seasonable food-materials and follow the suggestions given in Lesson CV . Compute the cost of the menu. If it exceeds 20 cents per person, change the menu so that its cost comes within this amount. Analyze the menu. Is food from each of the groups contained in it?
Cook and serve the luncheon or supper. Follow the English or family style of serving. Serve the meal without a maid.
LESSON CVII
REVIEW: MEAL COOKING
MENU
Seasonable Vegetable Salad Salad Dressing Salad Rolls
See Lesson XIV for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson.
LESSON CVIII
HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 73: See Lesson IX]
SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.—Plan and prepare one-dish meals or meals containing meat-substitute,—at least one a week.
Plan and prepare meals containing meat,—at least one a week.
Compute the cost of these meals. Also note the time required to prepare them.
SUGGESTED AIMS: (1) To determine the difference in time required to cook a one-dish meal and a meal containing several different dishes.
(2) To determine the difference in cost of a meal without meat and one containing a meat-substitute.
DIVISION TEN
QUICK BREADS: POUR BATTERS
LESSON CIX
LEAVENING WITH STEAM AND AIR. POPOVERS
When flour is to be moistened and baked to make bread or cake, other ingredients are usually added to improve the grain, texture, and flavor.
To understand some of the principles of mixing and lightening baked flour mixtures, try the following:
EXPERIMENT 64: LEAVENING WITH STEAM AND AIR.[Footnote 74: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.—Experiments 64 and 65 can be performed most expeditiously by dividing the class into groups of two and having each group do the two experiments.]—Mix 1/8 cupful of flour and 1/8 cupful of cold water. Beat thoroughly with a Dover egg beater. Note the consistency of the batter. Pour at once into an oiled muffin pan. Bake in a hot oven for at least 20 minutes. Remove from the pan, break it open, and answer the following questions:
What happened during baking to the cold air inclosed in the mixture? With what material did the flour combine during baking? Into what form was a part of the water changed during baking? Explain fully how the mixture was made porous.
EXPERIMENT 65: COMPARISON OF THICK AND THIN QUICK BREADS—Repeat Experiment 64, using 1/2 tablespoonful of cold water instead of 1/8 cupful. After baking, examine and compare with the bread of Experiment 64. Which is the more porous? Explain how the difference in quantity of moisture accounts for the difference in grain. If a mixture is to be leavened with steam and air, what should be the consistency of the mixture?
Some simple flour mixtures are lightened by the method indicated above. In most cases, however, more air is introduced into the mixture by using lightly beaten eggs, or by using ingredients that produce gas, on being moistened and heated.
EXPERIMENT 66: PREPARATION OF FLOUR FOR QUICK BREADS.—Measure 1/4 cupful of pastry flour just as it comes from the can. Sift it, and return it carefully to the measuring cup, using a teaspoon. How much does the flour measure now? What does this experiment teach with regard to sifting flour before measuring? Of what advantage is it to sift flour not only before measuring, but when adding it to the other ingredients of a quick bread?
[NOTE.—Use this sifted flour for making Popovers.]
In preparing all quick bread mixtures, pastry flour (see Wheat Flour) should be used. It should be sifted before measuring. Usually any other powdered ingredient, such as baking powder, soda, or spices, is added to the flour and mixed thoroughly (by sifting) into the other materials. Baking powder and soda need not be sifted before measuring, but should be stirred.
OVEN THERMOMETERS AND TEMPERATURES.—The ovens of a number of ranges are equipped with thermometers. Although it is possible to secure more satisfactory results with a thermometer than without, oven thermometers do not always indicate the temperature of an oven accurately. If a thermometer is fastened on an oven door, for example, and the door does not heat as quickly or to as high a degree as the interior of the oven, the true temperature of the oven cannot be ascertained by this device. By making allowance for the difference, however, such a thermometer may prove very useful. It is much more accurately and conveniently read than a thermometer which is hung or rests inside the oven unless the oven is provided with a glass door.
A device known as an "Oven Heat Regulator" (see Figure 81) may be attached to gas ranges. These devices do not merely measure the heat of an oven, but control it and keep the oven temperature constant. A "temperature wheel" (shown at B) is set for a desired temperature and the oven burner lighted. By the expansion or contraction of a sensitive copper tube placed in the top of the oven (shown at A) the gas valve (shown at C) is opened or closed. When the valve is opened the amount of gas burning is increased or decreased so that the temperature of the oven is kept constant, i.e. at the temperature at which the wheel is set. Insulated ovens, i.e. ovens which are constructed so as to retain heat and allow little to escape, are found on some of the modern gas, electric, and kerosene stoves. Some of the insulated electric ovens are provided with clocks or dials which may be adjusted so that the current is cut off automatically at the expiration of a certain length of time, or when a certain temperature is reached (see Figure 14). Because of the insulated walls on such ovens, the food continues to cook on "stored heat."
A chemical thermometer inserted in an oven is a fairly satisfactory means of obtaining oven temperatures. If one has the use of an oven provided with a chemical thermometer in the school kitchen, tests may be obtained so that the temperature of the oven in the home kitchen may be estimated. The tests are as follows: Heat the oven; when it reaches a temperature of 250 degrees F., [Footnote 75: See footnote 86, regarding the use of the Fahrenheit scale.] place a piece of white paper in the oven. After 5 minutes, remove the paper, note the color. Continue to heat the oven; place paper in the oven at 350 degrees F., 400 degrees F., 425 degrees F., 450 degrees F., 475 degrees F., 500 degrees F., 525 degrees F., and 550 degrees F. Note the color of each piece of paper.
Baking temperatures have been classified as follows: [Footnote 76: From Technical Education Bulletin, No. 22, "Some Attempts to Standardize Oven Temperatures for Cookery Processes," by May B. Van Arsdale, Teachers College, Columbia University.]
1. Slow oven (250 degrees to 350 degrees F.) for custards and meringues.
2. Moderate oven (350 degrees to 400 degrees F.) for bread, gingerbread, plain cake, [Footnote 77: The lower temperature should be used for loaf cakes and the higher temperature for layer cakes.] all molasses mixtures.
3. Hot oven (400 degrees to 450 degrees F.) for Parkerhouse rolls, and Popovers. In baking Popovers, the oven should be cooled to moderate heat after the first ten minutes.
4. Very hot oven (450 degrees to 550 degrees F.) for pastry. After the first 6 minutes, the temperature should be lowered to "hot."
Oven temperatures may be estimated also as follows: (a) note the number of minutes required to change white paper, flour, or bread to a light brown or to a golden brown; (b) note the number of "counts" (one count per second) that the hand may be held in the oven.
POUR BATTER.—All breads may be divided into two classes: (a) Quick Breads and (b) Yeast Breads. The former are so named because a much shorter time is required in their preparation. Quick breads are divided into several classes, depending upon the proportion of flour and moisture in the batter. A pour batter is the thinnest quick bread mixture. It usually contains about equal parts of flour and moisture. A definite proportion cannot be stated, since the thickening quality of different flours varies, and the wetting quality of different moist materials varies. Many pour batters contain a little more flour than moisture. Popover mixture is. a typical pour batter.
POPOVERS
1 egg 1/2 teaspoonful salt 1 cupful milk 1 cupful flour 1/3 teaspoonful fat (melted)
Oil iron gem pans; place them in the oven, heat until very hot. Put all the Popover ingredients in a mixing bowl, and beat the mixture with a Dover egg beater. Pour it into the hot pans and bake 35 to 45 minutes in a hot oven, at 425 degrees F. Earthen cups placed in a dripping pan may be used instead of iron pans.
Popovers may be served hot as a bread, for breakfast or luncheon; or may be used as a dessert with custard or lemon filling or sauce. Fruit makes a pleasing addition to Popovers. Before baking, drop a piece of apple, peach, or other fruit, into the batter in each cup.
QUESTIONS
What change, other than moistening the flour, takes place in the milk that helps to lighten the Popovers?
What changes take place in the eggs and in the air inclosed in them when they are heated quickly?
What is the purpose of beating the Popover mixture thoroughly? How many Popovers will the given recipe make?
LESSON CX
LEAVENING WITH BAKING SODA AND SOUR MILK: SPIDER CORN BREAD
Besides the air that is beaten into the eggs and into the combined ingredients of quick bread mixtures, a gas—carbon dioxide—is often introduced into such mixtures. To find how this gas may be formed, try the following:
EXPERIMENT 67: ACTION OF BAKING SODA ON SOUR MILK.—Place a teaspoonful of sour milk in a test tube and add a pinch of baking soda. Do you notice any change in the ingredients? Apply heat to the contents of the tube. What kind of material (solid, liquid, or gas) is indicated by the bubbling (see Experiment 7)? What does this experiment teach with regard to the use of baking soda and sour milk, for lightening a mixture?
EXPERIMENT 68: CHEMICAL CHANGE.—Measure 1/4 cupful of thick sour milk. [Footnote 78: The amount of acid in sour milk varies slightly.] Dip the end of a piece of blue litmus paper in it. What change in color takes place in the paper? When blue litmus changes to pink, an acid is present. The sour milk therefore contains acid. Measure 1/8 teaspoonful of baking soda. Mix this with a little water. Test with pink litmus paper. When pink litmus paper changes to blue, an alkaline substance is present. Baking soda is therefore alkaline in reaction.
Pour the milk into a saucepan, add about 3/4 of the soda mixture, stir and heat until effervescence (bubbling) has ceased. Test the mixture in the saucepan with blue litmus paper. If the blue litmus paper changes color, carefully add a little more of the soda solution. Test with litmus again. If there is still a change in color, add soda solution until the litmus does not change. Then test with pink litmus. When neither pink nor blue litmus paper changes color a neutral substance is present, i.e. a substance neither acid nor alkaline.
When this occurs, the mixture in the pan is no longer acid in reaction. Neither sour milk nor baking soda exists in the pan. A chemical change has taken place. From the union of sour milk and soda, entirely different materials are formed; one is the neutral substance in the pan; another is the carbon dioxide gas which has escaped, and the third is water. When an acid and an alkaline material are mixed, a chemical change always occurs. Chemical changes are constantly taking place when certain food mixtures are cooked and digested.
EXPERIMENT 69: QUANTITY OF BAKING SODA TO USE WITH SOUR MILK.—To the contents of the saucepan of Experiment 68, add 1/8 teaspoonful more of baking soda. Stir, heat, and test with pink litmus. What is the reaction— acid or alkaline? Has the last quantity of soda been neutralized as was the first quantity? Explain.
If more baking soda than is necessary to neutralize the acid of the sour milk is used, some unneutralized soda will remain in the mixture. This is undesirable, since soda has a "bitter taste." An excessive quantity of unneutralized soda also discolors the mixture.
Experiments 68 and 69 indicate that the approximate proportion of baking soda to sour milk is: 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda to 1 cupful of thick sour milk.
The following "equations" indicate the importance of using the proper amount of baking soda to neutralize the acid materials:
1 cupful of sour milk + 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda —> [Footnote 79: The plus sign is read "with"; the arrow is read "yields."] water + carbon dioxide gas + neutral material.
1 cupful of sour milk + 1 teaspoonful of baking soda —> water + carbon dioxide gas + neutral material + unneutralized "soda."
SPIDER CORN BREAD
3/4 cupful corn-meal 1/2 teaspoonful baking soda 1/4 cupful flour 1 egg 1 tablespoonful sugar 1 cupful sour milk 1/2 teaspoonful salt 1 tablespoonful butter or substitute
Mix the dry ingredients. In a mixing bowl, beat an egg, add the sour milk, then the dry ingredients. Beat the mixtures until the ingredients are well blended.
Melt the butter or substitute in a hot "spider" or frying pan. Pour the corn-meal mixture into it. Bake in a hot oven until sufficiently baked, usually about 20 minutes (see tests below). Serve hot.
TESTS FOR SUFFICIENT BAKING OF QUICK BREAD.—Quick Bread is usually sufficiently baked: (a) when it is a golden brown in color; (b) when the mixture shrinks from the pan; (c) when the crust springs back into place, if pressed gently with the fingers; or (d) when no batter or dough clings to a wire skewer or knitting needle (see Figure 1) that has been inserted. Usually it is not necessary to apply this last test, unless the quick bread is baked in a loaf or in a very thick layer.
QUESTIONS
Mention the materials used in Spider Corn Bread to make it light. Explain their action.
Explain why satisfactory results could not be obtained by using 1 1/2 teaspoonfuls of baking soda in this Spider Corn Bread recipe.
What is the price per half-pound of baking soda?
How many persons does this Spider Corn Bread recipe serve?
LESSON CXI
LEAVENING WITH BAKING SODA, SOUR MILK, AND MOLASSES: GINGERBREAD
EXPERIMENT 70: ACTION OF BAKING SODA ON MOLASSES.—Place a teaspoonful of baking molasses in a test tube and dilute with a little water. Test it with litmus paper. What is its reaction? Add a pinch of baking soda. Heat. What does effervescence indicate? What do we call the gas formed by the action of the baking soda and a substance having an acid reaction? Explain how baking soda and molasses could be used to lighten a quick bread.
EXPERIMENT 71: QUANTITY OF BAKING SODA TO USE WITH MOLASSES.—Carefully measure 1/8 cupful of molasses. [Footnote 80: The acidity of molasses may be due to fermentation or to the preservatives used in many brands. Its intensity varies.] Dilute it with much water. Carefully measure 1/16 teaspoonful of baking soda and mix it with water. Add about 3/4 of the soda mixture to the molasses solution. Stir and heat. Test with blue litmus. If it changes color, keep adding the soda mixture, until the litmus paper does not change, as in Experiment 68. When neither blue nor pink litmus paper changes color, what kind of substance,—acid, alkaline, or neutral,—is present? What change has taken place in the materials placed in the saucepan?
This experiment shows that the approximate proportion of baking soda to molasses is:
1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda to 1 cupful of molasses.
This "equation" expresses the chemical change in the experiment:
1 cupful molasses + 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda —> neutral material + carbon dioxide gas + water.
GINGERBREAD
2 cupfuls flour 1/2 teaspoonful salt 3/4 teaspoonful baking soda 1 teaspoonful cinnamon 2 teaspoonfuls ginger 1/8 teaspoonful cloves 1 egg 1 cupful thick sour milk 1/2 cupful molasses 1/2 cupful sugar 2 to 4 tablespoonfuls fat
Mix all the dry ingredients except the sugar. Beat the egg in a mixing bowl. Add the sour milk, molasses, and sugar. If solid fat is used, melt it. Add the fat to the molasses mixture. Through a sifter, add the dry ingredients to other materials. Beat thoroughly and turn at once into a shallow oiled pan. Bake in a moderate oven (375 degrees F. to 400 degrees F.) 20 minutes or longer (see Tests for Sufficient Baking of Quick Bread)
Gingerbread without Eggs may be made. Omit the egg from the recipe above. To the dry ingredients, add 1 teaspoonful of baking powder.
Water Gingerbread may be made by substituting 7/8 cupful cold water for the sour milk, and using 1/4 teaspoonful baking soda (instead of 3/4 teaspoonful) and adding 3 teaspoonfuls of baking powder.
QUESTIONS
Mention the leavening materials used in this Gingerbread, and explain their action.
What is the price per quart of molasses?
How many persons does this recipe serve?
LESSON CXII
LEAVENING WITH BAKING POWDER: GRIDDLE CAKES
EXPERIMENT 72: EFFECT OF COLD WATER ON A MIXTURE OF CREAM OF TARTAR AND BAKING SODA.—Test a bit of cream of tartar with moistened litmus paper. Is it acid or alkaline in reaction?
Put 1/8 teaspoonful of baking soda and twice the quantity of cream of tartar in a dry test tube. Does any change take place? Add about 1 teaspoonful of cold water to the mixture and examine. What change takes place? What substance is being formed?
EXPERIMENT 73: EFFECT OF HOT WATER ON A MIXTURE OF CREAM OF TARTAR AND BAKING SODA.—Repeat Experiment 72, using hot water instead of cold with the baking soda and cream of tartar. Which causes greater effervescence,— hot or cold water? Is it desirable to have more of the gas formed before or after the mixture is placed in the oven? What, then, should be the temperature (hot or cold) of liquids and other materials used in the quick bread mixtures?
EXPERIMENT 74: EFFECT OF HOT WATER ON BAKING POWDER.—Add about 1 teaspoonful of hot water to 1/4 teaspoonful of baking powder. Compare the effervescence with that of Experiment 73. From the comparison of Experiments 72 and 73, with Experiment 74, what two kinds of substances do you infer this baking powder contains?
(Save the contents of the tube for the following experiment.)
EXPERIMENT 75: STARCH IN BAKING POWDER.—Filter the contents of the tube used in Experiment 74 through filter paper (see Figure 30). Add a drop of tincture of iodine to the insoluble material left on the filter paper. What is the insoluble constituent of this baking powder?
COMPOSITION OF BAKING POWDER.—Baking powder consists of
(a) baking soda, (b) a substance having an acid reaction, (c) a starchy material.
The substance of acid reaction varies in different baking powders. Some powders in common use contain either cream of tartar, calcium or sodium acid phosphate, or alum [Footnote 81: Alums differ in composition. They are sulphates of various metals. The alum most commonly used in alum baking powder is sodium aluminium sulphate.] as the "acid" material. Certain baking powders contain a mixture of materials with acid reaction, such as cream of tartar with tartaric acid, and alum with calcium acid phosphate.
The starch is added to keep the other materials apart, and thus prevent the possible formation and consequent loss of carbon dioxide.
The trade name of a baking powder does not usually suggest its composition. But the latter is always stated on the label of the can.
EXPERIMENT 76: COMPARISON OF THE TIME OF ACTION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF BAKING POWDERS.—Put 1/2 cupful of water of the same temperature into each of 3 tumblers or glass measuring cups. To one tumbler add 1/2 teaspoonful of tartrate baking powder; to the second, the same quantity of phosphate baking powder; and to the third an equal quantity of alum (or alum and phosphate) baking powder. Stir each and note the length of time that chemical change occurs in each tumbler. Which type of baking powder reacts the longest time?
DIFFERENCE IN TYPES OF BAKING POWDERS.—Although there has been much discussion regarding the superiority of one type of baking powder over another, it is thought that one standard baking powder is as little harmful as another. But, as shown by Experiment 76, the action of certain types is slower than that of others, i.e. the formation of the gas continues for a longer time. Certain types of baking powders which react very quickly when moisture is added may react to some extent while still in the can and thus lose some of their effectiveness in leavening. It is well to buy those baking powders in such quantities so that a fresh can can be purchased often. The price of certain types of baking powders is much greater than that of others.
QUANTITY OF BAKING POWDER IN QUICK BREADS.—Since baking powder contains both acid and alkaline materials, the quantity of baking powder used in a quick bread is dependent not upon another leavening material, but upon the quantity of flour and eggs. When no eggs are used, 2 tea-spoonfuls of baking powder should be used with 1 cupful of flour. When eggs are added to a quick bread, the quantity of baking powder should be lessened 1/2 teaspoonful for each egg.
Two and one half teaspoonfuls of baking powder should be used with 1 cupful of coarse wheat flour or flour or meal other than wheat.
SUGGESTIONS FOR PREPARING GRIDDLE CAKES.—The general rules for mixing quick breads apply also to griddle cakes. When the yolk and white of the egg are separated, the mixture will be somewhat lighter. Most housekeepers, however, beat the eggs together quickly, and find the result satisfactory.
The consistency of griddle cake batter is most important. As suggested in the recipe, the moisture should be added cautiously. Since the quantity of baking powder depends upon the amount of flour, it is better to change from a thick to a thinner batter by increasing the moisture, rather than to change from a thin to a thicker batter by increasing the flour. After mixing the batter, drop a small cake on the hot iron. The thickness as well as the grain of the browned cake depends largely upon the consistency of the batter. If too much moisture has been used, the cake is thin, "pasty," and coarse grained.
A griddle should be heated slowly, and should be hot when the cakes are mixed. If sufficient fat is used in the batter, it is not necessary to oil the griddle. The recipes for griddle cakes given in this book contain one and one half times the quantity of fat generally used in griddle cake batters. Hence oiling the griddle is unnecessary. It is well after each baking to wipe off the griddle with a cloth or paper.
Drop the batter by the spoonful (from the end of the spoon) on the hot griddle, brown on the under side thoroughly. When the cakes have risen, when the tops are full of bubbles, and when the edges are brown, the cakes should be turned and browned on the other side. Serve cakes at once after baking.
PLAIN GRIDDLE CAKES
2 cupfuls flour 1 egg 1/2 teaspoonful salt 1 1/2 cupfuls milk 3 1/2 teaspoonfuls baking powder 3 tablespoonfuls fat
Prepare according to the directions above. Add the milk cautiously. More or less (according to the absorbing property of the flour) than the given quantity may be required.
1/8 cupful of sugar or molasses may be added to the mixture. If desired, one more egg may be used in this recipe. Serve with maple or other sirup (see Sirup).
BREAD GRIDDLE CAKES
1 1/2 cupfuls bread crumbs 1 1/2 cupfuls hot milk 3 tablespoonfuls fat 1 to 2 eggs 1/2 cupful flour 1/2 teaspoonful salt 3 teaspoonfuls baking powder
Soak the bread in the hot milk until soft. Add the other ingredients in the order given.
1 cupful of cooked cereal may be used instead of bread crumbs. Rice Griddle Cakes are especially pleasing.
QUESTIONS
Account for the quantity of baking powder used in each of these recipes.
What is the price per pound of cream of tartar? Of tartrate baking powder? Of phosphate baking powder? Of alum baking powder? Of alum-phosphate baking powder?
What would be the effect of exposing baking powder to moist air? How should baking powder be stored?
What kind of griddle cakes result when the batter is too thin? When too thick?
What indicates that the griddle is too hot? Too cool?
How should griddle cakes be served?
LESSON CXIII
LEAVENING WITH BAKING SODA, SOUR MILK, AND BAKING POWDER: SOUR MILK GRIDDLE CAKES
ADDITIONAL LEAVENING FOR SOUR MILK MIXTURES.—Some housekeepers maintain that a superior flavor and quality is given to quick bread by the use of sour milk. It has been found that most quick breads are sufficiently light and porous when made with sour milk and baking soda, provided they contain as much or almost as much sour milk as flour and provided they contain eggs. If the quantity of sour milk is much less than that of flour and no eggs are present, it is often desirable to add leavening materials other than sour milk and baking soda.
From the results of Experiment 69 we know that an increased quantity of baking soda will not produce satisfactory results. Hence more carbon dioxide gas must be obtained by other means. Since baking powder consists of both baking soda and an "acid" material, it makes a desirable substance for additional leavening. A combination of baking soda, sour milk, and baking powder is therefore used for leavening some quick bread mixtures, especially those that contain only a small quantity of sour milk and no eggs. This involves a double reaction:
(a) Baking soda + sour milk —> neutral material + carbon dioxide gas + water.
(b) Baking powder (moistened and heated) —> neutral material + carbon dioxide gas + water.
About 1/4 of baking powder is baking soda. Hence 1/4 teaspoonful of baking soda (with the necessary quantity of "acid" material) is equivalent to 1 teaspoonful of baking powder in leavening. If 2 teaspoonfuls of baking powder are used to leaven 1 cupful of flour, 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda (with the necessary quantity of "acid" material) should be used to leaven 1 cupful of flour.
Two thirds teaspoonful of baking soda (with the necessary quantity of "acid" material) should be used to leaven 1 cupful of coarse flour or flour or meal other than wheat.
In determining the quantity of baking powder to use in materials leavened with sour milk and baking soda, note the quantity of baking soda and flour. Assuming that 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda (with "acid") or 2 teaspoonfuls of baking powder leavens 1 cupful of flour, determine the amount of flour that the given quantity of baking soda (with "acid") will leaven and then use sufficient baking powder to leaven the remainder of the flour. For example, if a recipe states (among other ingredients) 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda and 2 cupfuls of flour, the baking soda (with "acid") will leaven 1 cupful of flour. Hence baking powder sufficient to leaven 1 cupful of flour (i.e. 2 teaspoonfuls) should be used. Again, if a recipe states that 3/4 teaspoonful baking soda and 2 cupfuls of flour, the baking soda (with "acid") will leaven 1 1/2 cupfuls of flour. Hence baking powder sufficient to leaven 1/2 cupful flour (i.e. 1 teaspoonful) should be used.
SOUR MILK GRIDDLE CAKES (without eggs)
2 cupfuls flour 1/2 teaspoonful salt 1/2 teaspoonful baking powder 7/8 teaspoonful baking soda 1 3/4 cupfuls sour milk 3 tablespoonfuls fat
Turn the sour milk into a mixing bowl. Melt the fat and add it to the sour milk. Add the dry ingredients (through a sifter) to the mixture. Mix thoroughly. If more moisture is needed, add water.
CORN-MEAL GRIDDLE CAKES
1 cupful corn-meal 2 cupfuls water 3 tablespoonfuls fat 1 cupful sour milk 1 cupful flour 1 teaspoonful salt 1/2 teaspoonful baking soda [Footnote 82: The 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda (with "acid") is sufficient to leaven the 1 cupful of flour. Then 2 1/2 teaspoonfuls of baking powder should be added, since 1 cupful of corn- meal is contained in the recipe (see Quantity of Baking Powder in Quick Breads).] 2 1/2 teaspoonfuls baking powder [Footnote 83: See footnote 82] 1 to 2 tablespoonfuls sugar
Add the corn-meal to the water, mix thoroughly, and cook 5 minutes. Add the fat. Cool. Then add the milk and dry ingredients. Mix thoroughly. Drop at once on a hot griddle.
FRUIT SIRUP
Cook fresh fruit, or dried fruit that has been soaked in water, in a generous quantity of water until it is very soft. Press through a strainer. If it is not of the consistency of catsup, add more hot water. Add from one eighth to one fourth cupful of sugar for each cupful of sirup, or "sweeten to taste." Serve on griddle cakes, or use as a sauce for Bread Pudding or Rice Pudding.
Fruit butters, marmalades, or jams may be diluted with water, heated, and used in the same way.
QUESTIONS
If an egg or two were added to griddle cakes made with sour milk, how should the recipe be changed? Give reasons for the change.
Explain the action of the leavening agents in Sour Milk Griddle Cakes (without eggs).
In a quick bread leavened with baking soda, sour milk, and baking powder, upon what ingredient does the quantity of baking soda depend? Upon what ingredients does the quantity of baking powder depend? Explain your answers.
What is the purpose of cooking the corn-meal before adding the other ingredients? Why should the cooked mixture be cooled before adding the other ingredients?
LESSON CXIV
LEAVENING WITH BAKING SODA, SOUR MILK, AND CREAM OF TARTAR: STEAMED BROWN BREADS
ADDITIONAL LEAVENING FOR SOUR MILK MIXTURES.—Instead of using prepared baking powder as additional leavening for sour milk mixtures (see previous lesson) cream of tartar with sour milk and baking soda may be used. Enough baking soda must be used, however, to neutralize both the sour milk and the cream of tartar. This involves a double reaction:
(a) Baking soda + sour milk —> water + carbon dioxide gas + neutral substance.
(b) Baking soda + cream of tartar —> water + carbon dioxide gas + a neutral substance.
If molasses is used with the sour milk and baking soda, a third reaction occurs:
(c) Baking soda + molasses —> water + carbon dioxide gas + neutral substance.
It has been found that the following proportion of cream of tartar and baking soda is effective in leavening: 1 1/4 teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar with 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda. These quantities of materials are sufficient to leaven 1 cupful of flour. 1 1/2 teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar with 2/3 teaspoonful of baking soda are required to leaven 1 cupful coarse wheat flour or flour or meal other than wheat.
In determining the quantity of cream of tartar and baking soda to use with mixtures containing sour milk or other acid food, note the quantity of flour (or other cereal) in the recipe. Assuming that 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda (with the necessary "acid" material) leavens 1 cupful of flour, determine the total quantity of baking soda, which (with the necessary "acid" material) will leaven the flour. Then determine how much of the baking soda will be neutralized by the sour milk or other "acid" food. Assuming that l-1/4 teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar are needed to neutralize 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda, use enough cream of tartar to neutralize the remainder of the baking soda. For example, if a recipe calls for (among other ingredients) 2 cupfuls flour and 1 cupful of sour milk, 1 teaspoonful of baking soda (with the necessary "acid" material) will be needed to leaven the flour. Since 1 cupful of sour milk will neutralize only 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda, enough cream of tartar (i.e. 1 1/4 teaspoonfuls) will be needed to neutralize the remainder of the baking soda.
GENERAL SUGGESTIONS FOR STEAMED QUICK BREAD MIXTURES.—A quick bread mixture that is to be steamed should be placed in a covered utensil. If the mold or the can used for steaming has no cover, an oiled paper should be tied over the top. As with all quick breads, the molds for steamed mixtures should be oiled. If the quick bread is a pour batter, the mold should be oiled and then sprinkled with flour. It should never be filled more than two thirds full.
A steamer placed over boiling water may be used for the steaming; or a kettle of boiling water containing a rack may be used. If the latter device is employed, the boiling water in the kettle should come halfway to the top of the molds. As the water evaporates, add more boiling water. Less time is required in the steaming, if the mold is placed directly in the water.
At least one hour is required for steaming breads. The longer brown bread is steamed, the darker it becomes. A mixture in an earthen mold requires more time than does one in a tin or granite mold (see Experiment 46).
PLAIN BROWN BREAD
2 cupfuls graham flour 2/3 cupful white flour 3/4 cupful brown sugar 2/3 teaspoonful salt 1 2/3 teaspoonfuls baking soda 1 1/2 teaspoonfuls cream of tartar 2 cupfuls sour milk
Mix all dry ingredients thoroughly. Turn the sour milk into a mixing bowl. Add the dry ingredients; mix well. Turn at once into an oiled bread pan, and bake in the oven from 50 to 60 minutes; or fill one-pound baking powder cans (which have been oiled) two thirds full, and steam at least 4 hours. If the bread is steamed, remove it (after steaming) from the molds and dry in the oven for a few minutes.
BOSTON BROWN BREAD
1/4 cupful sugar 1 cupful corn-meal 2 cupfuls graham flour 3/4 teaspoonful salt 2 teaspoonfuls baking soda 2 teaspoonfuls cream of tartar 2 cupfuls sour milk 1/2 cupful molasses
Mix the dry ingredients (except the sugar) thoroughly. Turn the molasses, sugar, and sour milk into a mixing bowl. Add the dry ingredients; mix well. Turn at once into oiled molds, and steam at least 4 hours. Remove from the molds, and dry in the oven for a few minutes.
Rye meal or bread crumbs may be substituted for 1 cupful of graham flour.
If dried bread crumbs are used, moisten them with a little cold water before adding to the other ingredients.
1 cupful of raisins may also be added to the ingredients of the above recipe. If raisins are used, cut them in two and sprinkle flour over them.
BUTTER BALLS
Cut firm butter into half-ounce pieces and place in a pan of ice water. Scrub the butter paddles; place in boiling water for 10 minutes; and then in the pan of ice water until chilled. Place a piece of butter on one of the paddles and hold the paddle stationary. Shape the butter with the other butter paddle, moving it in a circular direction. Hold the paddle over the ice water while shaping. Place the butter balls in a cool place.
QUESTIONS
What gas is formed in these mixtures to leaven them? By what means is the gas formed in each mixture?
How much baking soda and cream of tartar should be used in a recipe containing 2 cupfuls of flour, 1 cupful of sour milk, and 1/2 cupful molasses?
Account for the quantity of baking soda used in each of the Brown Bread recipes.
Give two reasons why the paper used to cover a steamed quick bread mixture should be oiled. Why are molds for steamed mixtures filled only two thirds full?
Why should boiling water be used to replenish the water in steaming kettle? Why is a longer time required for steaming than for baking quick bread mixtures?
Why should butter paddles be cleaned with a brush rather than with a cloth?
What is the purpose of placing butter paddles in boiling water before using?
Why hold the paddles over ice water while shaping the butter balls?
LESSON CXV
FORMULATING RECIPES—WAFFLES
LEAVENING FORMULAS.—A practical housekeeper needs to be able to formulate fundamental recipes. In preparing quick bread recipes, she should know the required consistency of flour mixtures, i.e. the approximate proportion of moisture and flour for each bread; and the proportion of leavening, seasoning, and "shortening" (fat) materials to use with flour.
In previous lessons, general statements have been made concerning the quantity of leavening materials to use under various conditions. The following is the approximate amount of leavening material to be used for quick breads that contain little or no sugar:
BAKING SODA AND SOUR MILK
1/2 teaspoonful baking soda to 1 cupful of sour milk
BAKING SODA AND MOLASSES [Footnote 84: See footnote 80.]
1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda to 1 cupful molasses
FLOUR AND BAKING POWDER
2 teaspoonfuls baking powder to 1 cupful of flour when no eggs are used.
When eggs are used, reduce the entire quantity of baking powder by 1/2 teaspoonful for each egg.
COARSE WHEAT FLOUR, OR FLOUR (OR MEAL) OTHER THAN WHEAT, AND BAKING POWDER
2 1/2 teaspoonfuls of baking powder to 1 cupful of coarse flour or meal.
FLOUR, CREAM OF TARTAR, AND BAKING SODA
1 1/4 teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar and 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda to 1 cupful of flour.
COARSE WHEAT FLOUR, OR FLOUR (OR MEAL) OTHER THAN WHEAT, CREAM OF TARTAR AND BAKING SODA
1 1/2 teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar and 2/3 teaspoonful of baking soda to 1 cupful of flour.
Examine a number of recipes previously given, and note the quantity of salt and fat used with 1 cupful of flour.
In general, the following quantities of salt and fat are used for quick breads that contain little or no sugar:
FLOUR AND SALT
1/4 teaspoonful of salt to 1 cupful of flour
FLOUR AND FAT
1 tablespoonful of fat to 1 cupful of flour
While these data are helpful in formulating recipes, the pupil should remember that they are all approximate and for plain breads only. When recipes are modified by the addition of a cereal, a fruit, or a flavoring material, some of the quantities will need to be changed.
WAFFLES
2 cupfuls flour 3 to 3 1/2 teaspoonfuls baking powder 1/2 teaspoonful salt 1 to 2 eggs 1 1/2 cupfuls milk 2 tablespoonfuls fat
Mix according to the directions for Plain Griddle Cakes. The quantity of baking powder depends upon the number of eggs. The greater quantity should be used with one egg. Before using the waffle irons, they should be heated slowly on both sides and oiled thoroughly. Oleomargarine, oil, or lard may be used for this purpose.
Pour the batter quickly into the hot irons, close the irons at once, and brown the waffles on both sides. Serve with sirup or gravy.
QUESTIONS
Write a recipe for waffles, using sweet milk and baking powder and 3 eggs.
Write two recipes for waffles, using sour milk and soda (with additional leavening, if necessary) and 1 egg in the one, and 2 eggs in the other.
How many waffles does the given recipe make?
RELATED WORK
LESSON CXVI
MEASUREMENT OF THE FUEL VALUE OF FOODS
HOW FOOD IS ASSIMILATED.—The uses of the foodstuffs,—carbohydrates, fats, protein, ash, water, and vitamines,—were given. It was stated that these foodstuffs either (a) "burned" (i.e. united with oxygen) and produced energy, (b) built the body, or (c) aided in regulating body processes.
All parts of the body are composed of microscopic cells. By the process of digestion the foodstuffs are made entirely soluble (see Solution and Digestion); they are then further altered, i.e. split to their end products and absorbed through the walls of the alimentary canal. The blood carries the digestion products to all parts of the body. The blood also carries oxygen,—which has been breathed into the body from the air,—to all parts of the body. The body cells then select the foodstuffs that they need to carry on their work. Some cells pick out the fuel materials—carbohydrates, fat, or protein—and oxygen. Fuel foods when oxidized, produce energy. Other body cells select some of the body builders—protein or ash—and use these for building or repairing tissue. The cells which build bone choose ash and the other materials needed for building bones; the cells which build muscle choose protein and the other materials needed for building muscle.
Little is known regarding the use of vitamines by the body cells, other than that they are indispensable for the growth and maintenance of the body.
HOW ENERGY OR FUEL VALUE IS MEASURED.—It was stated that the human body could be compared to an automobile, i.e. the "burning" of the fuel foods in the body produced the ability to do work. The quantity of energy that fuel food is capable of giving off is termed the fuel value of that food. Energy has been defined as the ability to do work. Since heat is energy, the fuel value of foods shows, in part, [Footnote 85: Although ash, water, and vitamines nourish the body, it is impossible to measure their nutritive value in terms of fuel value. Fuel value expresses the nutritive value only of the combustible foodstuffs,—carbohydrates, fats, and protein. However, according to Sherman, "the most conspicuous nutritive requirement is that of energy for the work of the body." Hence, the fuel value of a food is often spoken of as its nutritive value (see "Chemistry of Food and Nutrition," Second Edition, by Henry C. Sherman, Ph.D., p. 138).] their nutritive value. If the quantity of heat that is produced by burning a food is measured, the measurement indicates the quantity of energy that the food is capable of giving to the body.
Heat cannot be measured by weight or length, but by the change in temperature which it produces in a given weight of a certain material. The heat unit is not a pound or yard, but a Calorie, or a definite quantity of heat, which, when applied to materials, will produce change of temperature in those materials. If the temperature of one pound [Footnote 86: NOTE TO THE TEACHER—The avoirdupois system of measurement and the Fahrenheit scale of temperature are used in this text. It is believed by the author that less than ten per cent of all pupils taking this course will enter college. Hence, the use of the measurements that are more in keeping with the pupils' practical needs. For the small minority who will enter college, a thorough drill in the metric system is urged. The following formula gives the necessary information for changing from the Fahreheit to the Centigrade scale: Subtract 32 and multiply by 5/9.] of water is 70 degrees Fahrenheit, and it is desired to increase the temperature of that water to 74 degrees Fahrenheit, a certain quantity of heat will have to be applied. It has been found that the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water through any four degrees of the Fahrenheit scale is practically the same, i.e. the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water from 32 degrees to 36 degrees F. is about the same as the quantity of heat that must be applied to raise the temperature of one pound of water from 60 degrees to 64 degrees F. The unit of measurement of heat is taken as the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water through about 4 degrees F.
The Calorie, [Footnote 87: I.e. greater Calorie, distinguished from the lesser calorie by the capital C.] used for food calculation, is approximately the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound (pint) of water through 4 degrees F. If one pint of water were placed over a lighted burner and heated until it increased four degrees in temperature, approximately one Calorie of heat would have been applied to the water (see Figure 82).
HOW THE FUEL VALUE OF A FOOD MATERIAL IS MEASURED.—Scientists have worked with care to obtain accurate data for the measurement of the heat produced by foods burning in the body. The data accepted to-day differ from those given by Rubner some years ago. [Footnote 88: See "Chemistry of Foods and Nutrition," Second Edition, by Henry C. Sherman, Ph.D., p. 143, "Physiological Fuel Values."]
1 gram protein yields 4 Calories 1 gram fat yields 9 Calories 1 gram carbohydrate yields 4 Calories Expressing grams approximately in ounces, these data become: 1 ounce of protein yields 113 Calories 1 ounce of fat yields 255 Calories 1 ounce of carbohydrate yields 113 Calories
In order to find the fuel value of foods, it is necessary to know their composition. For such data United States Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 28 is a valuable source.
Flour.—The fuel content of flour is (see United States Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 28, p. 58, All Analyses Average):
10.6 per cent protein; 1.1 per cent fat; 76.3 per cent carbohydrates. Then, 1 ounce of flour contains, 0.106 ounce of protein; 0.011 ounce of fat; 0.763 ounce carbohydrates.
The protein in one ounce of flour yields (113 x 0106 =) 11.97 Calories.
The fat in one ounce of flour yields (255 x 0.011 =) 2.80 Calories. The carbohydrates in one ounce of flour yield (113 x 0.763 =) 86.21 Calories.
Total Calories furnished by 1 ounce of flour are (11.97 + 2.80 + 86.21 =) 100.98.
Butter.—The fuel content of butter is (see United States Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 28, p. 54):
1 per cent protein; 85 per cent fat; no carbohydrates.
1 ounce of butter contains 0.01 ounce of protein, 0.85 ounce of fat, and no carbohydrates.
The protein in one ounce of butter yields (0.01 x 113 =) 1.13 Calories.
The fat in one ounce of butter yields (0.85 x 255 =) 216.75 Calories.
Number of total Calories furnished by one ounce of butter is (1.13+216.75=) 217.88.
Sugar.—The fuel content of sugar is (see United States Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 28, p. 65) no per cent protein; no per cent fat; 100 per cent carbohydrates.
1 ounce of sugar contains no protein, no fat, and 1 ounce carbohydrates. 1 ounce sugar yields (113 x 1 =) 113 Calories.
HOW THE WEIGHT OF FOOD MATERIALS PRODUCING 100 CALORIES IS MEASURED.—For practical work in computing the fuel value of foods, it has been found more convenient to reduce all data to terms which express equal fuel value instead of equal weight as in the foregoing paragraph. One hundred Calories is the unit chosen. The weight of a food which, when "burned" in the body, will produce one hundred Calories is the desired data. This weight is termed a standard portion or a 100-Calorie portion (see Figures 83 and 84).
From the previous work, it is a simple matter to compute in ounces the quantity of food materials which will yield 100 Calories.
If 1 ounce of flour yields 100.98 Calories and x represents the number of ounces of flour which will yield 100 Calories, then x/1=100/100.98 or x=0.99, the number of ounces of flour which yield 100 Calories, i.e. a 100-Calorie portion of flour.
If 1 ounce of butter yields 217.88 Calories and x represents the number of ounces of butter which will yield 100 Calories, then x/1=100/217.88 or x=0.45, the number of ounces of butter which yield 100 Calories, i.e. a 100-Calorie portion of butter.
If 1 ounce of sugar yields 113 Calories and x represents the number of ounces of sugar which will yield 100 Calories, then x/1=100/113 or x=0.88, the number of ounces of sugar which will yield 100 Calories, i.e. a 100-Calorie portion of sugar.
HOW THE FUEL VALUE OF A COMBINATION OF FOOD MATERIAL IS MEASURED.—It is possible to compute the fuel value of a food that is made up of several food materials. To do this one must know or find:
(a) Recipe for food. (b) Weight and measure of combustible food materials. (c) Number of Calories yielded by one ounce of each of the combustible foodstuffs.
The recipe for one loaf of bread is:
1 cupful water 1 teaspoonful salt 1 teaspoonful sugar 3 1/2 cupfuls flour 1/2 tablespoonful butter 1/4 cake compressed yeast 1/4 cupful water
By weighing and measuring one finds:
1 pound sugar measures 2 cupfuls 1 pound butter measures 2 cupfuls 1 pound flour measures 4 cupfuls
Then,
1 teaspoonful sugar weighs 0.16 ounce 1/3 tablespoonful butter weighs 0.25 ounce 3 1/2 cupfuls flour weigh 14.0 ounces
(From data of How the Fuel Value of a Food Material is Measured.)
1 teaspoonful sugar yields (113 x 0.16 =) 18.08 Calories 1/2 tablespoonful butter yields (217.88 x 0.25 =) 54.47 Calories 3 1/2 cupfuls flour yield (100.98 x 14 =) 1413.72 Calories 1 loaf of bread yields (18.08 + 54.47 + 1413.72 =) 1486.27 Calories
For the practical method of calculating diet (which is more fully treated in Lesson CXXXI), it is convenient to have the 100-Calorie portion of a recipe, or a "made" food.
The 100-Calorie portion of bread is estimated from the result above in the following manner:
Since 1486.27 Calories are yielded by one loaf of homemade bread, then 100 Calories are yielded by (100/1486.27 =) .06 or 6 per cent of a loaf of homemade bread; hence, 1/16 (6 ) or 1 slice of homemade bread yields 100 Calories.
QUESTIONS
Find the number of Calories produced by one ounce of milk.
Find the number of Calories produced by one ounce of egg.
Weigh out 100-Calorie portions of flour, butter, and sugar.
Measure these quantities, using a cup for the flour, a tablespoon for the butter, and a teaspoon for the sugar.
Compute 100-Calorie portions of milk and the edible portion of eggs, then weigh these portions.
Measure this portion of milk in a cup. How many eggs make a standard portion?
Why are water, salt, and yeast not considered when the fuel value is computed?
Compute the fuel value of 1 pint of Soft Custard.
Find the 100-Calorie portion of Soft Custard.
NOTE.—Forms A and B given on the following pages will be found convenient in recording the results of these calculations.
LESSON CXVII
PLANNING, COOKING, AND SERVING A DINNER
Plan a plain dinner. [Footnote 89: See footnote 72.] Use seasonable foods. Follow the suggestions given in Lesson CV. Plan the menu so that the cost of the materials used does not exceed 25 cents per person. Analyze the menu and see that it meets the requirements stated in Lesson CV.
Cook and serve the dinner. Follow the English or family style of serving. Serve the meal without a maid.
LESSON CXVIII
REVIEW: MEAL COOKING
MENU
Cereal Griddle Cakes Fruit Sirup Coffee
or
Butterscotch Apples Gingerbread Tea
See Lesson XIV regarding suggestions for the preparation of the lesson.
LESSON CXIX
HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 90: See Lesson IX.]
SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.—Prepare a quick bread such as Popovers or Gingerbread in your home at least once a week.
If griddle cakes are served in your home, prepare cakes at least once a week.
Calculate the cost of these breads.
Suggested Aims:
(1) To use various leavens in quick breads. To compare results secured by using sweet milk or water with baking powder, and sour milk with baking soda, or sour milk with baking soda and baking powder.
(2) To use different liquids in Gingerbread, viz., sour milk, water, sweet milk. To compare results obtained by the use of each.
DIVISION ELEVEN
QUICK BREADS: DROP BATTERS
LESSON CXX
FINE AND COARSE FLOURS—MUFFINS
DIFFERENCES IN WHEAT FLOURS.—Examine white flour, whole wheat flour, and graham flour. Notice the difference in color, grittiness, and quantity of bran (cellulose).
As has been mentioned before, all cereals or grains have an outer hard covering of cellulose (see Cellulose). Cereals also contain a germ from which the young plant springs. In the preparation of fine flours, the germ and most of the cellulose covering are removed. Whole wheat (erroneously named) has part of the outer covering removed. Graham [Footnote 91: Graham flour is so called because Dr. Sylvester Graham advocated the use of the entire grain and devised a method of preparing it.] flour, properly made, contains all the materials of the wheat grain. The germ is rich in fat, protein, and ash. The outer part, called bran, contains more ash, fat, and protein than does the center of the grain. Hence with the removal of the germ and bran, much of the protein and ash is lost (see Figure 85). However, much graham flour is a mixture of inferior flour and bran.
THE MILLING OF FLOUR.—In the milling of fine flour, the wheat kernels are passed through a series of rollers and sifters that crush the wheat and separate the bran from the other materials. The greater the number of times the flour is subjected to the rolling and sifting process, the more thoroughly are the parts of the grain separated and the more finely are they crushed. When the separation is complete, the resulting fine flour consists almost entirely of the center of the crushed grains (called middlings). Flour made with fewer rollings and siftings contains more of the outer coats. In general, the term patent is applied to flour made from the middlings. The flour containing more of the outer coats is called baker's or family flour. Patent flour contains more starch than does baker's flour while baker's flour contains more protein than does patent flour. The terms patent and baker's vary in meaning, however, in different localities.
VALUE OF COARSE FLOUR.—Analyses show that graham and whole wheat flours contain more protein and ash than fine white flour. So it would seem that breads made from these coarser flours furnish more body-building material. But investigations have shown that the protein contained in the coarse flours is not entirely assimilated and that about the same quantity of protein is digested and absorbed from fine as from coarse flours.
The coarser grain products, however, have more available ash than the fine flours. Indeed, experiments show that the bran of coarse cereals is a valuable source of ash [Footnote 92: See "Chemistry of Food and Nutrition," Second Edition, H. C. Sherman, p. 306, "Grain Products," and p. 308.] and that whole wheat flour is a more complete food than fine or bolted wheat flour. [Footnote 93: See "The Newer Knowledge of Nutrition," E.V. McCollum, p.140.] Doubtless, for many persons, whole wheat foods are more beneficial than fine flour products.
PER CENT OF NUTRIENTS; NUTRITIVE VALUES.—The per cent of nutrients in a food does not always indicate the quantity of nourishment it will yield. The nutrient must be in a condition to be absorbed. Wheat grains contain as much protein when whole as when ground into meal, yet uncooked whole wheat grains yield little nourishment to the body. They pass through the system with much nutriment unextracted. Even if the unbroken grains are thoroughly cooked, they will not furnish as much nourishment to the body as they will when in the form of meal.
In the consideration of nutritive value, the personal factor enters, for some persons assimilate food much more easily or completely than others. In summing up what has been said, it will be seen that three factors determine the nutritive value of a food: (a) per cent of nutrients, (b) form of nutrients, and (c) personal digestive characteristics.
DROP BATTERS.—All batters can be stirred with a spoon. Drop batters are somewhat stiffer than pour batters. They contain, approximately, two parts of flour to one part of moisture. Compare the Plain Muffin recipe below with that for Popovers. Note how the recipes differ in the quantity of flour used. Why do muffins contain baking powder, while popovers do not? Muffin mixture is a typical drop batter.
PLAIN MUFFINS
2 cupfuls flour 3 1/2 teaspoonfuls baking powder 1/2 teaspoonful salt 2 tablespoonfuls fat 1 to 2 tablespoonfuls sugar 1 egg 1 cupful milk
Break the egg into a mixing bowl, beat it. Add the milk to it. Melt the fat, add it to the egg mixture.
Measure the dry ingredients thoroughly. Add them (through a sifter) to the other ingredients. Mix quickly and thoroughly, and drop into buttered muffin pans. Bake in a hot oven (400 degrees F.) from 25 to 30 minutes.
Whole wheat flour may be substituted for fine white flour.
For graham muffins, use 1 cupful of fine white flour and 1 cupful of graham flour.
1 1/8 cupfuls of sour milk may be used instead of 1 cupful of sweet milk. If this substitution is made, use 1/2 teaspoonful baking soda and decrease the baking powder to 2 teaspoonfuls.
Molasses may be substituted for sugar.
QUESTIONS
Account for the quantity of baking powder in the muffin recipes. What determines the quantity of baking powder?
Write a recipe for muffins, using sour cream instead of milk. What ingredients may be decreased in quantity if sour cream is used?
If all the cups in the muffin pan are not filled with batter, how should the empty cups be protected while in the oven?
How many muffins will the recipes above make?
From U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition of patent wheat flour, of graham flour, and of "entire" wheat flour. Which contains the most protein and ash? Which probably yields the most protein to the body? Account for the discrepancy (see Value of Coarse Flour).
Tabulate the percentage composition of baker's flour and of a high grade of wheat flour (patent roller process). Which contains the more protein? Which, the more carbohydrates?
What is the weight of a barrel of flour? Of an ordinary sack of flour?
What is the present price per sack of baker's and of high-grade patent flour?
How many cupfuls in a pound of flour?
In what quantity are whole wheat flour and graham flour usually purchased for home use? What is the price per pound of each?
LESSON CXXI
COMPARISON OF WHEAT AND OTHER GRAINS—MUFFINS
SUBSTITUTING OTHER CEREALS FOR WHEAT FLOUR.—A resourceful worker in foods is able to follow a standard recipe and make such substitutions as her available materials permit. Such ability is most desirable. It enables one to work more independently, to produce more varied foods, and to utilize all materials, allowing none to waste.
During the wheat shortage of the World War, many valuable investigations were made regarding the substitution of other grains for wheat flour. It was found that the substitution should be based upon the relative weights of wheat flour and other flours or meals rather than upon their relative measures.
By comparing the weight of 1 cupful of wheat pastry flour with the same quantity of its substitutes, the following data have been obtained.
For 1 cupful of wheat flour substitute:
l 1/8 cupfuls barley flour 5/6 cupful buckwheat flour 1 1/6 cupfuls fine corn-meal 1 scant cupful peanut flour 7/8 cupful rice flour 1 1/2 cupfuls rolled oats 1 1/8 cupfuls rolled oats, ground in food chopper 1/3 cupful tapioca flour 7/8 cupful soy-bean flour 3/4 cupful potato flour 1 cupful rye flour
Although yeast breads are not so satisfactory if made entirely of a grain other than wheat, quick breads of desirable grain and texture may be made without wheat. It has been found, however, that a combination of two or more wheat substitutes gives more satisfactory results than a single substitute.
When no wheat is used in quick breads, the following combinations of substitutes are suggested by the United States Department of Agriculture, States Relation Service.
Rolled oats (ground) or Barley flour or Buckwheat flour or Peanut flour or Soy-bean flour
and
Corn flour or Corn-meal or Rice flour or Potato flour or Sweet potato flour
Since the wheat substitutes contain little or none of the kind of protein which when moistened forms a sticky and elastic substance, an increase in the number of eggs in quick breads containing no wheat produces a satisfactory texture. The albumin of eggs aids in holding the materials together.
By scalding certain of the wheat substitutes before adding them to other ingredients, a sticky starch paste is formed. This also aids in binding materials together.
When using a wheat substitute instead of wheat (as suggested in Quantity of Baking Powder in Quick Breads) it is advisable to increase the quantity of baking powder,—1/2 teaspoonful for each cupful of the substitute used. Thus, if a muffin recipe calls for 3 1/2 teaspoonfuls of baking powder and 2 cupfuls of corn flour are substituted for wheat, the quantity of baking powder should be increased to 4 1/2 teaspoonfuls.
WHY WHEAT IS POPULAR.—In this country, wheat is doubtless the most used of all grains. Its white or creamy color and mild flavor which blends well with that of many foods account in part for its popularity. From a culinary standpoint, wheat flour is more satisfactory to use than any other kind. It produces breads of pleasing texture,—tender but firm enough to hold their shape. Yeast breads made of wheat flour are larger than those made with other cereals.
Although wheat is generally used, its food value is not superior to that of other grains. It is doubtless because we are "used to" wheat that we have favored it more than other cereals.
COMPARING WHEAT WITH OTHER GRAINS.—Make a comparative study of the composition of the following:
Wheat Flour and Corn-meal.—From U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition of wheat flour and of corn-meal. Which contains the more fat? Which contains the more ash?
Corn-meal does not contain as much protein as does wheat. The protein in corn-meal differs from that in wheat; it does not have the elastic property of the protein of wheat. It is this property which makes the latter so satisfactory in bread making. For this reason, it is always best to combine corn-meal with wheat flour or some other cereal in preparing corn breads.
It should be noted that corn-meal contains more fat than wheat flour, and it compares favorably in digestibility with wheat flour. There is a difference in flavor, but no difference in the nutritive value of yellow and of white corn-meal.
Wheat Flour and Oatmeal.—From U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition of wheat flour and of oatmeal. Which contains the more protein, fat, and ash? Which contains the more carbohydrates?
Oatmeal contains more protein, fat, and ash than any of the cereals commonly used. It is a very tough cereal and requires long cooking in order to make it palatable.
Wheat Flour and Rice.—From U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition of wheat flour (all analyses, average). Now tabulate the percentage composition of rice (average). Which contains the more carbohydrates? Which, the more protein and ash?
Polished rice contains the least ash and protein of all the common cereals. It is also deficient in fat in comparison with the other cereals.
Unpolished rice, however, contains more than twice as much ash as the polished cereal. It also contains more fat and protein. [Footnote 94: Composition of unpolished rice: protein, 8.02; fat, 1.96; carbohydrates, 76.98; ash, 1.15.] Hence it compares favorably with the composition of other
grains.
Wheat Flour, Barley, Buckwheat, and Rye.—From U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition of wheat flour, of barley, of buckwheat, and of rye. Note the quantity of fat in barley and in buckwheat, and the small amount of protein in buckwheat and in rye.
CORN MUFFINS
1 1/3 cupfuls flour 2/3 cupful corn-meal 4 teaspoonfuls baking powder 1 to 2 tablespoonfuls sugar 1/3 teaspoonful salt 1 egg 1 1/4 cupfuls milk 2 tablespoonfuls fat
Mix as plain muffins, and bake in oiled muffin tins 25 to 30 minutes at 400 F.
Rye meal may be substituted for corn-meal in this recipe.
RICE MUFFINS
1 1/3 cupfuls flour 3 3/4 teaspoonfuls baking powder 2 tablespoonfuls sugar 1/2 teaspoonful salt 1 egg 2/3 cupful milk 1/2 cupful cooked rice 2 tablespoonfuls fat
Beat the egg; add the milk and the cooked rice. Add the dry ingredients (through a sifter) to the egg mixture; melt the fat; add it to the flour mixture. Mix quickly and thoroughly, and bake in buttered muffin tins in a hot oven (400 F.) for 25 to 30 minutes.
OATMEAL MUFFINS
Use the recipe for Plain Muffins as a basic rule. Substitute 1 cupful rolled oats for 1 cupful of wheat flour. Scald the milk, pour it over the rolled oats. Let the mixture stand for about 1/2 hour or until it is cool. Then add the other ingredients and mix as plain muffins. Use 4 teaspoonfuls of baking powder instead of 3 1/2 teaspoonfuls. |
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