Packages, bottles, and cans of equal size do not always contain the same quantity of foods. The shape or thickness of a container also affects the quantity of its contents. By examining labels and noting weight and composition, the price and quality of one brand of foods may be compared with another.

Household scales are useful in checking up the weight of foods, such as meats, fats, and vegetables. By weighing foods after they have been purchased, a housekeeper can determine if a dealer is giving her that for which she pays.

LESSENING THE COST OF FOODS.—There are many things, then, that the thrifty buyer should take into consideration when purchasing foods. It is one of the obligations of a woman who purchases and plans the foods for a family to be careful of expense. The following statement concerning thrift is both forceful and true:

"It is not beneath the dignity of any family to avoid useless expenditure no matter how generous its income, and the intelligent housekeeper should take as much pride in setting a good table, at a low price, as the manufacturer does in lessening the cost of production in his factory." [Footnote 56: United States Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 391, "Economical Use of Meat in the Home," p. 43.]

CALCULATION OF THE COST OF FOOD.—In counting the cost of foods, it is necessary to know not only the price per pound, quart, dozen, or package, but the measurement in cupfuls of the given weight. Most of the data for the list given below can be obtained from labels on the containers and from the notes on the weights and measures of various foods prepared from the "Questions" of this text. The dashes indicate that data are not required. The cost should be calculated to four decimal places.

FOODS COST MEASURE COST PER COST PER COST PER PER IN CUPFUL TABLE- TEA- POUND, CUPFULS SPOONFUL SPOONFUL QUART, OF ETC. POUND, QUART, ETC.

Apricots (dried) ——- ——- Baking Powder ——- ——- Beans, dried ——- ——- Butter Butter Substitute Cheese ——- ——- Cocoa ——- ——- Coffee Heaping ——- Table- spoonful Corn-meal ——- ——- Corn-starch ——- Cream of Wheat ——- ——- Cream ——- Currants ——- ——- (dried) Eggs (see ——- One ——- Experiment 41 Flour, white ——- Flour, whole wheat ——- ——- Flour, graham ——- ——- Gelatine ——- Lard ——- Macaroni ——- ——- Meat, chopped ——- ——- Milk ——- ——- Potatoes ——- One ——- ——- potato Prunes (dried) ——- ——- Raisins (dried) ——- ——- Rice ——- ——- Rolled Oats ——- ——- Salt ——- Split Peas ——- ——- Sugar, brown ——- ——- Sugar, granulated ——- ——- Sugar, loaf One ——- ——- lump Sugar, powdered ——- ——- Tapioca ——- ——- Tea ——- Vanilla ——- ——- ——- Vegetable Oil ——- Wheatena ——- ——-



LESSON LXXVI

COOKING AND SERVING A BREAKFAST

Cook and serve a breakfast. The following menu is suggested: Oranges or Baked Apples Goldenrod Eggs Baked Mush with Honey or Marmalade Cocoa

Follow the English or family style of serving. Serve the breakfast with or without a maid.

Calculate the cost of the meal. In determining the cost, use the data from the previous lesson for the staple materials. The cost of fresh foods such as oranges or apples may be secured from the one who did the marketing or from the grocer's statement.



LESSON LXXVII

REVIEW: MEAL COOKING

MENU

Cereal with Fruit Poached Egg on Toast

See Lesson XIV for suggestions regarding the preparation of the Lesson.



LESSON LXXVIII

HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 57: See Lesson IX]

SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.—Set the table for the evening meal each day.

Cook at least one tough cut of meat each week.

Suggested Aims:

(1) To lay the cloth smooth and straight.

(2) To place the dishes in a neat and orderly way on the table.

(3) To make as few trips as possible from the cupboard to the dining table.

(4) To plan the entire number of dishes, knives, forks, spoons, and other things needed during the meal, and then place these on the dining table or other suitable place where they may be conveniently obtained when the meal is being served.

(5) To prepare the tough meat so that it is tender, moist, and tasty.

(6) To determine the cost of meat.



DIVISION SEVEN

HEALTH AND GROWTH-PROMOTING FOODS,—RICH IN VITAMINES

LESSON LXXIX

VITAMINES—VEGETABLES OF DELICATE FLAVOR

VITAMINES.—In determining the proper diet for perfect nourishment, scientists long since came to the conclusion that the body needed a certain quantity of carbohydrates, fats, protein, ash, and water. They were all agreed that all these foodstuffs needed to be represented in the foods making up a day's diet. Scientists also found that these foodstuffs must exist in a certain proportion in a day's food,—that there should be enough of each of the foodstuffs to meet the needs of the body. A diet made up of foods in which all the foodstuffs were represented in the proper proportion was termed a balanced ration.

Investigations of recent years, however, show that these foodstuffs alone do not afford perfect nourishment. Much valuable scientific work is being done on the question of adequate diet. It is found that certain substances contained in foods in small amounts are absolutely essential in diet. When animals are fed foods containing only the foodstuffs mentioned above and none of these other substances, they cease growing, become diseased, and eventually die.

These materials so necessary to the growth and maintenance of animal life are termed Vitamines by some authorities. There are three classes of Vitamines, called Fat-soluble A, Water-soluble B, and Water-soluble C. It is now believed that there is at least one more vitamine.

Although vitamines exist in foods only in minute quantities it is necessary to use foods containing all the kinds of vitamines to promote growth and to keep in health.

Fat-soluble A, especially with certain minerals, is thought to prevent rickets and a disease of the eye called xerophthalmia. During the war, because of inadequate diet, many cases of these diseases developed in Europe.

Water-soluble B is called the anti-neuritic vitamine because it is necessary to prevent a disease called polyneuritis or beri-beri (see Polished and Unpolished Rice).

Water-soluble C is called the anti-scorbutic vitamine because it is necessary to prevent a disease called scurvy.

FOODS CONTAINING FAT-SOLUBLE A are milk, eggs, and leafy vegetables. Leafy vegetables include: spinach, lettuce, celery tops, beet tops, Swiss chard, collards, cabbage, Brussels sprouts, and onions. Milk products, such as butter and cheese, and cod-liver oil also contain fat-soluble A. It is also thought to be present in certain vegetables such as carrots, which are not leafy vegetables. Not all fat foods contain fat- soluble A. It does not exist in the vegetable oils.

It has been demonstrated that foods rich in fat-soluble A, especially milk, eggs, and leafy vegetables, are most essential in diet. According to McCollum, dry leaves contain 3 to 5 times as much total ash as do seeds; the former are also especially rich in the important elements calcium, sodium, and chlorine, in which the seed is poorest. Hence leafy vegetables not only abound in the growth-promoting vitamine but in certain essential minerals. Cereals, root vegetables, and meat need to be supplemented with milk and leafy vegetables. Because milk, eggs, and leafy vegetables are so valuable and essential in diet, these foods have been termed protective foods. Fresh milk contains fat-soluble A and a small quantity of water-soluble B and water-soluble C. Its value as a food has been previously discussed. Doubtless the leafy vegetables are not as generally and as constantly used as they should be. Root vegetables and cereals seem to be a much more popular form of vegetable food. The pupil should realize the importance of these foods and when possible explain their use in her home. Learning to prepare leafy vegetables so as to retain their nutriment and to make them appetizing would doubtless do much in promoting their use.

FOODS CONTAINING WATER-SOLUBLE B.—Water-soluble B is more widely distributed in foods than is fat-soluble A. It occurs for the most part, however, in vegetable foods. Plants containing this vitamine include seeds, root, stem, and leafy vegetables. Whole grains, legumes, spinach, cabbage, potatoes, carrots, onions, turnips, beets, and tomatoes and all other commonly used vegetables contain water-soluble B. It is thought that the germ of whole grains, rather than the bran, furnishes water-soluble B. Compressed yeast contains some of this vitamine, but none of the other two.

FOODS CONTAINING WATER-SOLUBLE C include both animal and vegetable foods, but fresh fruits and green vegetables contain the largest quantity. Orange juice, lettuce, cabbage, and spinach are valuable sources of this vitamine. Milk and meat contain only a very small quantity of water- soluble C.

SAVING THE NUTRIMENT AND FLAVOR.—It was mentioned in Suggestions for Cooking Fresh Vegetables that a saving of ash in vegetables meant a saving of both nutriment and flavor. If vegetables of delicate flavor are to be made tasty, it is especially necessary to lose none of the ash constituents. Note that in the methods of cooking the vegetables of delicate flavor in this lesson that either the vegetables are cooked in such a way that no moisture needs to be drained from them, or the vegetable stock drained from them is used in making sauce for the vegetable. By these methods both nutriment and flavor are retained.

SPINACH

1 pound or 1/2 peck spinach 1/2 tablespoonful salt 1/8 teaspoonful pepper 2 tablespoonfuls butter

If the spinach is at all wilted, place it in cold water until it becomes fresh and crisp. Cut off the roots, break the leaves apart, and drop them in a pan of water. Wash well, and then lift them into a second pan of water; wash again, and continue until no sand appears in the bottom of the pan. Lift from the water, drain, and place in a granite utensil, and add the seasoning. Steam until tender (usually about 30 minutes). Add the butter, cut the leaves with a knife and fork. Turn into a hot dish and serve at once.

Spinach is most pleasing if served with a few drops of vinegar or a combination of oil and vinegar. If desired, the pepper may be omitted and 1 tablespoonful of sugar added. Spinach may also be garnished with slices of hard-cooked eggs, using 2 eggs to 1/2 peck of spinach.

Spinach may be cooked directly over the flame, as follows: wash the spinach as directed above. Then drain, and place in a saucepan or casserole. Do not add water unless the spinach is old. Add the seasoning, cover, and cook for 10 minutes, pressing down and turning over the spinach several times during the cooking. Cut with a knife and fork in the saucepan or casserole. Add the butter, and simmer for 5 minutes. Serve at once.

SCALLOPED SPINACH WITH CHEESE

1 pound spinach 1 cupful thick White Sauce 1/2 cupful cheese, cut in pieces 2 to 3 hard-cooked eggs, sliced 2 cupfuls buttered bread crumbs

Wash the spinach and cook it by either of the methods given above. Season it with 1/2 tablespoonful of salt.

Drain the moisture from the cooked spinach. Use this liquid combined with milk for the liquid of the White Sauce. Season the sauce with 1/2 teaspoonful of salt and add the cheese to it. Stir the mixture until the cheese is blended with the sauce.

Divide the spinach, sauce, and eggs into 2 portions and the bread crumbs into 3 portions, as directed for Scalloped Corn. Place a layer of crumbs in a baking-dish, add a layer of spinach, sauce, and eggs. Add another layer of each material and finally the third layer of crumbs. Bake in a moderate oven until the materials are heated and the crumbs browned. Serve hot.

DRIED CELERY LEAVES [Footnote 58: The stems of celery from which the leaves are cut, should be utilized. They may be used in a salad or cooked and served with White Sauce as Creamed Celery. If the vegetable is cooked, it should be steamed or cooked in a small quantity of boiling water. In case the latter method is followed, the celery stock should be combined with milk and used in the preparation of the White Sauce.]

Wash celery leaves and remove the stems. Place the leaves on a platter or granite pan, cover with cheese-cloth, and set aside to dry. When perfectly dry, crumble the leaves and place them in a covered jar. Use for flavoring soups and stews.

QUESTIONS

In what kind of soil does spinach grow?

What is the advantage of using two pans in washing spinach?

What is the advantage of cooking in steam green vegetables of delicate flavor?

If green vegetables are cooked in water, what is the advantage in using a small, rather than a large quantity of water?

What is the price of spinach per pound or peck? How many persons does one pound or peck serve?

What is the price of celery per bunch?

What vitamines are present in spinach and celery leaves and stems?



LESSON LXXX

VITAMINES—VEGETABLES OF STRONG FLAVOR

THE EFFECT OF COOKING AND DRYING VITAMINE-RICH FOODS.—Since vitamines are so essential in food, the effect of cooking and drying upon the vitamine content of a food needs to be considered. There has been some difference of opinion regarding this matter. Indeed, the question of whether or not vitamines of all vitamine-rich foods are destroyed by cooking and drying has not been determined. It is thought, however, that fat-soluble A may be destroyed in part by cooking at boiling temperature and that prolonged cooking may almost entirely destroy it.

Water-soluble B is thought to be little affected by ordinary home cooking processes. But when foods containing it are heated above boiling temperature, as in commercial canning and cooking in the pressure cooker, the vitamine is believed to be partially or completely destroyed. It is thought the water-soluble B vitamine present in foods is destroyed by cooking them in water to which baking soda or any alkali is added.

Water-soluble C is decidedly affected by heat. Vegetables cooked for even twenty minutes at boiling temperature lose much of their usefulness in preventing scurvy. It is thought, however, that very young carrots cooked for a short time, and canned tomatoes, contain water-soluble C. Drying also destroys to a great extent the anti-scorbutic effect of foods containing water-soluble C. Most dried vegetables and fruits have been found valueless in checking scurvy.

Since there is no question about the vitamine content of uncooked vegetables, the use of salads containing lettuce and raw vegetables such as cabbage and carrots should find favor. Spinach is a valuable food not only because it

contains vitamines, but because it is rich in iron. Young beet tops so often discarded contain too much valuable material to be wasted.

NUTRIMENT VERSUS FLAVOR.—If vegetables of strong flavor are cooked carefully in a large quantity of boiling water (at least 4 quarts), a mild flavor results, but much of the ash is lost. If vegetables are steamed there is little loss of ash but the strong flavor is retained. In the cooking of cabbage, for example, investigation has shown that almost four times as much ash may be lost by boiling as by steaming.

In the cooking of such vegetables as cabbage and onions the question arises: Is it better to steam them and thus lose little nutriment but preserve the strong flavor; or to boil them in much water and thus lose much nutriment but secure delicate flavor? If strong cabbage flavor is not distasteful, steam it or cook it in a small quantity of water by all means. If delicate cabbage flavor is much more pleasing, cook it in much water. Onions have such a strong flavor that most housekeepers prefer to sacrifice nutriment for flavor.

CREAMED CABBAGE (Cooked in Much Water)

A head of cabbage should be cut into quarters and placed in cold water. If it is wilted, it should remain in the water until freshened. Cook the cabbage uncovered from 15 to 25 minutes in a large quantity of boiling water (1 teaspoonful of salt to I quart of water). The time depends upon the age of the cabbage. Drain well. With the knife and fork cut the cabbage in the saucepan. (Do not discard the core of young cabbage since it contains valuable nutrients.) Mix with White Sauce, using two parts of cabbage to one of White Sauce. Heat and serve (see Creamed and Scalloped Vegetables).

Scalloped Cabbage may be prepared by placing creamed cabbage in a baking-dish, covering with Buttered Crumbs and baking until the crumbs are brown.

Instead of using White Sauce with the cabbage, butter (or substitute), pepper, and more salt (if required) may be added. Use 1 tablespoonful of butter (or substitute) to each pint of cabbage.

CABBAGE (COOKED IN LITTLE WATER)

Clean cabbage, then cut or chop both the leaves and core. Cook in a small quantity of boiling water from 15 to 25 minutes. The small quantity of stock which remains after cooking should be served with the vegetable to which butter (or substitute) and seasonings are added.

The stock may also be drained from the cabbage and used in making White Sauce in which the vegetable is served.

CREAMED CABBAGE (STEAMED)

Cut and clean cabbage as directed above. Place in a granite utensil and steam until tender (usually about 45 minutes). Cut the leaves and add White Sauce as directed above.

ONIONS (COOKED IN MUCH WATER)

1 pound onions 1/2 cupful milk 1 to 2 tablespoonfuls butter 1/2 teaspoonful salt Pepper

Peel and wash the onions; then cook uncovered in a large quantity of boiling salted water; change the water at the end of 5 minutes and again in 10 minutes; cook until tender. Drain; add milk and seasonings and cook until the milk is hot.

NOTE.—It is advisable to save the water drained from onions, boil it down, and use it in soups, stews, or hash for flavor.

Onions may also be served with White Sauce, or they may be scalloped, i.e. cut into quarters, placed in a baking-dish, covered

with White Sauce and Buttered Crumbs, and then browned in the oven.

The stain and odor may be kept from the hands if onions are held under water when peeled.

If onions are cooked uncovered in a large quantity of gently boiling water in a well-ventilated kitchen, not much odor is noticed. The fireless cooker, however, provides satisfactory means of cooking onions without the disagreeable odor (see Lesson XXII). Place the onions in a large quantity of water and boil for 5 minutes. Then cook in the fireless cooker from 2 to 8 hours, according to the size and the age of the onions, and the type of cooker.

QUESTIONS

Compare the three methods of cooking cabbage given in this lesson. State the advantages and disadvantages of each.

Why should the core or thick stem of cabbage be used as food?

What is the price per pound of cabbage? What is the weight of one cabbage of average size? Give suggestions for selecting a cabbage.

Why should onions be peeled under water?

What is the purpose of changing the water twice in cooking onions?

Why is it advisable to save the water drained from onions and use it in soups and other foods?

What is the price per pound of onions? How many persons will one pound of onions serve?



LESSON LXXXI

SALADS (A)

PREPARATION OF A SALAD.—A well-prepared salad is a good food. It is necessary, however, to prepare it so that it may be pleasing in appearance as well as in taste. The green vegetables used for salads should be crisp, cold, and dry when served. If several food materials are used, the flavors should blend. Have the salad dressing well seasoned, and its ingredients well proportioned. Add the dressing to a salad just before serving.

LETTUCE FOR SALAD

Either leaf or head lettuce forms a part of almost all salads. It is often used as a bed for a salad, or as a border. For the latter purpose, leaf lettuce should be used and cut into strips with the scissors. Keep lettuce in a cold place; separate the leaves, and place them in cold water until crisp and fresh. Wash and look over carefully to see that no insects cling to them. Shake the water from the leaves or place them in a cloth bag or a wire basket. Then place the bag or basket in the refrigerator to drain. The leaves may also be dried with a towel.

Lettuce served with French Dressing makes a plain but pleasing salad. When lettuce is used as a bed or border for a salad, it should be eaten and not left to be turned into the garbage can.

FRENCH DRESSING

Clove of garlic or Slice of onion 1 teaspoonful salt 6 tablespoonfuls salad oil half teaspoonful paprika 2 tablespoonfuls vinegar or lemon juice

Rub a bowl with the clove of garlic or slice of onion. Add the remainder of the ingredients, and stir until well blended. More vinegar or lemon juice may be used, if desired. Chopped parsley or mint may be added.

Some find it convenient to put the materials for French Dressing in a bottle or jar and mix the ingredients by shaking the bottle.

For Fruit Salads, the addition of 1 tablespoonful of sugar and 1 teaspoonful of lemon juice to the French Dressing recipe above makes a pleasing flavor. Celery salt is thought by some to improve the flavor. From a quarter to a half teaspoonful may be added.

COLESLAW

3 cupfuls shredded cabbage 1/2 teaspoonful salt 1/2 teaspoonful mustard Cayenne 1 teaspoonful sugar 1 egg or 2 egg yolks 1/2 cupful milk 2 teaspoonfuls butter or substitute 1/4 cupful vinegar

Heat the milk in a double boiler. Beat the eggs, add the dry ingredients. Then add the milk to them. Return the mixture to the double boiler and cook as a custard (see Soft Custard). Remove from the hot water, add the fat and vinegar, and at once strain over the cabbage. Set aside to cool. Serve cold.

CARROT AND CABBAGE SALAD

1 medium-sized carrot 2 cupfuls cabbage 1/2 cupful roasted peanuts French or Cream Salad Dressing

Clean and scrape the carrot. Wash the cabbage. Put the carrot (uncooked), cabbage, and peanuts through the food chopper. Mix with French or Cream Salad Dressing. Add more seasoning if necessary. Serve at once.

QUESTIONS

Explain why it is necessary to dry the salad materials before adding the salad dressing.

Give at least three different vegetable mixtures that would be palatable and pleasing if served with French Dressing.

How is cabbage cleaned? How should it be cut for salad?

When is the dressing usually added to salads? When is the dressing added to the Coleslaw? Give the reason for this exception.

What is the purpose of the egg in this salad dressing? What could be substituted for the egg? Give the method of preparation if this substitution were made.

What is the price per pound of leaf lettuce? Of head lettuce per pound or per head? What is the average number of leaves in a pound?

What materials in Carrot and Cabbage Salad contain vitamines? State the kind of vitamine present in each material.



LESSON LXXXII

SALADS (B)

STUFFED EGGS

Cut hard-cooked eggs into halves crosswise. Remove the yolks, mash them, and for each egg add the following ingredients:

1 tablespoonful chopped chicken, ham, or other meat Dash salt 1 teaspoonful vegetable oil or melted butter 6 drops vinegar 1/8 teaspoonful mustard Cayenne

Mix the ingredients. Refill the whites with the yolk mixture. Serve the stuffed eggs on lettuce leaves.

The chopped chicken or meat may be omitted from the egg mixture, or a little chopped pickle or olive or cheese may be used instead of the meat. Salad dressing may be served with Stuffed Eggs.

CREAM SALAD DRESSING

3 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute 4 tablespoonfuls flour 2 tablespoonfuls sugar Pepper 1 to 2 eggs l 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt 1/2 teaspoonful mustard 1 1/2 cupfuls milk (sweet or sour) 1/2 cupful vinegar

Make a sauce of the fat, flour, and milk. Beat the eggs, add the seasonings. Add the first mixture gradually to the egg mixture and cook over hot water as a custard (see Soft Custard). Add the vinegar, strain. Cool before serving.

Less mustard may be used, if desired.

BANANA SALAD

Peel and scrape bananas. Place them on lettuce leaves or surround with a border of shredded lettuce. Cover with Cream Salad or Mayonnaise Dressing and sprinkle chopped peanuts or California walnuts over them. Serve at once.

Banana Salad may be varied by serving it with Cream Salad Dressing to which peanut butter is added,—(1/2 cupful salad dressing and 1/4 cupful peanut butter). Do not use the chopped peanuts with this combination. A mixture of sliced apples and bananas served with the peanut butter dressing makes a pleasing salad.

QUESTIONS

Name the food materials contained in the above recipes which contain vitamines. What kind of vitamines does each contain?

Give two methods of hard-cooking eggs (see Hard-cooked Eggs).

In Stuffed Eggs what meats could be substituted for chopped chicken or ham?

What material could be substituted for one of the eggs in Cream Salad Dressing?

If yolks of eggs are used in Cream Salad Dressing, how many should be substituted for two whole eggs?

Why should bananas be scraped?

Why should they be served at once after preparing?



LESSON LXXXIII

CLASSIFICATION OF THE FOODSTUFFS

Substances that nourish the body may be classified as follows:

/ (a) Starch / Carbohydrates (b) Sugar Energy Givers Fats Protein

[Footnote 59: Carbohydrates also include cellulose. But because cellulose does not yield any appreciable amount of energy, it is not listed with starch and sugar.]

/ Complete Proteins / Protein Body Builders Incomplete Proteins Ash

/ Ash Body Regulators Water / (a) Fat-soluble A Vitamines (b) Water-soluble B (c) Water-soluble C

[Footnote 60: "So little is known regarding the chemical composition of vitamines that it is difficult to classify them. Since the three food essentials termed as fat-soluble A, water-soluble B, and water-soluble C are individual substances and very different in character, it may be that they will be classified later as three separate foodstuffs. It could then be said that there are eight foodstuffs."]

Make lists of foods rich in:

(1) Water. (2) Ash. (3) Carbohydrates. Subdivide foods rich in carbohydrates, into foods rich in (a) sugar, (b) starch, (c) cellulose (i.e. bulky foods). (4) Fats. (5) Protein. Indicate those foods that contain complete proteins and those that contain incomplete proteins. (6) Vitamines. Subdivide foods rich in vitamines into foods rich in fat-soluble A, water-soluble B, water-soluble C.

Explain why certain foods are contained in two or more lists.



RELATED WORK

LESSON LXXXIV

SELECTING FOOD

MARKETING VERSUS TELEPHONING.—Visits to food markets or grocery stores are most essential, especially if one is learning to buy. It is first necessary to find desirable market places or stores,—those that are clean and reliable. Screened windows and doors, and adequate bins, boxes, jars, or other receptacles for storing foods are necessary in keeping foods clean. After one has found desirable places for marketing, it is well to become acquainted with desirable brands of staple canned or package goods. After this knowledge is gained such foods may be ordered by telephone, or by messenger with satisfaction.

But no matter how experienced the buyer, it is more satisfactory to select at markets perishable goods such as meat, fish, fruits, and vegetables that wilt readily. In certain cases where the housekeeper has such obligations or so many duties that a personal visit to markets is impossible, food must be purchased by telephone or messenger. Such a procedure, however, is usually followed at the sacrifice of economy and satisfaction in buying.

FRESH VERSUS CANNED FOODS.—Fresh foods of good quality are generally more desirable both from the standpoint of flavor and nutriment than canned goods. When, however, fresh foods are unseasonable, their price may greatly exceed that of canned foods. A good rule to follow is to buy fresh foods when they are in season and the canned ones when fresh foods of reasonable price cannot be secured. The practice of buying perishable foods, especially fruits, when they are abundant and canning them for later use is thrifty.

To buy factory-canned fruits and vegetables when fresh winter fruits, such as cranberries, oranges, and apples, and root vegetables may be purchased is questionable both from the standpoint of economy and nutriment. It is often more economical to purchase dried rather than canned fruits. The former usually contain more food value per pound.

BULK VERSUS PACKAGE GOODS.—Time spent in placing and sealing foods in packages and the cost of the containers make the price of package foods exceed those sold in bulk. Moreover, large packages usually cost more proportionately than small ones. On the other hand, package foods may be cleaner, require less handling, and are often much more inviting because of their attractive wrapping. It does not follow, however, that all foods sold in containers are cleaner than those sold in bulk. Unsanitary conditions sometimes prevail at factories where the foods are packed. It is a safe rule to buy in package form only those foods which cannot be washed or sterilized by cooking.

UNCOOKED VERSUS COOKED FOODS.—Not only breads, cakes, certain cereals, and canned goods may be purchased ready cooked, but other foods, such as salads and puddings, may be bought in certain markets and stores. Such foods are much higher in price than those of equal quality prepared at home. The cost of labor, fuel, and "overhead expense" as well as of materials must be paid for by the purchaser. Unless one is engaged in business other than housekeeping or one's housekeeping duties are too arduous it is generally not wise to make a practice of buying cooked foods.

LARGE VERSUS SMALL QUANTITIES.—It is usually wasteful to purchase perishable foods in large quantities. Fresh meats, perishable fruits such as berries, and green vegetables should be purchased only in quantities sufficient for immediate use. It is sometimes economical, as far as fuel and time are concerned, to buy enough fresh meat for two days' consumption, provided all of it can be cooked on the first day, and then used cold or merely reheated on the second day.

Unless storage space is limited, flour should not be purchased in less than 25 pound sacks. In less quantity than this it usually costs more per pound. It is wise for small families, however, to purchase flour and other grains in smaller quantities in the summer time since weevils may infest such food materials.

When a non-perishable food such as sugar, or any of the grains, sells for a fractional sum per pound, it is economical to buy several pounds so as not to add to the cost per pound. It is wiser, for example, to buy 2 pounds of dried beans at 12 1/2 cents per pound than one pound at 13 cents.

Semi-perishable foods such as eggs and fats can usually be purchased with satisfaction in quantities sufficient for a week. They should, of course, be stored in a cool place. Many persons find it economical to buy eggs in large quantities in the summer time and pack them in water glass for winter use.

Root vegetables and canned goods are cheaper when bought by the bushel and case. There must, however, be cool, dry storage space to make the purchase of the former in large quantities practical.

It is impossible to purchase certain foods for small families in small enough quantities for immediate consumption. A can of molasses, for example, is usually more than enough for use at one time. When this is the case, the greatest care should be exercised to store such foods carefully and to utilize them before they spoil.

Cooperative buying usually means a saving. Such foods as flour, potatoes, dried vegetables, sugar, apples, and dried fruits may be purchased by the barrel, box, or other measure. If several families jointly purchase such quantities of foods, the expense is reduced. It is also of advantage to buy from the producer. The middle man's profit is thus eliminated.



LESSON LXXXV

COOKING AND SERVING A LUNCHEON OR SUPPER

Cook and serve a luncheon or supper. The following menu is suggested:

Cream of Pea Soup—Croutons Macaroni and Cheese Lettuce Salad Bread and Butter Oatmeal Cookies Tea

Follow the English or family style of serving. Serve the luncheon or supper without a maid. Calculate the cost of the meal per person.



LESSON LXXXVI

REVIEW: MEAL COOKING

MENU

Chopped Steak Boiled or Steamed Potato Coleslaw Tea

See Lesson XIV for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson.



LESSON LXXXVII

HOME PROJECTS I [Footnote 61: See Lesson IX]

SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.—Prepare salads or other foods containing leafy vegetables at least twice a week.

Calculate the quantity of milk used by each member of your household.

SUGGESTED AIMS:

(1) To prepare salads which are both pleasing in appearance and tasty. (Make sure that they are properly seasoned.)

(2) To vary either the materials used in salad-making or the method of serving and preparing the same salad materials.

(3) If the vegetable is cooked, to prepare it in such a way that no nutriment is lost.

(4) To compare the quantity of milk used by each member of the family with the quantities suggested at the top of.



DIVISION EIGHT

FLAVORING MATERIALS: FOOD ADJUNCTS

LESSON LXXXVIII

FOOD ADJUNCTS—DISHES CONTAINING FOOD ADJUNCTS

FOOD ADJUNCTS.—Besides the foodstuffs there are edible substances called food adjuncts. These cannot be termed foods, as they do not perform the functions of such, but they give flavor to them and they may excite the secretion of the digestive juices, and thus aid in the digestion of real foods. For the most part, food adjuncts are contained in these classes of materials,—condiments, flavoring extracts, and beverages.

Condiments.—Seasoning materials and spices are called condiments. They are used with foods to give the latter a pleasing flavor. But condiments should be eaten in moderation. They are often used to cover up the flavor of inferior or poorly prepared foods and they are often used to excess in sauces. Highly seasoned sauces should be served only with foods that are insipid in taste, but valuable for their nutritive properties. Good foods, well cooked, have a flavor which needs little change. We should train ourselves to enjoy the natural flavor of foods, so that there is no craving for condiments.

Salt may be classed both as a condiment and as a food (see Ash). When used in moderation, it has undoubted value in diet. It is used in many types of foods, especially meats and vegetables. The flavor of sweet foods such as cakes and sweet sauces is invariably improved by the addition of a small quantity of salt.

Vinegar is an acid flavoring material prepared by fermenting apple or grape juice or other materials. It contains acetic acid.

Cinnamon is a spice obtained from the inner bark of a small tree. Like most spices, it contains a volatile oil, i.e. an oil which evaporates. Cinnamon is sometimes adulterated with cassia, a spice prepared from the bark of the cassia tree which grows in China and Dutch West Indies. Cassia is similar to cinnamon in flavor.

Cloves are the flower buds of an evergreen tree which grows in Brazil, Ceylon, and West Indies.

Nutmeg is the dried kernel of a fruit which grows on a tree native to the Malay Archipelago.

Ginger is the root of a tropical plant. It contains starch and oil of ginger.

Mustard is prepared from the seed of mustard plants.

Black pepper is obtained from the unripe berry of a tropical vine while white pepper is prepared from the ripe berries. The latter is not as pleasing in flavor as black pepper and is more expensive. It is sometimes desired, however, because of its more pleasing appearance.

Cayenne pepper is prepared from the dried ripe fruit of the Capsicum plant.

Paprika is also prepared from the fruit of the Capsicum plant, but the seeds and stems of the fruit are removed. It is a much milder spice than cayenne pepper.

Marjoram, savory, and thyme are the leaves of herbs used for flavoring.

FLAVORING EXTRACTS.—Alcoholic solutions of volatile oils derived from plants are termed flavoring extracts. By dissolving the vanilla bean and lemon and orange peel in alcohol vanilla, lemon, and orange extracts are prepared. Since volatile oils evaporate readily, especially when heated, flavoring extracts should be added, if possible, to cold foods.

BEVERAGES.—The stimulating materials contained in the common beverages,— tea, coffee, cocoa, and chocolate,—are food adjuncts. [Footnote 62: Caffeine is the stimulating material in coffee; theine, in tea; and theobromine, in cocoa and chocolate.] Except for the value of the water they contain, in carrying on the needs of the body, and for the small quantity of sugar and cream used with them, tea and coffee have no food value. But cocoa and chocolate are rather rich in food value (see Cocoa and Chocolate). These beverages contain both foodstuffs and food adjuncts.

CURRY OF KIDNEY BEANS

1 pint kidney beans 2 tablespoonfuls fat 1 onion 1 teaspoonful curry powder [Footnote 63: Curry powder is a mixture of various spices including turmeric and coriander-seed powders.] 1 teaspoonful salt 2 tablespoonfuls flour 1 pint tomatoes

Wash and soak the beans overnight. Boil gently until tender.

Brown the onion in the fat, then add the curry powder, salt, and flour, and proceed as for Tomato Sauce (see Tomato Sauce). Add the cooked beans to the mixture and cook all together for a few minutes. Serve hot.

Chili con carni may be prepared by adding 1 pound chopped beef to the ingredients above and substituting chili powder for curry powder. If this change is made, brown the onion in the fat, then add the meat. Stir and cook until the meat loses its red color. Add the cooked beans and seasonings. Mix the flour with a small quantity of cold tomato. Add this and the remainder of the tomatoes to the meat mixture. Stir and cook for a few minutes. Serve hot.

SPICED BAKED APPLES

5 apples 5 tablespoonfuls sugar Water 1 lemon Whole cloves

Wash and core the apples. They may be pared if desired. Stick 2 or 3 whole cloves in each apple. Place the apples in a baking-dish, put 1 tablespoonful of sugar in the cavity of each apple, and a slice of lemon on the top. Add enough water to cover the bottom of the baking-dish. Cover, bake at 400 degrees F. until soft. Serve cold.

If the apples are very sour, more sugar should be used.

SAVORY TOAST

2 cupfuls canned tomatoes 1 cupful water 2 cloves 3 allspice berries 3 peppercorns 2 sprays parsley 2 tablespoonfuls fat 1/2 onion, sliced 3 tablespoonfuls flour 1/2 teaspoonful mustard 2 teaspoonfuls salt Dash cayenne 1/4 pound cheese 1 egg 8 slices toast

In a covered saucepan, cook the tomatoes, water, cloves, allspice berries, peppercorns, and parsley at simmering temperature for at least 15 minutes.

Brown the onion in the fat. Mix the flour, mustard, salt, and cayenne. Add these ingredients to the onion and fat. Mix well and add the cooked tomatoes. Stir and cook until the mixture reaches the boiling point, then strain. Add the cheese, stir and cook until the cheese is blended with the other ingredients.

Beat the egg, add a portion of the hot tomato mixture to it. Mix thoroughly and add it to the remainder of the tomato mixture. Stir and cook on the back of the range or over hot water until the egg is thickened. Pour over toast. Serve at once.

Canned tomato soup may be used instead of canned tomatoes. If this substitution is made, the cloves, allspice berries, peppercorns, and parsley should be omitted. For economy, the egg may be omitted. If no egg is used, the flour may be increased to 4 tablespoonfuls and the fat to 3 tablespoonfuls.

Compare this recipe with that for Tomato Sauce. In what ways are the ingredients and method of preparation similar? In what ways do they differ?

QUESTIONS

In which ingredients of the Curry of Kidney Beans and Spiced Baked Apples are the food adjuncts found?

Beans contain what ingredients that require long cooking?

What material can be added during cooking that will soften them (see Cooking Dried Legumes)?

What is the purpose of covering apples during baking? Why should they be baked in a slow oven (see Suggestions for Cooking Fruits)?

What kind of substance do all spices contain?

Why should spices be used in moderation?

Explain why flavoring extracts should be added, if possible, to cold foods.

Mention at least two forms in which the following spices may be purchased:

Cinnamon, cloves, nutmeg, ginger, mustard, and black pepper.

What materials in the recipe for Savory Toast are used merely for flavoring?

What materials are removed by straining? How is the flavor extracted from these materials before straining?



RELATED WORK

LESSON LXXXIX

SPENDING FOR FOOD

WHAT TO BUY.—Dr. Langworthy of the United States Department of Agriculture has listed foods into five groups and has advised that food from each group be used daily. The five groups follow:

" 1. Fruits and Vegetables. 2. Milk, Cheese, Eggs, Fish, Meat, Beans, Peas, Peanuts. 3. Cereals—Corn-meal, Oatmeal, Rice, Rye, Wheat, Flour, Bread. 4. Sugar, Sirups, Jelly, Honey, Candies. 5. Fats—Butter, Margarine, Cottonseed Oil, Olive Oil, Drippings, Suet, Bacon, Chocolate."

From studying the previous contents of this textbook the pupil will doubtless recognize in these groups foods to supply all the needs of the body. By following this plan of using some food from each group every day, the needs of the body will be supplied.

HOW MUCH TO SPEND FOR FOOD.—Any one no matter how ignorant or thoughtless can get rid of money. But it takes a wise person, one who understands values and quality, to get value received for money spent. Whether one is purchasing food for all the meals of a family or is only selecting a luncheon or one meal, it is desirable to spend money wisely.

The five food groups may serve as a basis for the purchase of foods. It has been suggested that each dollar used in buying foods be divided into 5 parts of 20 cents each.

"Out of every dollar spent use: [Footnote 64: From United States Thrift Leaflet #15.]

20 cents, more or less, for vegetables and fruits 20 cents, or more, for milk and cheese 20 cents, or less, for meat, fish, eggs, etc. 20 cents, or more, for bread and cereals 20 cents, or less, for sugar, fat, tea, coffee, chocolate, flavoring"

NOTE.—Compare these groups of food with those given above. Note that the first division of money should be used for the foods of Group 1; the second and third divisions for the foods of Group 2; the fourth division for the foods of Group 3; and the fifth division for the foods of Groups 4 and 5.



According to Lucy H. Gillett of the Dietetic Bureau of Boston, when strictest economy is necessary, one fourth of each dollar spent for food should be used to purchase bread and other grain products. The remainder of the dollar should be spent about equally for the groups of food mentioned above. If 25 instead of 20 cents is spent for cereal products, however, care should be taken to buy sufficient milk to meet the needs of each member of the family (see Milk, an Invaluable Food). This is especially necessary where there are young children in the family.

COMPARING THE COST OF FOODS.—The pupil should note that the different foods contained in the same groups differ in cost. One can economize by using the cheaper foods in the group or by using the more expensive only occasionally. If you find that fresh vegetables cost less than fruits, use the latter more sparingly than the former. Meats are more expensive than dried peas or beans and cheese, especially Cottage Cheese. Cottage Cheese or peas and beans in combination with milk or eggs may take the place of meat. A small quantity of meat may be combined with the dried legumes or cereals and a saving effected.

The third, fourth, and fifth groups contain energy-giving foods (see Divisions IV and V). Of the three groups of foods, cereals are by far the cheapest source of energy. A generous use of cereals is economical. In buying grains one gets much nutriment at little cost (when compared with other foods). If the food bills must be curtailed, use cereals generously and meat sparingly. Do not eat cereals, however, to the exclusion of the foods of the other groups. It is especially necessary to use milk and leafy vegetables with cereals. The latter are lacking in the fat-soluble A vitamine.

The fats included in Group 5 differ in cost. It is necessary to select these wisely in order to economize. A wise and economical use of fats is discussed previously.

PLANNING BEFORE BUYING.—It is not only an obligation but a necessity to waste no food. The bit of cereal left from breakfast, the crust of bread, and the scrap of meat represent money. They must be utilized.

The thrifty housekeeper sees to it that left-over food is properly cared for so that it need not be wasted because of spoilage. She covers food and stores it in a cool place. She uses it before it begins to spoil.

In order to buy wisely it is necessary to take account of the foods already in the house or in the garden. It is necessary to decide before going to market just what is needed to supplement the materials already on hand.



LESSON XC

COOKING AND SERVING A LUNCHEON OR SUPPER

Cook and serve a luncheon or supper. The following menu is suggested:

Salmon Timbale with White Sauce Stuffed Baked Potatoes Stewed or Scalloped Tomatoes Bread and Butter Prune Pudding with Top Milk

Analyze this menu. Is food from each of the groups given in lesson LXXXIX contained in it?

Follow the English or family style of serving. Serve the luncheon or supper without a maid. Calculate the cost of the meal per person.



LESSON XCI

REVIEW: MEAL COOKING

MENU

Cream of Tomato Soup Cheese Pudding Spiced Baked Apples

See Lesson XIV for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson.



LESSON XCII

HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 65: See Lesson IX]

SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.—If possible secure lists of foods purchased for use at your home during a week or a month. List each article and price in one of the five groups, viz.,

===================================================================== Vegetables Milk and Meat, Fish, Bread and Sugar, Fat and and Fruits Cheese Eggs, Etc Cereals Other Groceries =====================================================================

Add up the cost in each column. Compare the sums.

SUGGESTED AIMS:

(1) To determine if the money for the various groups of food has been spent according to the plan suggested in lesson LXXXIX.

(2) If not, to use the food lists actually purchased as a foundation and change them so as to embody the division of the dollar suggested in lesson LXXXIX.



DIVISION NINE

FOOD COMBINATIONS

LESSON XCIII

VEGETABLES WITH SALAD DRESSING (A)

FOOD COMBINATIONS.—From a dietetic standpoint, it is well to combine foods of different compositions. If a food is lacking in one or more of the foodstuffs, it should be combined with a food that supplies the missing nutrient. Bread contains little fat, and butter contains no carbohydrates; hence these two foods make a desirable combination. Vegetable oils, butter, and other fats make desirable additions to vegetables. Macaroni contains little fat, while cheese is rich in this foodstuff. Moreover, macaroni contains a small quantity of incomplete protein, while cheese is rich in complete protein. Hence macaroni and cheese make a good combination. In selecting foods to be used together, careful attention should be given to their composition.

EMULSION OF OIL; SALAD DRESSING.—As has been stated (see Breaking Up of Fats), to emulsify fat it is necessary to separate it into tiny globules, and to coat each globule with some materials, so that the droplets will remain separate. Various materials serve to emulsify fats. During digestion, fat is emulsified by means of a soap (see Experiment 36). Egg is another material which emulsifies fats. This fact is made use of in making Mayonnaise Dressing from vegetable oil and eggs. If one understands that the oil must be divided into globules, and that each globule must be coated with egg, the preparation of salad dressing becomes interesting and successful. It is evident that the fat should be added to the egg slowly and should be beaten while being added. If the oil and other ingredients are cold, a thicker dressing results. Quick mayonnaise, however, is an exception to this rule.



Since emulsion of fat is one of the processes of digestion, it would seem that fat in emulsified form would be most readily digested. This is true of some emulsified fats,—the fat of milk is one of the most readily digested. But when an emulsified fat is mixed with protein as in Mayonnaise Dressing, the digestion of the mixture is slower than if either of the foodstuffs were alone. Hence to some persons, Mayonnaise Dressing proves distressing.

MAYONNAISE DRESSING

1 egg yolk 1 tablespoonful vinegar 1 tablespoonful lemon juice 1/4 teaspoonful mustard 3/4 teaspoonful salt 1/2 teaspoonful sugar Cayenne 1 cupful vegetable oil 2 tablespoonfuls boiling water

Put the egg yolk into a mixing bowl, add hot vinegar, and mix thoroughly. Then add the lemon juice and dry ingredients. Let the mixture stand until cool. Then beat it with a Dover egg beater and while beating add the oil in small quantities,—about 1/2 tablespoonful at a time. Continue beating and adding the oil. When the mixture begins to thicken, the oil can be added in greater quantities. After all the oil is added, add the boiling water. Beat until the latter is thoroughly blended.

It has been found that the oil may be added more rapidly if the egg is acidified before mixing it with the oil. [Footnote 66: This is due to the fact that the acid reacts with the albumin of the egg to form a kind of salt which hydrates and takes up water from the mixture. The more water that can be taken out of an emulsion in the form of hydrates, the more easily will an emulsion be formed.] The addition of boiling water to the mixture after the egg and oil have been blended, prevents the oil from separating from the other ingredients.



If desired, the whole egg may be used in place of the egg yolks. In case this substitution is made, all the ingredients other than the egg should be doubled in quantity, since 1 whole egg will emulsify 2 cupfuls of oil.

The flavor of refined corn, cottonseed, or peanut oil is mild and pleasing. These oils have less flavor than olive oil but are as nutritious. Their use lessens the cost of Mayonnaise Dressing. After opening a bottle of vegetable oil, it should be kept in a cold place. If it is rancid, it should not be used in salad dressing.

If Mayonnaise Dressing is made successfully, it is thick and smooth. If the dressing is thin and curdled, the oil has been added too quickly, i.e. it has not been emulsified.

To remedy Mayonnaise that has curdled, beat the yolk of an egg slightly, then add the dressing to it gradually, beating constantly.

Mayonnaise Dressing may be varied by the addition of chili or celery sauce, chopped hard-cooked eggs, chopped parsley, pimentos, and green peppers.

QUICK MAYONNAISE DRESSING [Footnote 67: Adding the entire quantity of oil at one time and mixing it with hot paste may seem an unusual procedure for making an oil dressing. The fact that the method is successful may be explained as follows: Mixing the acid with the egg forms a salt which hydrates the mixture, and thus aids in making favorable conditions for emulsifying the oil as explained in the footnote of a previous page. The starch paste also takes up water from the mixture. This makes it possible to emulsify the oil easily, and also to make a stable emulsion.]

2 egg yolks or 1 whole egg 2 tablespoonfuls vinegar 2 tablespoonfuls lemon juice 1 1/4 teaspoonfuls salt 1 teaspoonful sugar 1/2 teaspoonful mustard Cayenne 1 cupful vegetable oil

Into a mixing bowl put the eggs and vinegar. Mix well. Add the other ingredients. (It is not necessary to stir them.)

Prepare a thick paste as follows:

In the top part of a double boiler put

1/3 cupful flour 1 cupful cold water 1 tablespoonful butter

Mix thoroughly. Then stir and cook over boiling water at least 10 minutes. At once (while it is hot) turn this paste into the egg and oil mixture. Beat all the ingredients with a Dover egg beater until a thick, uniform dressing results.

(Adapted from a recipe by Mrs. Hill.)

SEASONABLE VEGETABLE SALADS

Use seasonable vegetables in salads. Cucumbers, tomatoes, celery, and cooked cauliflower may be used in the fall. Cooked beets, cabbage, carrots, and olives may be used in the winter, and head lettuce, radishes, and cooked asparagus in the spring. Vegetables should be chilled, cut into desirable shapes, and served on lettuce with salad dressing. Beets are greatly improved by cutting into pieces, after cooking, and soaking for one hour in vinegar to which salt has been added. They may also be soaked in French Dressing.

A combination of vegetables and fruits makes a pleasing salad. Cucumbers and pineapple, celery and apples, olives and cooked cranberries are successful salad mixtures. The use of cheese, nuts, and peanuts with vegetables and fruits adds to the flavor and food value of salads. Uncooked carrots, cabbage, and peanuts dressed with French Dressing make a tasty salad.

Canned vegetables, "left over" cold vegetables, meat, and fish have a better flavor in salads if they are mixed with French Dressing and allowed to stand in a cold place for one hour before serving. This process is called marinating. If several meats or vegetables are used in the same salad, they should be marinated separately. Just before serving, Cream Salad Dressing or Mayonnaise Dressing may be added to marinated salad materials.

A salad consisting of lettuce or other uncooked leafy vegetables should not be dressed until it is ready to be served. The acid in salad dressing wilts the leaves.

QUESTIONS

Explain why it is necessary to add the oil to the egg mixture in small quantities.

Explain why it is that a curdled dressing can be remedied by adding it gradually to an egg.

What is the price per quart of olive oil? Of peanut oil? Of cottonseed oil? Of corn oil?

Find the difference in cost between a Mayonnaise Dressing made with corn, cottonseed, or peanut oil and one made with olive oil.

From the standpoint of composition, explain why fresh vegetables and Mayonnaise Dressing make a suitable combination (see Figures 62 and 63).

How much Mayonnaise Dressing is generally used for one serving? How many will the above recipe serve?

Make a list of combinations of materials which make tasty salads.



LESSON XCIV

VEGETABLES WITH SALAD DRESSING (B)

SALAD GARNISHING.—Successful garnishing of a salad requires a sense of good color combination, judgment in blending flavors, and ingenuity in arranging materials. Usually it is well to use only edible materials for garnishing. Certain flowers and greens may be used to advantage, however, in garnishing the salad for an occasional dinner or luncheon. Celery with "fringed ends," stuffed olives cut in slices, lettuce shredded or whole, pimentos, parsley, hard-cooked eggs sliced or pressed through strainer, and vegetables of pronounced color (as beets or carrots) cut into slices, cubes, or fancy shapes,—all these make pleasing garnishes.

PERFECTION SALAD

2 tablespoonfuls granulated gelatine 1/2 cupful cold water 1/2 cupful vinegar 1 lemon,—juice 2 cupfuls boiling water 1/2 cupful sugar 1 teaspoonful salt 1 1/2 cupfuls sliced celery 1 1/2 cupfuls shredded cabbage 3 pimentos chopped

Prepare all ingredients, except the vegetables, as for a gelatine mixture (see Lemon Jelly). When the mixture begins to set, stir in the vegetables, and pour into a mold. Serve on lettuce leaves with Mayonnaise Dressing.

Other vegetable mixtures such as cucumbers and tomatoes or peas and celery molded in jelly make tasty salads.

QUESTIONS

Mention at least four different kinds of salads, with a suitable garnish for each.

What should be the condition of all green vegetables used in salads?

How should lettuce be kept and prepared for salads?

From U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition of tomatoes, cucumbers, spinach, cabbage, lettuce, celery, and onions.

Which contains the most water? Which contains the most ash?

Aside from the fact that sugar improves the flavor of Perfection Salad, why is it a valuable ingredient of the salad mixture (see Figure 94)?

Explain why Mayonnaise Dressing with wafers or rolls would make a valuable food addition to Perfection Salad.



FOOD COMBINATIONS

LESSON XCV

FISH SALAD AND SALAD ROLLS

SALMON OR TUNNY SALAD

1 can salmon or tunny (or tuna) fish 1 cupful shredded cabbage or sliced celery

Drain the oil from the fish; remove the bone and bits of skin. Add the cabbage or celery, and Mayonnaise or Cream Salad Dressing. Arrange on lettuce and garnish as desired.

If Cream Dressing is used with salmon, the oil drained from the salmon may be used for the fat of Cream Dressing.

The salmon may be marinated before adding the other ingredients. When this is done, the salad dressing may be omitted. Salmon contains so much fat that it is not well to add more oil after marinating.

SALAD ROLLS

2 cupfuls flour 3 1/2 teaspoonfuls baking powder 1/2 teaspoonful salt 4 tablespoonfuls vegetable oil or melted butter or substitute 1/2 cupful milk 1 egg

Sift some flour, then measure 2 cupfuls of it. Add the baking powder and salt to the flour. Beat the egg, add the milk and oil or melted fat to it. Through a sifter add the dry ingredients to the milk mixture. Thoroughly mix the ingredients by cutting them with a knife. Roll out on a floured board, cut into oblong pieces, and with a floured knife make a deep crease through the center of each roll. Brush the top with diluted egg (use 2 tablespoonfuls of water to 1 egg) and sprinkle granulated sugar over it. Bake in a moderate oven.

QUESTIONS

Why is the top of the salad roll mixture brushed with egg? Why should the egg be diluted for such purposes?

What reason is there for combining fish, salad dressing, and rolls?

How much fat and protein does canned salmon and tunny contain (see U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 28)?

Compare this with the quantity of fat and protein in beef steak (see Figure 68).



LESSON XCVI

CREAM OF TOMATO SOUP AND CHEESE STRAWS

COMBINING MILK WITH ACID.—In the preparation of Cream of Tomato Soup, it is necessary to combine milk with tomatoes,—a food containing acid. If the following experiments are performed, and applications drawn from the results of the experiments, it should be possible to make this soup successfully.

EXPERIMENT 61: EFFECT OF ACID ON MILK.—Put a small quantity of milk in a test tube, heat it slightly, and add a few drops of some acid substance,— tomato juice, lemon juice, or vinegar. What is the result?

EXPERIMENT 62: NEUTRALIZATION OF ACID BY MEANS OF SODA.—Put a small quantity of any of the acids mentioned above in a test tube and add 1/4 teaspoonful baking soda. What happens? Now add a little milk to the mixture. Does the milk curdle? How has the acid been changed so that it does not curdle the milk? What conclusions may be drawn from this as to the use of soda in cooking tomato and milk mixtures?

CREAM OF TOMATO SOUP

1 can tomatoes 1/4 teaspoonful baking soda 1 quart milk 1/3 cupful flour 1/4 cupful butter or substitute 1 tablespoonful salt 1/8 teaspoonful pepper

Turn the tomatoes into a saucepan, cover them; cook at simmering temperature for about fifteen minutes. Press through a strainer and add the baking soda. Make a White Sauce of the milk, flour, and fat, remove from the fire. Add the hot tomatoes slowly to the White Sauce, stirring constantly. Add the seasonings. Do not heat the mixture after combining the tomatoes and White Sauce. Serve at once.



Cream of Tomato Soup may also be prepared by making a sauce of the tomatoes, flour, and fat, adding the baking soda and pouring the sauce into the hot milk and finally adding the seasonings.

Note that in either method of preparation, the tomato is added to the milk and the salt is added just before serving. Only enough baking soda is used to affect a portion of the acid of the tomatoes so that the pleasing acid flavor of the tomatoes still predominates.

CHEESE STRAWS

2/3 cupful flour 1/4 teaspoonful salt Cayenne 1 cupful soft bread crumbs 1 cupful grated cheese 2 tablespoonfuls milk

Mix the ingredients in the order given in the recipe. (The milk should merely moisten the ingredients so they will stick together. It may be necessary to increase the quantity.) On a slightly floured board roll the mixture to 1/4 inch thickness. Cut in strips 1/4 inch wide and 4 to 6 inches long. Place on an oiled pan. Bake until brown in a moderate oven.

QUESTIONS

Why should tomatoes be covered when cooked for soup?

Why should they be cooked at simmering rather than boiling temperature?

From the results of your experiments (see Experiments 61 and 62) explain why soda is added to the tomatoes in Cream of Tomato Soup.

What is the purpose of adding the strained tomatoes or Tomato Sauce slowly to the White Sauce or milk?

Why should the soup be served at once after combining the tomato and milk mixture?

If enough Cream of Tomato Soup were prepared for two meals, how and when should the tomatoes and White Sauce be mixed?

What is the price per can of tomatoes?

How many cupfuls in one can of tomatoes?

With the aid of United States Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 28 and illustrations in this text, tabulate the composition of tomatoes, whole milk (see Figure 64), cheese (see Figure 75), flour, and bread (see Figure 77). Explain why Cream of Tomato Soup and Cheese Straws make a desirable combination from the standpoint of composition and use in the body.



LESSON XCVII

VEAL AND POTATOES

MUSCLE OF YOUNG ANIMALS.—The muscle of an undeveloped animal contains more water than does the muscle of a mature animal. It is also lacking in flavor and usually contains little fat. The meat does not keep so well as that of a mature animal; therefore it should be used at once and not allowed to hang.



CUTS OF VEAL (see Figure 65). =================================================================== NAME OF CUT FORM OF CUT METHOD OF COOKING =================================================================== A. Loin. Chops. Sauteing. Thick Pieces. Roasting. B. Leg. Steaks veal cutlets Sauteing. or veal steak. Stewing. Thick Pieces. Roasting. C. Knuckle. Whole. Stewing. Soup-making. D. Rib or Rack. Chops. Sauteing. Thick Pieces. Roasting. E. Shoulder. Thick Pieces. Stuffing and Roasting. Whole. Braising. F. Neck. Thick Pieces. Stewing. G. G. Breast. Thick Pieces. Roasting. Whole. Stewing. Sweetbreads Whole in pairs. Parboiling and (thymus glands) Sauteing, Broiling, "Throat" and etc. "Heart" Sweetbreads. ===================================================================

VEAL.—Veal is the muscle of the calf or young cow. It has the characteristic qualities of undeveloped muscle. Because it is lacking in flavor, it should be seasoned with herbs and spices, or served with a sauce of pronounced flavor. It is also improved by adding some fat, or some meat containing considerable fat such as pork. A calf is usually killed when it is six or eight weeks old. The season for veal is spring; it can usually be purchased, however, throughout the year. The muscle of the veal should be pink in color, and the fat, white. The meat of a calf less than six weeks old is lacking in color.

The connective tissue in veal is abundant, but it is easily changed to gelatine by cooking. Veal is generally considered difficult of digestion.

VEAL CUTLETS (STEAK)

Clean the meat; then remove the bone and tough membranes. Cut the meat into pieces for serving. Cover the bone and the tough pieces of meat with cold water and cook at a low temperature. (This stock is to be used in the sauce.) Small pieces of meat may be put together by using wooden toothpicks for skewers. Season the veal with salt and pepper. Roll in dried bread crumbs, dip in beaten egg, then in crumbs again. Put 2 tablespoonfuls of drippings or other fat in a frying pan. Brown the cutlets in the fat. Remove the veal; in the frying pan prepare the following:

SAUCE FOR CUTLETS

3 tablespoonfuls drippings 1/4 cupful flour 1/2 tablespoonful salt 1/8 teaspoonful pepper 2 cupfuls stock or water 2 tablespoonfuls chopped parsley 1 teaspoonful Worcestershire sauce

Make a brown sauce, using all ingredients except the Worcestershire sauce (see Brown Sauce). Add the cutlets to the sauce, and cook them at simmering temperature for 1 hour or until tender. Just before serving, add the Worcestershire sauce.

Beef may be prepared in the same way.

VEAL WITH EGG DRESSING

1 pound veal steak, sliced thin 2 eggs 3/4 cupful flour Salt and pepper

Cut the meat into pieces of suitable size for serving. Brown each piece in fat. (Use scraps of fat cut from the meat.)

Mix the egg, flour, and seasoning. Spread both sides of each piece of meat with the egg mixture. Again brown the pieces of meat in fat. Then add boiling water and let the meat cook at simmering temperature for at least 2 hours. Serve hot.

Beef may be substituted for veal.

POTATO PUFF

2 cupfuls mashed potatoes 2 tablespoonfuls milk 1 tablespoonful butter or substitute 1 teaspoonful salt Pepper 1 egg

Mix all the ingredients except the egg. Separate the egg, and beat the white and the yolk. Beat the yolk into the potato mixture; then add the white by cutting and folding-in. Turn into a buttered baking-dish or drop by spoonfuls on a buttered baking-sheet. Bake until the egg is cooked and the top brown. Serve at once.

The egg may also be added unbeaten to the potatoes, and the entire mixture beaten vigorously.

QUESTIONS

Why is cold water, rather than hot, used for making meat stock?

How does veal stock compare in color with beef stock? What is the stock called that is made from veal?

Why is this meat cooked at simmering rather than at boiling temperature?

Why is it desirable to use parsley and Worcestershire sauce with veal? Is it desirable to use Worcestershire sauce with beef or mutton? Explain your answer. Why is Worcestershire sauce not cooked with the brown sauce?

Locate veal cutlets or veal steak (see Figure 65). To what cut of beef does it correspond?

What cut of veal corresponds to the tenderloin cuts of beef?

How does the cutting and the using of the rib section of veal differ from that of beef?

What are the prices per pound of each cut of veal? Arrange in tabulated form and record the date.

From U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition of veal cutlets or veal steak. Compare with the percentage composition of beef steak (see Figure 68).

Potato Puff may be prepared from either hot or cold mashed potatoes. Should the temperature of the oven be the same for each? Explain your answer.

What is the purpose of the egg in the potato mixture?

Which would give the better result when added to the potato mixture, beaten egg or unbeaten egg? Give the reason for your answer.

How many persons will the Potato Puff recipe serve?

From U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition of fresh potatoes (see Figure 62) and boiled potatoes. How much nutriment is lost by boiling one pound of potatoes? By what method can potatoes be cooked in order to retain the most nutriment?

Give reasons for combining veal and potatoes.



LESSON XCVIII

MUTTON AND LAMB DISHES

MUTTON.—Mutton is the meat obtained from the sheep. The animal is usually about three years of age when killed. Like beef, mutton needs to hang a few days before using. It is considered as nutritious and as easily digested as beef. Its strong flavor may be destroyed by removing the "pink skin" and much of the fat. The latter has such a strong flavor, that it cannot be used for cooking unless it is tried out with onion, apple, and dried herbs. Mutton fat so prepared is sometimes termed savory fat. It is thought that the fat dissolves certain flavoring materials present in the fruit, vegetable, and herbs. The caramelized carbohydrate formed by browning the apple and onion also adds to the flavor. [Footnote 68: See Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin, No. 526.]

Mutton fat is useful for soap-making.



LAMB.—Lamb is meat obtained from the young sheep, killed when from six weeks to one year old. As the animal matures, the blood recedes from its joints; hence the joints of lamb are pink in color, while those of mutton are white.

Lamb has the characteristics of the meat of immature animals. It contains more water and a little less fat than mutton, and should not be allowed to hang. It is more delicate in flavor than is mutton. Lamb should be well cooked; mutton is sometimes served rare.

FOOD COMBINATIONS

CUTS OF LAMB AND MUTTON (see Figure 66). ================================================================== Name of Cut Form Of Cut Method Of Cooking ================================================================== A. Loin. Chops Loin chops (see Broiling. Figure 67). Roasting. Thick pieces (loin sections of both hind quarters in one piece called "Saddle of Mutton"). B. Leg. Slices. Broiling. Thick pieces. Roasting. Stewing. C. Rib. Chops rib chops(see Fig- Broiling. ure 67) (when trimmed Roasting. called "French" chops. see Figure 67). Thick Pieces (rib sections of both fore quarters in one piece called "Rack of Mutton"). D. Shoulder. Chops blade shoulder Broiling. chops (see Figure 67) Braising. and round shoulder Roasting. chops (see Figure 67). Stuffing and Thick Pieces. Roasting. Whole. E. Breast. Thick Pieces. Stewing. Broth-making. F. Neck. Thick Pieces. Stewing. Broth-making. ==================================================================

STUFFED SHOULDER OF LAMB

4 to 5 pounds shoulder of lamb, boned, cleaned, and stuffed with the mixture used in Stuffed Meat Roast. (Double the quantity of ingredients for the shoulder of lamb.) Add the stuffing to the meat; then "lace" (see Baked Fish) or skewer into shape. Season, and dredge with flour. Place drippings or other fat in a frying pan or iron roasting pan, and brown the surface of the meat. Place the lamb on the rack in a roasting pan, add boiling water; cover; and bake in a moderate oven, allowing one half hour to the pound. Shoulder of veal may be prepared and stuffed in the same way.



MINT SAUCE

1 cupful fresh mint 1/2 cupful vinegar 1/4 cupful sugar

Chop the leaves and the tender tips of the mint. Dissolve the sugar in the vinegar, and add the mint. Let the sauce stand one hour before using. Heat over hot water before serving.

LAMB OR MUTTON IN THE CASSEROLE

2 pounds neck, breast, or shoulder of lamb or mutton Flour Fat for browning Water or stock 4 carrots 2 cupfuls peas 2 teaspoonfuls salt Pepper 1/2 bay leaf 3 allspice berries

Cut the meat into pieces suitable for serving. Roll in flour, and brown in a frying pan with hot fat. Remove to the casserole, and cover with boiling water or stock. Wash, scrape, and cut the carrots into halves. Add them and the spices to the meat in the casserole. Cover, and cook at simmering temperature for two hours. Then add the peas and the seasoning. Cook until tender. Serve hot from the casserole.

One half cupful of cooked rice may be used instead of the carrots and peas. Tomatoes also make a pleasing addition.

THE CASSEROLE.—The casserole is a popular utensil for cooking and serving. It is suitable for foods that need to be cooked at a low temperature for a long period of time; hence its adaptability to tough cuts of meat. Because the casserole is tightly covered, foods may be cooked in it with little loss by evaporation. The flavor is retained also, if the cooking is carefully done. The use of the casserole in serving is a distinct advantage, since the foods may be served hot. The casserole may be used in the oven or on top of the range.

If a covered crock is used in place of the regulation casserole, a dinner napkin should be folded neatly around it for serving.

QUESTIONS

Tell how lamb can be distinguished from mutton. Give two reasons for adding dried herbs to the stuffing for lamb.

Give two reasons for serving Mint Sauce with lamb. What is the purpose of first browning the lamb that is to be roasted?



What is the easiest method of adding extra flour to the sauce around lamb or mutton in the casserole (see Thickening the Sauce of Meat Cooked in Water)?

How many persons will this recipe serve?

Name the advantages of cooking meat in a casserole.

Give a dietetic reason for combining carrots, peas, or rice, with lamb or mutton.

Distinguish between rib and loin chops of lamb or mutton. What is a French chop?

Obtain the prices per pound of each cut of mutton or lamb. Arrange in tabulated form and record the date.

From U.S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition of the hind quarter of mutton. Compare it with the composition of beef steak.

Tabulate the percentage composition of beets, carrots, parsnips, and turnips. Which contains the most carbohydrates? Which the most ash?



LESSON XCIX

PORK, VEGETABLES, AND APPLE SAUCE

PORK.—Pork is meat obtained from the pig. In all meats, much fat is entangled in the network of connective tissue that binds the muscle fibers. Pork, however, contains more fat than does any other meat. The fat is most intimately mingled with the lean. For this reason it is digested slowly. Fresh pork should be used sparingly. Its use should be confined to the winter months. Pork should be thoroughly cooked. It sometimes contains organisms which may produce serious results, if not destroyed in the cooking. Pork is made more wholesome by curing, salting, and smoking. The fat of bacon is readily digested.



CUTS OF PORK (see Figure 69). =================================================================== NAME OF CUT FORM OF CUT METHOD OF COOKING =================================================================== A. Loin. Chops rib and loin Sauteing. chops (freed from fat Roasting. called "spare ribs") cut into chops or thick pieces. B. Ham Slices. Sauteing. (usually smoked). Whole. "Boiling." Roasting. C. Back (all fat). Strips. "Tried out" (its Slices. fat used for sauteing, frying, and flavoring), Larding. D. Shoulder Slices. Sauteing. (smoked or fresh). Whole. "Boiling." Roasting. E. Bacon (smoked) Thin or thick slices. Sauteing. or Salt Pork. Broiling. ===================================================================

PORK CHOPS WITH SWEET POTATOES

Pare sweet potatoes, and place them in the bottom of a roasting pan. Wipe the pork chops, and place them on top of the potatoes. Place the roasting pan on the top shelf of a hot oven, in order to brown the chops. Brown on one side; turn the chops with a fork, and brown on the other side. Then remove the roasting pan from the oven, sprinkle the chops with salt, pepper, and powdered sage. Add a little boiling water. Return to the oven.



Cover and bake 1 hour, or until the potatoes are tender. Baste the potatoes and meat occasionally.

Remove the chops to the center of a hot platter, and surround them with the potatoes. Serve at once with Apple Sauce (for preparation of Apple Sauce, see Fruit Sauces).

TURNIPS WITH FRESH PORK

1 1/2 pounds fresh pork (shoulder) 3 medium sized turnips 1 tablespoonful salt 2 tablespoonfuls flour Pepper

Clean the meat, put it in a saucepan, and add enough boiling water to cover. Cook at simmering temperature for 1 1/2 hours.

Pare the turnips, cut them into cubes. When the meat has cooked 1/2 hour, add the turnips and salt and continue cooking for 1 hour or until the meat and vegetables are tender. Mix the flour with enough cold water (about 2 tablespoonfuls) to make a thin batter. Add it to the meat and turnips. Stir and cook for at least 10 minutes. Add a dash of pepper. Serve hot.

BROILED HAM

Parboil in boiling water for 10 minutes a slice of ham about 1/2 inch thick. Place in a broiler and broil, or place in a "frying" pan and pan- broil, turning often. Garnish with parsley and serve at once.

BACON

Place thin slices of bacon (from which the rind has been removed) in a hot frying-pan. As the fat tries out, drain it from the bacon. Scorching of the fat is thus prevented. Cook the bacon until it is brown and crisp, turning once.

Bacon fat should be saved. It can be used in cooking.

SCALLOPED POTATOES WITH BACON

4 medium potatoes 1/4 pound sliced bacon Flour Salt, used sparingly Pepper Milk

Pare the potatoes and cut them into thin slices. Cook the bacon until brown; cut each slice of bacon into several pieces. Oil a baking-dish and place a layer of potatoes in it, then a layer of bacon and some of the tried-out bacon fat. Sprinkle with flour, salt, and pepper. Repeat, until all the ingredients are used; the top layer should be of bacon. Add milk until it reaches the top layer. Bake in a moderate oven for one hour, or until much of the milk has evaporated and the potatoes are tender. Serve hot.

1/4 cupful of bacon drippings may be used instead of sliced bacon.

QUESTIONS

Why should fresh pork be used in winter rather than in summer?

Why is pork slow in digesting?

Explain why vegetables and Apple Sauce are desirable foods to serve with pork (see Figure 62, Figure 68, and Figure 70).

For what reason should pork be cooked thoroughly?

What is the purpose of parboiling ham before broiling it?

What ingredient, invariably used in Scalloped Potatoes, is omitted in Scalloped Potatoes with Bacon? What is substituted for this material?

Why should salt be added sparingly to potatoes cooked with bacon?

How many persons does the given quantity of Scalloped Potatoes with Bacon and of Turnips with Fresh Pork serve?

To what cut of beef does ham correspond?

From U.S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition of fresh and salted ham. Compare it with the composition of beef steak (see Figure 68).

Obtain the price per pound of each cut of pork. Arrange in tabulated form and record date.



LESSON C

CHICKEN AND RICE

POULTRY.—Poultry includes chicken (or common fowl), turkey, duck, and goose—domestic birds suitable for food. Pigeon and squab are not considered poultry. Chickens that are three or four months old are called spring chickens or broilers. Birds older than one year are sometimes called fowls.



SELECTION OF CHICKEN AND FOWL.—Chickens and fowls have certain characteristics which make them readily distinguishable. Chickens have soft feet, a soft and flexible breast bone, many pin feathers, and little fat. Fowls have hard and scaly feet, rigid breast bone, long hairs, and much fat surrounding the intestines.

DIGESTION OF POULTRY.—The muscle of chicken, fowl, and turkey contains little fat; the fat that exists is in layers directly under the skin and around the intestines. The fibers of the muscle are short. For this reason, and also because they have so little fat, these meats are readily digested. The white meat contains less fat than the dark.



DRESSING AND CLEANING POULTRY.—Singe, by holding the bird over a flame of gas, alcohol, or burning paper. Cut off the head, push back the skin, and cut off the neck close to the body. Cut through the skin around the leg one inch below the leg joint. If it is a fowl, take out the tendons; remove them separately, using a skewer (see Figure 71). Remove the pin feathers with the point of a knife or with a strawberry huller. Cut the oil bag from the tail.



The internal organs are not always removed before the chicken is sold. If they have not been removed, make an opening under one of the legs or at the vent, leaving a strip of skin above the vent. Remove the organs carefully,—the intestines, gizzard, heart, and liver should all be removed together. Care must be taken that the gall bladder, which lies under the liver, is not broken; it must be cut away carefully from the liver. The lungs and kidneys, lying in the hollow of the backbone, must be carefully removed. Press the heart to extract the blood. Cut off the outer coat of the gizzard. The gizzard, heart, and liver constitute the giblets to be used in making gravy. Wash the giblets. Place them all, with the exception of the liver, in cold water; heat quickly and cook (at simmering temperature) until tender. Add the liver a short time before removing the other giblets from the stove, as it does not require long cooking.

Clean the bird by wiping it thoroughly inside and out with a damp cloth, stuff and truss for roasting, or cut into pieces for fricassee or stew. If the bird is stuffed, the incision in the skin may be fastened together as directed for Baked Fish.

TRUSSING FOWL.—Insert a skewer through the fowl just underneath the legs, then thrust another skewer through the wings and breast. With a piece of string, tie the ends of the legs together and fasten them to the tail. Then wind the ends of the string fastened to the tail, around the ends of the skewer beneath the legs. Cross the strings over the back, and wind them around the ends of the skewer through the wings; tie the strings together at the back. If trussed in this manner, there is no string across the breast of the fowl. A fowl should be served breast side up (see Figures 72 and 73).

CUTTING A FOWL.—Cut off the leg, and separate it at the joint into "drumstick" and second joint. Cut off the wing and remove the tip; make an incision at the middle joint. Remove the leg and wing from the other side; separate the wishbone with the meat on it, from the breast, cut through the ribs on each side, and separate the breast from the back. Cut the breast in half lengthwise and the back through the middle crosswise. There should be twelve pieces. The neck and the tips of the wings may be cooked with the giblets for making gravy.

STEWED CHICKEN [Footnote 69: Stewed Chicken may be utilized for Chicken Croquettes) or Creole Stew.]

Cover the pieces of chicken with boiling water, and cook at boiling temperature for 15 minutes; then add one tablespoonful of salt and cook at simmering temperature until tender.

Arrange the pieces on a platter, placing the neck at one end of the platter and the "drumsticks" at the other, and the remaining pieces in order between. Cover with a sauce.

The chicken may be placed on pieces of toast or served in a border of cooked rice.

SAUCE FOR CHICKEN

3 tablespoonfuls tried-out chicken fat or butter or substitute 1/4 cupful of flour 1 teaspoonful salt 2 tablespoonfuls chopped parsley 1 pint stock 2 egg yolks or 1 egg 1/8 teaspoonful pepper

Prepare the sauce (see Cream Toast), and pour it over the well- beaten eggs, stirring until thoroughly mixed. Cook until the eggs are coagulated. Serve at once over chicken.

QUESTIONS

Why is chicken more readily digested than other meat?

What is the reason for cooking stewed chicken 15 minutes in boiling water? Why is the salt not added at first? Why should the chicken finally be cooked at simmering temperature rather than at boiling?

What use can be made of the fat of a fowl?

What is the purpose of the eggs in Sauce for Chicken?

Explain fully why rice or toast makes a desirable addition to Stewed Chicken.



LESSON CI

CHICKEN AND PEAS

CHICKEN CROQUETTES

2 1/2 cupfuls chopped chicken or fowl Onion juice 2 tablespoonfuls lemon juice 1 tablespoonful parsley

SAUCE

1 pint cream or milk 1/3 cupful fat 1/2 cupful flour 1 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt 1/8 teaspoonful pepper 1 teaspoonful celery salt

Chop the chicken very fine; add the seasonings. Make the sauce (see Cream Toast). Add the chicken to the sauce. Cool the mixture. Shape into cones. Cover with dried bread crumbs and egg, and cook in deep fat (see Fried Oysters). Drain on paper. Serve at once with green peas.

An egg may be beaten and added to the sauce, before mixing it with the meat.

QUESTIONS

What is the purpose of cooling the chicken mixture before shaping it into croquettes (see Experiment 17)?

How many croquettes does this recipe make?

How many cupfuls of chopped meat can be obtained from fowl of average weight?

What is the average weight of a chicken one year old? How long does it take to cook it?

What is the average weight of a spring chicken?

What is the present market price of spring chicken? Of fowl?

Compare the composition of fowl with that of round steak, using U. S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 28. Also record the percentage of refuse in a fowl when it is purchased. Considering the refuse in fowl, what is the price per pound?

Tabulate the percentage composition of fresh and dried peas and beans, and of dried lentils. Which are richer in protein, the fresh or the dried vegetables (see Figure 76)?



LESSON CII

OYSTER DISHES

EXPERIMENT 63. PROTEIN IN OYSTER LIQUOR.—Pour a small quantity of oyster liquor into a test tube and boil it. What change takes place? From your previous experience with eggs, what foodstuff would you infer that oysters contain? What inference can you draw from this as to the temperature at which oysters should be cooked?

OYSTERS.—An oyster is an animal covered with shell. The shell, which consists of mineral matter, protects the animal.



The oyster has no head, arms, or legs, but it has a mouth, liver, gills, and one strong muscle. The mouth is near the hinge-end of the shell; by means of the hinge, the shell is opened and water and food taken in; by means of the muscle, the shell is closed. (Find the muscle in an oyster; then the dark spot,—this is the liver; also find the fluted portions that partly surround the liver,—these are the gills.)

Oysters are in season from September until May. They are sometimes eaten during the summer months, but are not so palatable and are more apt to be contaminated by the bacteria of warm water. The bluish green color of some oysters is due to the oyster's feeding upon vegetable materials. This does not harm the flavor of the oyster.

Oysters are sometimes placed in fresh water streams or in water which is less salt than that in which they have grown to "fatten them." The animals take in the fresh water, become plump, and increase in weight. If the water is sewage-polluted, the oysters become contaminated with dangerous bacteria. Methods of cooking usually applied to oysters, such as stewing and boiling, may not destroy all bacteria. Hence, the danger in eating oysters taken from polluted water.

When oysters are prepared for market, they are sorted according to size. Blue points, or small oysters originally grown in Blue Point, are prized for serving raw in the half shell. This name, however, no longer indicates the place from which the oysters come, but is applied to small oysters in the shell. Large oysters selected for frying may be purchased. Oysters are found at markets either in the shell or with the shell removed.

Since oysters spoil readily, they must be kept cold during transportation. They are now shipped in containers surrounded by ice. Formerly ice was placed in contact with the oysters.

Note the percentage composition of oysters (see Figure 74). With such a large quantity of water, the oyster has little food value. Oysters are prized for their flavor, but make an expensive food. Cooking makes oysters somewhat tough, but it sterilizes them and makes them safer to use. It is considered that oysters properly cooked are easily digested. They should be eaten when very fresh. They spoil quickly and develop poisonous products.

CLEANING OYSTERS.—Drain off the liquor. If the liquor is to be used, strain it through a fine strainer. Place the oysters in a strainer or colander, and wash them. Do not allow oysters to stand in water after washing. Run each oyster through the fingers to remove pieces of shell that may be clinging to it.

OYSTER STEW

1 cupful milk 1 pint oysters 1 tablespoonful butter Salt and pepper

Heat the milk in a double boiler; add the seasonings and butter. Clean the oysters; cook them in a saucepan until they become plump and the edges curl. Add the hot milk and serve at once.

The milk may be thickened with 1 tablespoonful of flour (see recipe for Thin White Sauce).

Serve crackers or bread with Oyster Stew.

SCALLOPED OYSTERS

1 pint oysters 1/2 teaspoonful salt 3 cupfuls soft bread crumbs 3 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute 1/4 cupful oyster juice or milk Cayenne

Wash the oysters, strain the juice, and butter the crumbs. Add the seasoning to the oysters. Place one fourth of the buttered crumbs in the bottom of a buttered baking-dish. Add one half of the oysters, another fourth of the crumbs, then the remainder of the oysters, the liquid, and finally the remaining half of the buttered crumbs. Bake in a moderate oven from 30 to 40 minutes.

If baked in individual baking-dishes, only 15 minutes will be required for baking.

QUESTIONS

Count and record the number of oysters in one pint.

From Figures 64 and 74, tabulate the percentage composition of oysters and milk.

Find the weight of one cupful of oysters and of one cupful of milk. How do they compare as to the amount of water, protein, and fat contained in one pint of each?

What is the difference in cost of one pint of each?

What is the purpose of straining the oyster liquor?

Why should not oysters stand in water after washing (see Experiment 38)?

Explain why oysters should be cooked only a short time. What is the effect of long cooking upon oysters?

In Scalloped Oysters, why is the liquid added before the last layer of crumbs?

How many persons do each of these oyster recipes serve?

What dietetic reason can be given for combining oysters and bread?

From U.S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition of the following fish: Fresh and salt cod, fresh and smoked herring, fresh and salt mackerel, fresh and canned salmon, fresh perch, and fresh white fish. Which contains the most fat? How can fish be classified with regard to fat content (see Classes of Fish)? Which fish contains the most protein?

How do fish, shellfish, and beef compare in protein content? Which is the cheapest source of protein (see Figures 68 and 74)?



LESSON CIII

MEAT-SUBSTITUTE DISHES

MEAT-SUBSTITUTE MATERIALS.—Cottage cheese, eggs, peanuts, and other legumes are valuable substitutes for meat. The legumes with the exception of soy-beans and peanuts, however, do not contain complete protein. Hence, their use with eggs or milk is desirable.



Nuts are a form of fruit. They are rich in nutritive materials. If they can be digested readily, they make a valuable food. They need to be ground fine or chewed thoroughly, however, to make them digestible. Nuts contain much fat, protein, and little carbohydrates. Chestnuts, however, contain much of the latter foodstuff. Because they contain protein, nuts may be used as substitutes for meat. But most nuts are expensive. For this reason in many households they are impractical as everyday foods.

COTTAGE CHEESE AND NUT LOAF

1 cupful cottage cheese 1 cupful chopped nuts 1 cupful soft bread crumbs 1 teaspoonful salt 1/8 teaspoonful pepper 2 teaspoonfuls lemon juice 2 tablespoonfuls scraped onion 1 tablespoonful fat

Mix the cheese, nuts, bread crumbs, lemon juice, salt, and pepper. Cook the onion and fat together until they are brown. Add a small quantity of water and then add the onion mixture to the other ingredients. If necessary, add more water to moisten the mixture. Pour into a baking-dish and bake until brown.

(From United States Food Administration Leaflet.)

SCALLOPED EGGS WITH CHEESE

6 hard-cooked eggs 2 cupfuls medium White Sauce 2 cupfuls buttered soft bread crumbs 3/4 cupful cheese

Grate the cheese, or cut it into pieces, and add it to the White Sauce. Cut the eggs in slices. Oil a baking-dish, and place the materials in the dish in layers, having the lower and top layers of bread crumbs. Bake in a moderate oven until the mixture is heated through and the crumbs are browned. Serve hot in place of meat.

PEANUT ROAST

1 1/2 cupfuls dried bread crumbs Milk 1 1/2 cupfuls shelled peanuts 4 teaspoonfuls baking powder 1 egg Salt and pepper