Since cream contains considerable fat, under certain conditions, it is possible to mass the fat together, that is, separate it from the other constituents, and form butter. For making butter the cream should be "ripened," i.e. it should contain certain bacteria. It should then be churned.

On the other hand, if it is desired to beat or whip the cream, but not to form butter, it is necessary to prevent the fat from massing together. To accomplish this, use thick cream (containing 20 per cent or more of fat) from 12 to 24 hours old [Footnote 50: Such cream contains a small amount of lactic acid.] and have it very cold; it will then whip quickly. Cream may be chilled by placing it on ice for some time before whipping or by surrounding it with ice water while whipping. In warm weather, it is safer not only to chill the cream but also to surround it with ice water while whipping.

A harmless substance called viscogen may be added to thinner cream (i.e. the so-called coffee or 16 per cent cream) to make the latter whip. Viscogen is prepared by mixing the following ingredients:

1/2 cupful sugar 1 cupful water 1 tablespoonful milk of lime [Footnote 51: Milk of lime may be prepared by mixing 1 part of slaked lime with 3 parts of water.]

Mix the sugar and water and heat the mixture until it boils. Cool and add the milk of lime. Let the mixture stand at least 24 hours before using. Add 1 teaspoonful to each pint of cream, then whip the mixture as directed above.

COMPARISON OF MILK AND CREAM.—Cream is richer in fat than milk, average cream containing 16 per cent of fat and whole milk about 4 per cent. But cream contains less protein and ash than whole milk.

Since cream is always more expensive than milk, it is interesting to compare the food value of quantities of each which may be purchased for the same price. Although the prices of cream and milk vary in different places, usually 1/2 pint of cream costs about as much as 1 quart of milk. The following shows the approximate quantity of nutrients shown in the two quantities:

In 1 quart of milk [Footnote 52: By permission Journal of Home Economics, Vol. X (August, 1918, p. 379).]

As much protein as in 5 eggs 2 1/2 tablespoonfuls of fat 3 tablespoonfuls of sugar

In 1/2 pint of cream

As much protein as in 1 egg 3 tablespoonfuls of fat 1/2 tablespoonful of sugar

Although 1/2 pint of cream contains 1/2 tablespoonful more of fat than does 1 quart of milk, the latter contains 2 1/2 tablespoonfuls more of sugar and as much more protein as is contained in 4 eggs. This comparison makes us question the advisability of buying much cream.

If whole milk is purchased, its top milk may often be used in place of cream. The skim milk that remains is a valuable food. Although whole milk contains more fat and vitamines than does skim milk, the latter has as much protein, lime, and sugar as whole milk. The use of both whole and skim milk is advised.

CARE OF MILK.—Milk is one of the foods that require the greatest care, and should be well cared for not only in the home but also on the dairy farm. It is one of the foods that afford ideal conditions for the growth of microscopic vegetable organisms, called bacteria (see Why Foods Spoil). Many varieties of these bacteria or tiny plants produce changes in the milk which cause it to sour. A few varieties of disease- producing bacteria also sometimes exist in milk.

Milk can be kept reasonably free from bacteria by:

(a) Perfect cleanliness on the dairy farm.

(b) Cooling it immediately after being drawn from the cow, and by keeping it cool.

(c) Placing it in sterilized utensils.

(d) Covering it, thus keeping it free from dust.

Utensils for holding milk should be of glass, earthenware, or smooth, bright tin. They should be washed, scalded, or even better, boiled, and placed in the sun for two or three hours. In the home, milk should not be used after long standing, even though it is sweet. It is well to buy milk in small quantities and in bottles. The upper rim of a milk bottle should be washed before pouring milk from it. Because milk readily absorbs odors and flavors, it should be kept away from any substance having a strong odor or flavor.

RICE DAINTY

3/4 cupful cooked rice 3/4 cupful fruit, cut into pieces 3/4 cupful powdered sugar 1/2 to 3/4 cupful cream, whipped

Mix the rice, fruit, and sugar, then fold in the whipped cream. Pineapple, shredded or diced; bananas cut into pieces (not slices); dates, seeded and cut into pieces; or cooked apricots are desirable fruits for this dessert.

CREAM OF RICE PUDDING

1 quart milk or 1 quart milk and water 1/3 cupful rice 1/2 teaspoonful salt 1/3 cupful sugar Grated rind of 1/2 lemon

Wash rice; put it and all the other ingredients into a buttered pudding dish. Bake in a slow oven (250 degrees F.) until firm. This usually takes three hours. While baking, stir the mixture occasionally.

If desired, one half cupful of raisins may be added to the mixture, and 1 teaspoonful vanilla or 1/4 teaspoonful nutmeg may be substituted for lemon rind.

QUESTIONS

From your knowledge of the effect of intense heat upon milk, explain why Cream of Rice Pudding should be baked in a slow oven.

What change in quantity takes place in the milk of this pudding during long cooking? What change in quantity takes place in the rice during long cooking? From this explain why so much milk when combined with a little rice forms a solid mixture.

What is the price per pint of thin or coffee cream?

What is the price per pint of heavy or whipping cream?

What is the least quantity of cream that can be purchased?

Explain why it is that scalded milk does not sour as soon as uncooked milk (see Care of Milk).

Why should utensils that have held milk be scalded or boiled?



LESSON XLIX

CREAM SOUPS (A)

THICK SOUPS.—Milk combined with various vegetables, grains, and fish is used in making Cream Soups and Purees. The vegetables are cooked and mashed or forced through a strainer and combined with a liquid,—usually milk or milk with vegetable stock. In order to have the vegetable pulp uniformly mixed through the liquid, it is necessary to thicken the liquid with a starchy material. Flour with butter or substitute, mixed and cooked as in White Sauce, is used for this purpose. It is said to "bind" the vegetables and the liquid. Thus, Cream Soups and Purees are simply White Sauces to which vegetable pulp is added.

GENERAL PROPORTIONS.—The usual proportion of vegetable pulp or puree to liquid is: One part of vegetable pulp or puree to 2 parts of liquid, i.e. milk, vegetable stock, or meat stock.

The proportion of flour to liquid is: 1/2 tablespoonful flour to 1 cupful liquid, if a starchy vegetable is used, or, 1 tablespoonful flour to 1 cupful liquid, if a vegetable having little thickening property, as celery, is used.

Sometimes an egg or two is added to soup for thickening or flavor, and to increase the food value.

Different kinds of vegetables are sometimes mixed for a soup, as: Peas and beans, or corn and beans.

POTATO SOUP

3 potatoes 1 tablespoonful flour 1 pint milk or 1 pint milk and potato stock 1 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt 1/8 teaspoonful pepper 2 slices of onion Celery salt 3/4 tablespoonful butter or substitute 2 teaspoonfuls chopped parsley

Cook and mash the potatoes, heat the milk and onion in a double boiler, then add them to the mashed potatoes. Press the potato mixture through a strainer and use it as the liquid for a White Sauce, using all other ingredients except the parsley in the sauce. If necessary, add more liquid, or evaporate to the desired consistency. Add the chopped parsley just before serving.

"Left over" mashed potatoes may be utilized in making this soup.

CROUTONS

Cut stale bread into half-inch cubes. Bake slowly in the oven until a golden brown. Stir often. Serve with soups.

Save the crusts and prepare Dried Bread Crumbs with them.

QUESTIONS

What is the proportion of flour and liquid in one cup of White Sauce for Vegetables?

How does the proportion of flour and liquid for one cup of Cream Soup differ from the above proportion?

Why are the potatoes pressed through a strainer after rather than before adding the hot milk?

Why should the cubes of stale bread be baked slowly (see Toast)?



LESSON L

CREAM SOUPS (B)

FOOD VALUE OF CREAM SOUPS.—Since thin or clear soups contain much liquid, their food value is not as high as most solid foods. Cream Soups, however, are as concentrated as a potato; they are the most nourishing of all soups. The use of milk instead of water or stock and of flour and fat, to say nothing of vegetable pulp, increases their food value. Cream Soups are more suitable to serve at a meal of few courses such as luncheon or supper rather than at dinner where there is a greater variety of foods.

Thick soups may serve as a valuable part of a meal; a hot liquid taken into an empty stomach is easily assimilated, acts as an appetizer, and thus prepares for the digestion of the remainder of the meal.

CORN SOUP

1 can of corn 1 pint water l 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute 1 slice onion 2 tablespoonfuls flour 1 teaspoonful salt 1/8 teaspoonful white pepper 1 pint milk

Add the water to the canned corn and simmer 20 minutes. Melt the fat, add the onion, and cook until light brown. To this add the dry ingredients and proceed as in making White Sauce. Add the cooked corn and strain.

Reheat before serving, if necessary.

NOTE.—The method of adding onion flavor to this soup (i.e. browning onion in fat) is often used in the preparation of other foods, especially meats and sauces.

SOUP STICKS

Cut stale bread into slices, remove the crusts, and spread with butter. Cut into strips and brown slowly in the oven. Save the crusts and prepare Dried Bread Crumbs with them.



DRIED BREAD CRUMBS

Dried Bread Crumbs may be prepared from crusts and small pieces of bread. Dry the bread in a slow oven or in a warming oven. Crumb it by rolling on a pastry board or putting it through a meat grinder. If fine crumbs are desired, sift the crushed bread. Place the fine and coarse crumbs in separate jars. Cover the jars by tying a piece of muslin over each. (The muslin covering can also be conveniently secured by means of a rubber band.) If each jar is tightly covered with a lid, air is excluded from the crumbs and molds often grow on them. Bread crumbs thoroughly dried and stored as directed will keep for several months (see Figure 42).

QUESTIONS

Explain why thick soup may serve as a valuable part of a meal.

Why is it served as the first course of a meal?

Is the mashed potato of Potato Soup strained before or after adding it to the other ingredients? When is the Corn Soup strained? How is the flavor extracted from the onion in preparing Potato Soup? How is the flavor extracted for Corn Soup? From this explain the difference in straining the soups.

If fresh corn were used for this soup, how would its cooking differ from that of canned corn?

How should fresh corn be cut from the cob for soup (see Green Corn)?

What is the price per can of corn?

In preparing Soup Sticks, why are the crusts removed from the bread before buttering it? Why is the bread spread with butter before cutting it into strips? Aside from flavor, what is the purpose of spreading the bread for Soup Sticks with butter?

How should dried bread crumbs be covered for storing? Why?

What is the difference between soft bread crumbs (see note under recipe for Stuffed Tomatoes) and dried bread crumbs? Which should be used for scalloped dishes? Which for covering fried foods? Think of the dishes which contain bread crumbs and then state for which foods either kind of crumbs could be used. Explain.



LESSON LI

MILK THICKENED WITH EGG (A)

CUSTARDS.—Since eggs have the property of stiffening when heated, they are often used for thickening liquids, especially milk. Milk thickened with eggs is called custard.

There are two kinds of plain custards: (a) steamed or baked custard and (b) soft custard. The method of mixing these custards is the same, but the methods of cooking and the tests for sufficient cooking differ.

That the milk may not scorch and that the egg may not cook too hard, all milk-and-egg mixtures should be cooked below the boiling temperature of water. They should never be cooked directly over the fire, but over hot water or in a double boiler. That the egg may cook evenly and not too quickly, the water in the double boiler should not boil rapidly.

If a custard is properly cooked, the egg is in a soft-cooked condition. It exists in a jelly-like mass throughout the milk. The custard has a creamy appearance. If, however, a custard is cooked too much, the egg becomes hard-cooked and the particles of egg appear in "lumps" in the milk mixture. The custard is then said to be curdled.

A curdled custard may be made smooth by placing the upper part of the double boiler in a pan of cold water and then beating the custard at once with a Dover egg beater. This applies to all types of plain custards.

STEAMED OR BAKED CUSTARD

1 pint milk 2 or 3 eggs 1/4 cupful sugar 1/8 teaspoonful salt 2 tablespoonfuls caramel sirup or 1/16 teaspoonful nutmeg

Scald the milk in a double boiler. Beat the eggs slightly, add the sugar and salt, mix. Add the hot milk to this mixture. Strain the mixture, flavor, and pour it into a mold. If steamed custard is desired, steam (without stirring) until the custard is firm. Let the water in the steamer boil gently rather than vigorously. Test for sufficient cooking by inserting a knife into the custard. If it comes out clean, the custard is done.

If baked custard is desired, place the cups of custard in a pan of hot water, and bake in a moderate oven (325 degrees F.) for 35 minutes or until firm. Test as steamed custard.

If a Baked or Steamed Custard is to be turned out of the mold after steaming, 3 or 4 eggs should be used with each pint of milk. By placing a little Caramel Sirup in the bottom of each mold, a custard may easily be turned out of the mold. The custard mixture should be poured very gently on top of the sirup to prevent the custard and sirup from mixing. The caramel also serves as a sauce for the custard when served. (Caramel Sirup may be prepared by caramelizing sugar (as directed in making Peanut Candy) and then dissolving the caramelized sugar in boiling water. Use equal quantities of sugar and water.)

SOFT CUSTARD

1 pint milk 1/4 cupful sugar 2 eggs 1/8 teaspoonful salt 1/2 teaspoonful vanilla

Mix the materials in the same way as for steamed or baked custard. Instead of pouring the mixture into molds, return it to the double boiler and cook (stirring constantly) until it thickens or forms a coating over the spoon. Strain, cool, and flavor. Note that steamed custard is strained and flavored before cooking, and soft custard, after cooking.

In preparing soft custard, the eggs may be separated and the yolks cooked with the milk and other ingredients. The whites may be beaten stiff and beaten into the hot mixture with a Dover egg beater. Soft Custard may be used as a sauce over cooked rice, cake, bananas, peaches, and other foods.

To Decrease the Eggs in Custard

When eggs are expensive omit 1 or 2 from a custard recipe. Substitute 1/2 tablespoonful of corn-starch for each omitted egg. For methods of thickening milk with both eggs and starchy materials, see Lessons LIV.

QUESTIONS

What is the purpose of eggs in custard?

Why are eggs beaten slightly for custards?

How do Steamed Custards and Soft Custards differ in method of cooking? What are the tests for sufficient cooking of each?

What is the purpose of straining custards? Why is Steamed Custard strained and flavored before cooking, and Soft Custard, after cooking?

In what condition is the egg when a custard is curdled? How can a curdled custard be made smooth?



LESSON LII

MILK THICKENED WITH EGG (B)

FLOATING ISLAND

Custard

1 pint milk 3 egg yolks 1/4 cupful sugar 1/8 teaspoonful salt 1/2 teaspoonful vanilla

Meringue

3 egg whites 3 tablespoonfuls powdered sugar

The custard may be made thicker by using 4 (instead of 3) eggs.

Prepare the custard as Soft Custard.

Prepare the Meringue by beating the whites of eggs stiff and then adding I tablespoonful of sugar for each white of egg. Drop the Meringue by spoonfuls on the custard. If desired, garnish the Meringue by bits of jelly or colored gelatine.

From the results of Experiment 42, which egg beater do you consider most advisable for preparing Meringue?

If desired, the Meringue may be cooked. This may be accomplished in several ways: (a) place it on the hot custard at once after preparing the custard, (b) Steam it by dropping it by spoonfuls on the hot milk before preparing the custard. Cover, and let the egg white cook for about 2 minutes, then remove from the milk and proceed to thicken the milk with the egg yolks, (c) Drop the uncooked Meringue on the cooked custard as directed above, then cook and brown it slightly by placing the custard in the broiling oven or in the top of a hot baking oven.

QUESTIONS

In making custards, why should the hot milk be added to the eggs, instead of the eggs to the hot milk?

How does Floating Island differ from Soft Custard?

What is Meringue?

Compare Floating Island made with three eggs to that made with four eggs. How does it differ in thickness, color, and cost?



LESSON LIII

MILK THICKENED WITH EGG (C)

APRICOT DAINTY

1 cupful dried apricots 1/3 cupful powdered sugar 3 egg whites

Wash and soak the apricots. Steam until soft. Mash the apricots, or press through a coarse strainer or colander; add the sugar. Beat the whites of eggs until very stiff; fold them into the apricots and sugar mixture. Chill and serve with Custard Sauce.

Dried prunes may be substituted for apricots, using less sugar and adding a little lemon juice.

If it is desired to make Apricot Dainty some time before serving, it should be stiffened with gelatine. To do this, mix 1/2 tablespoonful of granulated or powdered gelatine with 2 tablespoonfuls of cold water. Add the gelatine mixture to the hot mashed or strained apricots, stir until the gelatine is dissolved, then proceed to add the sugar and egg white as directed above.

CUSTARD SAUCE

Use the recipe for Soft Custard for Custard Sauce, substituting 3 yolks for 2 whole eggs.

QUESTIONS

Why is it desirable to steam the fruit rather than cook it in water for this dessert?

Compare the custard made with the entire egg to that made with the egg yolk. What is the difference in thickness and color?

How many egg yolks are equivalent to two whole eggs in thickening?



LESSON LIV

MILK THICKENED WITH EGG AND STARCHY MATERIALS (A)

EGG AND STARCH.—How long is it necessary to cook milk-and-starch mixtures so that the starch will be cooked thoroughly (see Blanc Mange)? How long does it take to cook eggs when used for thickening? Are eggs used for thickening harmed by long cooking? Explain your answer. If both starch and egg are used for thickening a mixture, devise a way whereby the starch can be cooked thoroughly, and the egg can be cooked without curdling.

BUTTERSCOTCH TAPIOCA

1 pint milk 1/8 to 1/4 cupful granulated tapioca 1/2 cupful dark brown sugar 1/2 teaspoonful salt 1 egg 1/2 teaspoonful vanilla 1/2 to 1 tablespoonful butter

Scald the milk, add the tapioca, and cook the mixture over hot water until the tapioca is transparent (see Apple Tapioca, above). Mix the sugar, salt, and egg. Add a portion of the hot tapioca mixture to the egg mixture. Mix thoroughly, then return the mixture to the double boiler. Stir and cook until the egg thickens. Add the vanilla and butter and turn into dishes for serving. Cool. Serve with plain or whipped cream.

The quantity of tapioca determines the stiffness of the dessert. If a very soft consistency is desired, use the smaller quantity of tapioca.

Chopped nuts may be added to the dessert just before turning into the serving dishes.

For economy, the egg and butter may be omitted. If the egg is omitted, the greater quantity of tapioca should be used.

CREAM OF POTATO SOUP

3 potatoes 2 1/2 cupfuls milk 2 egg yolks or 1 egg 1 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt Pepper 1/8 teaspoonful celery salt

Cook the potatoes until soft, drain, and mash. Scald the milk and add it to the potatoes, then strain the mixture. Beat the eggs, add seasoning, combine with the potato mixture, and cook in the top part of the double boiler, stirring constantly, until the egg thickens. Serve immediately.

QUESTIONS

In Butterscotch Tapioca what ingredient could be substituted for tapioca? How much of this ingredient should be used (see Blanc Mange, above)?

What is the purpose of the eggs in Cream of Potato Soup?

Why should the soup be served immediately after cooking the eggs?

How does this soup differ in thickening materials from Potato Soup (see above)?

What would be the effect of adding 1 egg to plain Blanc Mange?

When and how should the egg be added? Give reasons for your method of adding the egg.

Write a recipe for Soft Custard in which corn-starch is substituted for one of the eggs. Write out the method of cooking such a custard.



LESSON LV

MILK THICKENED WITH EGG AND STARCHY MATERIALS (B)

CORN CUSTARD

1 can corn or 6 ears green corn 1 teaspoonful salt l 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute 2 tablespoonfuls flour 1 cupful milk 2 eggs

Make a White Sauce of the flour, salt, butter, and milk. Add the corn (for method of cutting green corn from the cob, see Lesson IV). Beat the eggs, add them to the corn mixture. Turn the mixture into a buttered baking- dish, and place the dish in a pan of hot water. Bake in a moderate oven until the mixture is firm. Serve hot as a vegetable.

One egg may be omitted and the flour and fat increased to 3 and 2 tablespoonfuls respectively.

CHEESE PUDDING

1 cupful cheese grated or cut into pieces 1 egg 1 cupful milk 1/2 teaspoonful salt 1/4 cupful dried bread crumbs or granulated tapioca Cayenne

Beat the egg slightly, and add the other ingredients. Turn into a buttered baking-dish, custard cups, or ramekins. Place in a pan of hot water, and bake in a moderate oven until the mixture is firm. Serve hot (for method of preparing Dried Bread Crumbs).

QUESTIONS

What ingredients in Corn Custard thicken the mixture?

What ingredients in Cheese Pudding thicken the mixture?

What is the purpose of placing the baking-dish containing Corn Custard or Cheese Pudding in a pan of hot water? At what temperature should these two foods bake? Give a reason for your answer.

In Cheese Pudding, why are the starchy material and egg cooked for the same length of time?

Compare the cost of a can of corn and six ears of green corn.

How many persons will the recipe for Corn Custard serve?

How many will the Cheese Pudding serve?



LESSON LVI

MILK THICKENED WITH EGG AND STARCHY MATERIALS (C)

Bread Puddings are made by adding bread to a custard mixture, and then baking in the oven like Baked Custard. For these puddings either stale or dry bread is used. The bread should be softened with the milk.

How many eggs are used to thicken one pint of milk in Steamed or Baked Custard? How many eggs are used to thicken one pint of milk in Bread Puddings (see recipe below)? Account for this difference.

BREAD PUDDING

2 cupfuls milk 1 cupful bread crumbs 1 tablespoonful butter 3 tablespoonfuls sugar 1 egg 1/4 teaspoonful salt 1 teaspoonful vanilla or 1/2 teaspoonful spices 3 tablespoonfuls cooked currants

Scald the milk; add the bread crumbs. When the crumbs are soft, add the remaining ingredients. Pour the mixture into a buttered baking-dish, and place the baking-dish in a pan of hot water. Bake the pudding slowly until it becomes firm and golden brown. Cover during the first 15 minutes of baking. Serve with cream, Hard Sauce, Chocolate or Vanilla Sauce (see below).

If chocolate were added to the recipe for plain Bread Pudding, what change should be made in the other ingredients (see Chocolate Corn-starch Pudding)? Since chocolate contains much fat, what ingredient could be omitted, if chocolate were used? Compare the recipes for Bread Pudding and Chocolate Bread Pudding.

CHOCOLATE BREAD PUDDING

1 cupful bread crumbs 2 cupfuls scalded milk 1 ounce chocolate 1/4 cupful boiling water 1/3 cupful sugar 1 egg 1/4 teaspoonful salt 1/2 teaspoonful vanilla

Add the bread crumbs to the scalded milk and allow them to soak until soft. Cut the chocolate in pieces, add the boiling water to it, and cook gently until a smooth paste is formed. Add this to the bread mixture. Proceed as in the preparation of plain Bread Pudding. Serve with plain or whipped cream or Lemon Sauce.

VANILLA SAUCE

1/2 cupful sugar 2 tablespoonfuls flour 1/8 teaspoonful salt 2 cupfuls boiling water 1 to 2 tablespoonfuls butter 1 teaspoonful vanilla

Mix sugar and flour thoroughly, then add boiling water slowly. Cook 10 minutes. Dilute or evaporate if necessary. Add the butter and vanilla [Footnote 53: See footnote 25 regarding the adding of vanilla.] just before serving.

CHOCOLATE SAUCE

1/2 cupful sugar 3 tablespoonfuls flour 1 cupful water 1 cupful milk 3/8 cupful cocoa or 2 squares (or ounces) chocolate 1/4 teaspoonful salt 1/2 teaspoonful vanilla

Mix the sugar, flour, and cocoa (if the latter is used). Add the water; stir and cook until the mixture thickens. Then add the milk and cook over boiling water for at least 15 minutes.

If chocolate is used, cut it in pieces, add 5 tablespoonfuls of boiling water. Stir and cook until a smooth paste is formed. Add the chocolate to the other ingredients, then the salt and vanilla. [Footnote 54: See footnote 25 regarding the adding of vanilla.] Serve hot or cold over desserts.

QUESTIONS

What is the purpose of the egg and bread in the Bread Pudding?

What care must be taken in combining the egg mixture with the hot milk mixture?

Think of the effect of intense heat upon the ingredients of Bread Pudding, and then explain why the pudding should bake slowly. What is the result, if baked in a very hot oven?

What is the reason for covering the pudding during the first 15 minutes of baking?

Name combinations of spices that would be desirable for the pudding.

What care should be taken in cooking chocolate in boiling water?

In preparing Vanilla Sauce, why is the flour mixed with the sugar (see Experiment 24)?

How does the quantity of thickening for Vanilla Sauce compare with the quantity of thickening for the Sauce for Cream Toast?

Give the four different quantities of flour generally used to thicken one pint of sauce.

What care should be taken in cooking Vanilla Sauce?

Compare the recipe for Chocolate Corn-starch Pudding with that for Chocolate Sauce. What material and how much of it is used for thickening each? What difference in consistency is there in the two cooked mixtures? What liquids are used in each mixture? Why is the sauce cooked directly over the flame and then over, boiling water, while the pudding is cooked only over boiling water?



LESSON LVII

CHEESE (A)

THE RELATION OF CHEESE TO MILK.—To show the relation of cheese to milk, and to understand the manufacture of cheese, try the following:

EXPERIMENT 47: EFFECT OF RENNET ON MILK.—Put a small quantity of milk in a test tube and heat the milk a very little, taking care not to boil it. Add to it 1/4 teaspoonful liquid rennet, or 1/8 junket tablet, and set aside. After a few minutes examine the milk. How has the rennet changed the milk? What substance in the milk has been clotted by the rennet (see Lesson XLVI)?

EXPERIMENT 48: SEPARATION OF CURD AND WHEY—Again heat the contents of the test tube of Experiment 47, turn the mixture into a cheese-cloth, and press the cloth until the mixture is dry. Examine the material left in the cloth. How does it differ from ordinary cheese in color and texture? In cheese making what names are given to the solids and liquids of clotted milk?

Cheese is prepared for the market in a way somewhat similar to that shown in Experiments 47 and 48, except that it is colored, salted, pressed into shape, and allowed to ripen. While ripening, changes take place in the ingredients of cheese which develop characteristic flavors and make the cheese firm.

There are two general classes of cheese,—hard cheese and soft cheese. A hard cheese commonly known as "American Cream Cheese" is generally used in this country.

ACTION OF RENNIN IN DIGESTING MILK.—The rennet or junket used to clot the casein of the milk is obtained from the digestive juices of the stomach of a calf. An enzyme called rennin exists in the gastric juice of the human stomach also. When milk is digested, it is first clotted by the enzyme in the stomach.

EXPERIMENT 49: EFFECT OF ACID ON MILK.—Add a few drops of vinegar to warm milk in a test tube. What is the result? What substance in the milk has been curdled by the acid?

To what substance in milk is its sweet taste due? Into what has this substance changed when milk sours? What causes the change in this material (see Care of Milk)? Knowing the effect of acid on milk, explain the clotted condition of sour milk.

JUNKET "CUSTARD"

1 quart milk 1/4 cupful sugar 1 teaspoonful vanilla 1 tablespoonful liquid rennet or 1 junket tablet Powdered cinnamon or nutmeg

Heat the milk in a double boiler until it is lukewarm only; do not heat it to scalding temperature. Test milk for lukewarm, i.e. body temperature, by letting a drop fall on the wrist. If the milk "feels like the wrist"—neither warmer nor colder—it is lukewarm in temperature. If a junket tablet is used, crush it. Add the sugar, vanilla, and rennet or junket, and stir until dissolved. Pour into a glass dish and stand in a warm place until it thickens. Then set the Junket "Custard" in a cool place. When cold, sprinkle with a little cinnamon or nutmeg, and serve with cream.

COTTAGE CHEESE

1 quart thick sour milk 1/4 teaspoonful salt Cream, top milk, or butter

Pour at least 2 quarts of boiling water into the sour milk. Allow the mixture to stand until the curd separates from the whey. Strain the mixture in a cloth, pressing the cloth until the curd is dry, or allow it to drip for several hours or overnight. Put the curd in a bowl, add salt and a little cream, top milk, or melted butter, and mix thoroughly. Serve lightly heaped, or molded into balls.

QUESTIONS

Why should junket tablets be crushed before adding to the milk (see Experiment 12)?

In what way is the preparation of milk for Junket "Custard" like the digestion of milk in the stomach?

Tell why Junket "Custard" is quickly digested.

How much Cottage Cheese is obtained from 1 quart of milk?

Explain the use of boiling water in preparing Cottage Cheese from sour milk.

What is the price per pint of Cottage Cheese prepared at home?

What is the price per pint of Cottage Cheese obtained at market?



LESSON LVIII

CHEESE (B)

FOOD VALUE AND USE OF CHEESE.—Cheese is concentrated food, i.e. it contains much nourishment in small bulk. One pound of cheese contains as much protein as two pounds of eggs or one and one half pounds of meat, and as much fat as three pounds of eggs and one pound of beef. In addition to protein and fat, cheese contains ash and vitamines (see Division Seven).

Cottage Cheese is a particularly good food. Since it is less expensive than most foods rich in protein, it should be used to a greater extent than it is at the present time. Most tasty salads and meat substitute dishes may be prepared from cottage cheese.

Cheese was formerly considered somewhat difficult of digestion, but investigations (see Farmers' Bulletin 487, The Digestion of Cheese, p. 15.) show that cheese differs but little from meat in ease of digestion. Cheese, like protein foods in general, if cooked at all, should be heated at low or moderate temperature.

It is well to cook cheese in combination with other food materials. The use of cheese at the close of a dinner, when sufficient food has already been eaten, is not advisable.

CARE OF CHEESE.—Molds grow rapidly upon cheese, especially if it is placed in a warm place and the air is excluded from it (see Why Foods Spoil). For this reason, cheese should never be placed in a tightly covered dish or jar. It may be placed in a dish or jar and covered with a cloth. To keep cheese that has been cut from drying, wrap it in paraffin paper, then in a slightly dampened cloth, and then in paper. It should not, however, be kept in the damp cloth too long; molds will grow upon it.

MACARONI AND CHEESE

1 cupful macaroni 1 1/2 cupfuls medium White Sauce 2 cupfuls buttered crumbs 3/4 cupful grated cheese

Break macaroni into one-inch pieces. Cook in a large quantity of boiling, salted water, in the same manner as Boiled Rice. When tender, pour into a colander, and run cold water through it. Make the sauce, using half milk and half "macaroni water" for the liquid; then add the cheese and macaroni to it. Pour into a buttered baking-dish. Cover with the buttered crumbs and bake at 450 degrees F. for 20 minutes or until brown.

Rice or noodles, cooked in the same way, may be substituted for macaroni.

QUESTIONS

What must be the condition of cheese in order to grate it? If it is very soft, how should it be prepared to add to the sauce?

What is macaroni? What foodstuff does it contain in large quantity?

What is the effect of cold water on cooked macaroni (see Experiment 17)?

Why is it cooked in a large quantity of boiling water?

What does the water in which the macaroni was cooked contain?

What use can be made of the water that is drained from the macaroni (see Cheese Sauce,)?

What is the price per pound of macaroni? What is the price per pound of rice? What is the price per pound of cheese?

How much cheese, by weight, is required for one cupful of grated cheese?

How many will this recipe for Macaroni and Cheese serve?

How does cheese compare in price per pound with beefsteak? How does it compare in nutritive value? How much of the cheese is waste material? How much of beefsteak is waste material? Which is the cheaper food?



LESSON LIX

STRUCTURE OF BEEF—METHODS OF COOKING TENDER CUTS

MEAT.—The flesh of animals is called meat. In market this term is applied to the muscle, bone, and fat of beef (cattle), veal (calf), mutton (sheep), lamb, and pork (pig).

To show the structure and properties of the substances in lean meat, try the following experiments with beef:

EXPERIMENT 50: DIVISION OF MUSCLE.—Scrape a piece of lean beef on both sides until nothing remains but the stringy mass or framework of the meat. What is the color and texture, i.e. toughness, of the two parts into which the muscle is divided?

Lean meat, or muscle, of animals may be divided into two parts: (a) connective tissue or framework, and (b) muscle fiber.

Divide both the connective tissue and muscle fiber into two equal portions. Use them for Experiments 51 and 52.

EXPERIMENT 51: EFFECT OF DRY HEAT ON: (a) CONNECTIVE TISSUE.— Examine the connective tissue and note its toughness. Place it in a frying pan and heat it for a few minutes. Examine it again. Is it made more tender or tough by dry heat?

(b) MUSCLE FIBER.—Shape one portion of the muscle fiber into a ball. Place it in a frying pan and heat as directed in (a). Is the fiber made more tender or tough by dry heat? Sprinkle a bit of salt over it and taste. What can you say regarding the flavor of the fiber?

EXPERIMENT 52: EFFECT OF MOISTURE AND HEAT ON: (a) CONNECTIVE TISSUE.—Place the second portion of connective tissue in a pan and cover it with water. Let it simmer for at least 15 minutes. How do moisture and heat affect its toughness?

(b) MUSCLE FIBER.—Use the second portion of muscle fiber and cook in water at simmering temperature as directed in (a). How do heat and moisture affect its toughness? Sprinkle a bit of salt over it and taste. Compare its flavor with muscle fiber cooked by dry heat. Which has a more pleasing flavor?

From these experiments what conclusion can you draw with regard to the length of time—long or short—that connective tissue must be cooked in order to make it tender? What conclusion can you draw with regard to the kind of heat—dry or moist—that must be applied to connective tissue to make it tender?

What conclusion can you draw regarding the effect of dry and moist heat upon muscle fiber? Which makes it more tender? Which develops the more pleasing flavor?



THE STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF MEAT.—The connective tissue of meat is the material which holds the muscle fiber in place. One can get an idea of the structure of muscle fiber from some cuts of meat such as the rump. This meat when cooked can be torn into strands. On closer examination, however, one finds that these strands are made up of tiny tubes, microscopic in size, which are also held together by a network of connective tissue (see Figure 43). The microscopic tubes hold the muscle juice, which consists of water, protein, ash, coloring and flavoring materials. The latter give to meat its characteristic taste; they are called extractives. In the network of connective tissue, there is fat as shown also in Figure 43.



The muscle juice found in muscle fiber not only contains protein, but the walls of muscle fiber and connective tissue contain protein. These proteins differ greatly in quality, however. They will be discussed in the following lesson.

CARE OF MEAT.—As soon as meat comes from the market remove the paper in which it is wrapped, and put the meat away in a cool place. Before cooking, wipe the meat with a damp cloth. Do not allow it to stand in cold water. If meat is to be roasted, it should be weighed before cooking.

SEARING MEAT.—Since the juice of meat contains both nutriment and flavor, it is desirable to retain the juice when meat is cooked. This can be accomplished by subjecting meat to intense heat. By so doing, the protein coagulates and "seals" the outside of the meat so that its juices are prevented from escaping. This process is called searing.



From the results of Experiment 51 (b), one can understand why seared meat tastes good. Dry heat tends to develop flavor. Hence it is desirable to sear meat not only to prevent waste of its juices, but to make it tasty. After meat is seared, it is usually necessary to reduce the temperature of cooking in order to cook the interior of meat.

TENDER CUTS OF BEEF—Certain muscles of an animal used for food contain more connective tissue than others. Such muscles are considered tough cuts of meat. Other muscles contain either less connective tissue or the connective tissue is less tough. These are considered tender cuts.



Muscles which are the least used by the animal are most tender. What parts of the beef would one expect to find most tender?

Certain methods of cooking meat are adapted to cooking the tender cuts. Unless meat is chopped, only tender cuts of meat can be cooked successfully by dry heat. The following methods are used for tender cuts of meat: (a) broiling, (b) pan-broiling, and (c) roasting (baking).



The best steaks of beef for broiling or pan-broiling are club (see Figure 44), porterhouse (see Figure 45), sirloin (see Figures 46, 47, 48), and first cuts of round. The best cuts for roasting are porterhouse, prime ribs (see Figures 49, 50), and sirloin.

Long shoulder or chuck (see Figures 51, 52), top round, and rump (see Figures 54 and 57) are inferior roasts.



BROILING

Select one of the tender steaks for broiling. Tender steaks should be cut from 1 to 2 inches in thickness. Clean it as directed previously, remove the excess fat, and place the meat on a broiler. Broil over glowing coals or in the broiling oven, holding the broiler very close to the coals, or placing it near the gas flame. The meat should be thoroughly seared on both sides. Finish cooking the meat by holding it farther away from the coals or the gas flame and turning it about every 10 seconds. Steak 1 inch thick should be cooked at least 5 minutes; 2 inches thick, at least 10 minutes. Season, place on a hot platter, and serve at once.



PAN-BROILING

Clean the meat, remove excess fat, and place the meat in a very hot frying pan without any fat. Sear the meat on both sides, then cook more slowly until done. When thick chops are broiled, stand them on end to brown the edges. Keep the pan free from fat. The time for pan-broiling is the same as for broiling.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PAN-BROILING AND SAUTEING.—Pan-broiled steak differs from sauteed steak (commonly termed fried steak) in: (a) ease of digestion and (b) flavor. As explained previously (Frying and Digestion), fat cooked at high temperature is not easily digested. For this reason, as far as digestion is concerned, it is better to omit the fat, and to broil a steak.



Meat has a distinct and characteristic flavor. Browned fat also has a pronounced flavor. In broiled steak, the pure meat flavor exists; In "fried" steak there is meat flavor plus browned fat flavor. Since the flavor of meat is most pleasing, it is not advisable to modify it by the addition of any other flavor.

ROASTING (BAKING)

Roasting was accomplished formerly by placing thick pieces of meat before an open fire (see Figure 53). "Roasts" are now placed in the oven and baked. The term roasting, however, is still used. Meat is roasted as follows:



Weigh the meat and clean it. Then skewer it into shape and place it on a rack in a roasting pan. If the meat has but little fat, place extra fat in the bottom of the pan. Place the pan on the upper shelf of a hot oven (500 degrees F.) and sear for 20 minutes. Reduce the temperature to 400 degrees F. Season the exposed surface with salt and pepper, dredge with flour, and remove the pan to the floor or lower shelf of the oven. Baste often. When the meat is about half done, turn it over, season, dredge with flour, and continue baking as before.

Since less evaporation takes place in a large roast than in a small one, the larger roasts are more juicy, hence more desirable. A good roast of beef should weigh at least 4 pounds.

The time for roasting varies with the weight of the meat. Usually, for beef roasts, 15 minutes to each pound is allowed.

QUESTIONS

Explain the purpose of searing meat.

If meat is to be roasted, pan-broiled, or broiled, how is it seared?

Why is it necessary to remove the fat from meat that is to be broiled or pan-broiled?

Why cannot meat be broiled over blazing coals?

What is the price per pound of porterhouse and of sirloin steak?

What is the average weight of sirloin steak? Of porterhouse steak?

How many persons will each serve?



LESSON LX

BEEF: METHODS OF COOKING TENDER CUTS (APPLIED TO CHOPPED BEEF) (A)

PROTEIN IN MEAT.—It was mentioned previously that there are several different kinds of protein in lean meat. It was also stated that proteins exist in:

(a) Connective tissue.

(b) Walls of muscle fibers.

(c) Muscle juice.

Two proteins exist in connective tissue, viz., collagen and elastin. Collagen is changed into gelatine by cooking in water. Elastin is found not only in connective tissue, but in the walls of muscle fibers. In muscle juice, there are two proteins,—myosin or muscle globulin and albumin.

Both myosin and albumin coagulate by heating. It is possible to sear meat because it contains proteins. The scum which invariably forms when meat broth is heated consists largely of protein, probably in the form of albumin. This protein as shown in experiments on eggs is soluble in cold water, but is coagulated by heating. If meat broth is skimmed, much of its nutriment is lost.



Of all proteins in meat, myosin is the most important; it exists in greater quantity than the other proteins. Myosin, is practically insoluble in both hot and cold water, though somewhat soluble in a salt solution. As not much myosin is extracted from meat in soup making, the solid part of meat must be eaten in order to obtain the greatest nourishment. Meat broth does not contain as much food value as meat.

CHOPPED BEEF.—If meat is chopped, what is the effect of the cutting on its structure? How would this affect its toughness?

It is possible to pan-broil or roast some of the tough cuts of meat, if the meat is chopped fine. Round (see Figure 54, p. 203) and shoulder or chuck (see Figure 55) are especially desirable cuts for this purpose.

CHOPPED STEAK

1 pound beef steak, chopped 1 to 2 tablespoonfuls chopped parsley 1 onion, grated 1 teaspoonful salt 1/2 cupful water or 3/4 cupful tomatoes 1/8 teaspoonful pepper

Mix all the ingredients and shape into firm cakes. Heat an iron frying pan until hot; oil it with a bit of fat from the meat; then remove the fat. Sear the cakes; then reduce the temperature to finish cooking. Turn the cakes often. Season with salt and pepper. Serve at once.

Half a cupful of soft bread crumbs and 1 egg may be added to this meat mixture.

The addition of 1 tablespoonful of lemon juice, or a dash of nutmeg is thought by some to improve the flavor of chopped beef.

Instead of shaping chopped beef into small cakes, it may be formed into one large cake or steak. The chopped steak may be either broiled or pan- broiled. If the latter method is followed, a pan-cake turner is useful in turning over the steak.

BEEF LOAF

Use the ingredients for Chopped Steak, adding the bread crumbs and egg. Shape into a loaf, and place in a greased baking-pan. Bake in a hot oven (450 degrees F.) for about 30 minutes. Serve hot, plain, or with Tomato or Brown Sauce.

The use of tomatoes instead of water in Beef Loaf makes the meat especially tasty.

QUESTIONS

Why is it necessary to reduce the temperature to finish cooking meat after searing it?

What are the prices per pound of round and long shoulder?

How many cupfuls are there in one pound of chopped meat?

How many servings of Chopped Steak can be obtained from one pound of meat?



LESSON LXI

BEEF: METHODS OF COOKING TENDER CUTS (APPLIED TO CHOPPED BEEF) (B)

STUFFED MEAT ROAST

2 pounds chopped meat 2 teaspoonfuls salt 1/8 teaspoonful pepper

Mix these ingredients. Take about three fourths of the mixture, put it into a greased baking-dish or pan, shape it into a loaf, and make a large cavity in the center. Into the cavity, put a stuffing prepared as follows:

2 cupfuls bread crumbs 1 teaspoonful salt 1 teaspoonful marjoram 1/4 teaspoonful thyme 1/4 teaspoonful savory 1/8 teaspoonful pepper 2 tablespoonfuls fat

Mix the crumbs and seasoning. Melt the fat, add the seasoned crumbs. Stir and heat until the crumbs are slightly browned.

Put the remainder of the meat mixture on top of the crumbs, so that the latter are entirely surrounded by the meat mixture. Place in a hot oven and bake from 1/2 to 3/4 hour. Serve hot,—plain or with Brown Sauce (see below).

Instead of bread stuffing, potato stuffing prepared as follows may be used in Stuffed Meat Roast.

Tomatoes may be added to the meat mixture (see Beef Loaf).

POTATO STUFFING [Footnote 55: From United States Food Administration Bulletin.]

2 cupfuls dry mashed potatoes 1 egg (beaten) 1 small onion, grated 1 tablespoonful fat 1 stalk celery finely minced or 1/2 teaspoonful celery salt 1 teaspoonful salt Pepper

Mix the ingredients and use in place of ordinary bread stuffing.

EXPERIMENT 53: COMPARISON OF STARCH AND DEXTRIN FOR THICKENING.—When flour is browned what substance is formed from some of the starch (see Experiment 26, above)?

Make a White Sauce, using 1 teaspoonful of fat, 1/2 tablespoonful of flour, and 1/4 cupful of water. Make a Brown Sauce with the same ingredients, browning the fat and flour. Compare the Brown and White Sauce as to thickness. Which has the greater thickening property,—starch or dextrin? Estimate the quantity of flour to use for Brown Sauce in order to make it equal in thickness to a White Sauce made by using 1, 2, and 3 tablespoonfuls of flour to 1 cupful of liquid.

NOTE.—If a suitable fat has been used, the Brown Sauce may be seasoned and used with the Stuffed Meat Roast.

BROWN SAUCE

1 1/2 tablespoonfuls fat 2 tablespoonfuls flour 1/2 teaspoonful salt Pepper 1 cupful meat stock or hot water 1 teaspoonful scraped onion

If there is any meat stock in the roasting pan, remove it and make the "Brown Sauce" in the pan. Put fat and onion in the pan, and brown them. Add the flour and brown it, then add the other ingredients and cook as White Sauce.

QUESTIONS

What cuts of meat are suitable for roasting? Why?

Explain how it is possible to use tough cuts of meat and roast them successfully.



LESSON LXII

BEEF: METHODS OF COOKING TOUGH CUTS (A)

EXPERIMENT 54: EFFECT OF COLD WATER ON MEAT.—Place a bit of meat in a test tube or glass measuring cup and add cold water. Allow it to stand for a few minutes and note the appearance. What has been drawn out into the water? What practical application as to washing meat can be made from this?

Heat the water in which the meat has been soaked. What does the water contain? In soup making, should this material be strained out of broth? Explain. If broth must be strained, should a coarse or a fine strainer be used? Why?

EXPERIMENT 55: EFFECT OF BOILING WATER ON MEAT.—Pour boiling water over a bit of meat, then heat it. Has the juice been drawn out into the water? Explain how hot water prevents the juices from being drawn out.

EXPERIMENT 56: EFFECT OF SALT ON MEAT.—Sprinkle some salt on a piece of meat. Let stand for 10 minutes or longer and note results. What practical application as to seasoning meats can be drawn from this?

NOTE.—The bits of meat used in these three experiments should be saved and used for soup-making.

TOUGH CUTS OF BEEF.—From the Experiments of Lesson LIX, what was found to be the toughest portion of the muscle of meat? What method of cooking was used to make this tough part tender (see Experiments 51 and 52)? Toughness of meat depends upon (a) amount of connective tissue, and (b) character of the walls of muscle-fiber tubes (thick or thin). These conditions depend upon (a) the age of the animal, and (b) locality of muscle or cut of meat.

Although meat contains some materials which are better slightly cooked, tough cuts of meat contain so much connective tissue that long cooking is necessary to make them palatable. The long cooking must be accomplished in water or steam in order that the meat may not burn or become too dry.

Meat from old animals is usually tough. Veal and lamb are more tender than beef and mutton. The muscles that are used most are toughest, because they are developed to a greater extent and contain more connective tissue. Muscles that are constantly used contain more extractives, hence tough cuts of meat have more flavor than tender cuts. This is not always appreciated, however, since all the flavor of tough meat is rarely extracted because it is so hard to chew. Moreover, as mentioned previously, dry heat usually applied to tender cuts tends to develop flavor in meat.

USE OF BONE AND FAT IN SOUP-MAKING.—Bone contains a substance which long cooking changes into a jellylike mass called gelatine. In the center of the bone there is a fatty substance called marrow. This fat in the bone and that in and around the muscles liquefies in making soup stock. In cooling, the fat rises to the top, hardens, excludes the air from the stock, and thus prevents it from spoiling readily. Hence, in soup-making, it is of advantage to use both the fat and the bone with the lean meat. The fat, however, should be removed carefully from the stock before using.

BEEF STOCK

2 pounds meat, bone and fat 1/4 teaspoonful celery seed 5 peppercorns 2 cloves 2 quarts cold water 1/2 bay leaf 2 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt

Cut the meat and fat into small pieces. Try out some of the fat and brown about 1/3 of the meat in it. Put all the meat in a kettle, add the seasoning and water; cover, and allow to soak one hour. Then cook below boiling temperature for 3 hours; strain through a coarse strainer. Pour it through a fat separator or set aside to cool. If the fat has been allowed to solidify, skim it from the surface when the stock is to be used.

1 can of tomatoes, 1 carrot, 1 turnip, and 1 onion (all cut in small pieces) may be added to the ingredients of beef stock. Trimmings and bones of fresh meats or bones and pieces of roasts or unused meat may be cut into small pieces and used for soup stock. No smoked or charred pieces of meat or bone should be used, however. Stock may be colored with caramel, provided the sugar has been cooked sufficiently to lose its sweetness.

CUTS OF BEEF (see Figure 56).—The feeding, care, and age of an animal have much to do with the quality of its meat. It is considered that good beef is obtained from an animal four or five years old. Beef should be firm, of bright red color, and of fine grain. There should also be a generous supply of suet. The latter should be dry and easily crumbled. In most markets, meat is made more tender by allowing it to hang for several days at a temperature near freezing.

The cost of the different cuts of meat varies greatly. The difference in cost is based upon the tenderness of the cut of meat, and upon the demand,—not upon the nutritive value. Prices vary in different localities, and in different seasons.

The waste of a cut of meat is a factor which the housekeeper needs to consider in determining the cost of meat. The cuts of meat containing no waste may be "cheaper" than some cuts whose price per pound is lower.



The line dividing the rib and loin cuts and the plate and flank, marks the division of the beef into hind and fore quarters. The position of the various cuts is indicated by letters. The names of the cuts are indicated around the outer boundary of the diagram.

The closely spaced lines such as shown in the round cut indicate that the cut is sliced into steaks, while the more widely spaced lines such as shown in the rib cut, indicate that the cut is separated into pieces for roasting or stewing. The numerals indicate the number of steaks or pieces into which a cut is usually divided.

EXPLANATION OF FIGURE 56. CUTS OF BEEF

HIND QUARTER

NAME AND FORM OF CUT METHOD OF COOKING

ROUND A. Rump. Pot-roasting. 1. Rump piece (see Figure Stewing. 57). Corning.

B. Round (not including Sauteing. rump and shank). Stewing. 2-14. Round steaks (see Braising. Figure 54). Pot-roasting.

C. Horseshoe or Heel. Pot-roasting. 15. Pot roast. Stewing.

D. Hind shank. 16. Knuckle soup bone. Soup-making. 17-19. Soup bones.

LOIN E. Sirloin. Broiling 1-4. Round-bone sirloin Roasting (when cut into steaks (see Figure 48). thick pieces 5-6. Flat-bone sirloin steaks (see Figure 47). 7. Hip-bone sirloin steak (see Figure 46).

F. Porterhouse. Broiling. 8-15. Porterhouse steaks Roasting (when cut into (see Figure 45). thick pieces). 16-18. Club or Delmonico steaks (see Figure 44).

FLANK G. Flank steak (see Figure 59). Sauteing. Rolling and Braising

H-H. Flank stew. Stewing. Corning.

FORE QUARTER

NAME AND FORM OF CUT METHOD OF COOKING RIB I. Rib roasts. Roasting. 1-4. Prime-rib roasts (see Figures 49 and 50).

CHUCK J. Chuck roasts and steaks 1. Chuck-rib roast (see Braising. Figures 51 and 52). Pot-roasting. 2-9. Chuck or shoulder steaks Broiling. (see Figure 55). Sauteing. 10-13. Pot roasts. NOTE.—In some localities, a pot roast is cut from the lower portion of the chuck. It is called Cross Rib, Boston Cut, or English Cut (see Figure 58). 14. Clod, no bone (over knuckle soup bone).

L. Neck. Stewing. 15. Stew. Soup-making. Corning.

PLATE M. Rib ends. Stewing. 1, 2. Stews. Soup-making. Corning.

N. Navel. Stewing. 3. Stew. Soup-making. Corning.

O. Brisket. Stewing. 4. Stew. Soup-making. Corning.

FORE P. Shin. SHANK 1. Stew. 2. Knuckle soup bone (underneath Stewing. clod, J, 14). Soup-making. 3-6. Soup bones ("3" underneath clod, J, 14).

Skirt steak,—diaphragm inside of Rolling and Braising. ribs (see Figure 59). Stewing.

Tail. Soup-making.

QUESTIONS

Other than the differences in cost, what advantages are there in using tough cuts of meat for soup?

Name at least three cuts of meat that would be suitable for soup-making. Give the price per pound of these cuts.

In soup-making, what is the purpose of cutting the meat into pieces and of cracking the bone?

Why should salt be added to the water in which meat is soaked (see Experiment 56)?



LESSON LXIII

BEEF: METHODS OF COOKING TOUGH CUTS (B)

EXAMINATION OF COLD BEEF STOCK.—Examine the beef stock of the previous lesson. Why has the fat risen to the top (see Experiment 35)? Why is fat cooked with meat and bone in making soup stock? What use can be made of the fat after removing it from the stock? Remove the fat from the stock. Stir the stock with a spoon. How do you account for its jellylike consistency? From what material has the gelatine been formed? What solid material is found in the stock? Should this be strained out when the stock is used for soup? Explain your answer (see Experiment 54).

VEGETABLE SOUP

2 quarts beef stock 2 tablespoonfuls fat 1 onion, sliced 1 carrot 1 turnip 1/2 stalk celery or dried celery leaves

Heat the fat and sliced onion. Cook until the onion is browned; add a small quantity of water. Cut the vegetables into dice, add them to the water containing browned onion and cook until the vegetables are tender. Add the beef stock to the vegetables and vegetable stock; heat; evaporate, if necessary, and then serve.

The vegetables may be strained from the soup, and cooked rice, macaroni, or barley added; or the rice, macaroni, or barley may be cooked with the vegetables. Pearl barley should be soaked in water before being cooked in the stock.

Other vegetables may be used for soup-making, as tomatoes, green peas, asparagus, and cauliflower. Indeed, ingenuity in combining flavors and utilizing "left overs" should form no small part of soup-making.

EXAMINATION OF MEAT LEFT FROM SOUP-MAKING.—Which contains the more nutriment,—beef stock or the meat from which the stock was prepared? What valuable protein material does the solid meat contain (see Protein in Meat)? Taste a bit of the meat. What does it lack? In what does the flavoring of this meat exist? What can be added to this "left over" meat as a substitute for its flavor? In the recipe for Baked Hash (below), what supplies flavor to the meat?

BAKED HASH

l 1/2 cupfuls chopped meat and fat 1/3 cupful (or more) boiling water 1 1/2 cupfuls mashed potatoes or stock Salt and pepper 1 cupful cracker crumbs, or 2 cupfuls soft bread crumbs 1 teaspoonful scraped onion Chopped parsley 2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute

Mix all the ingredients, except the fat and crumbs. Add enough water or stock to moisten all ingredients. Place the mixture in a buttered baking- dish. Mix the fat with the bread or cracker crumbs. Cover the hash mixture with the crumbs, and bake slowly until the meat is thoroughly heated and the crumbs browned. Serve at once.



LESSON LXIV

BEEF: METHODS OF COOKING TOUGH CUTS (C)

ROLLED BEEFSTEAK

1 pound round steak 1 cupful soft bread crumbs 1/8 teaspoonful ground cloves Pepper 1/2 teaspoonful salt 1 small onion, chopped Hot water or milk, salt, pepper, flour and fat



Cut round steak of 1/2 inch thickness into pieces 3 by 4 inches. Make a stuffing of the bread crumbs, chopped onions, cloves, salt, pepper, with enough hot water or milk to moisten. Spread the stuffing over the pieces of steak, roll up each piece and tie it with a piece of string, or skewer it with toothpicks. Dredge generously with flour and add salt and pepper. Brown in beef drippings or other fat, cover with boiling water, and simmer for 1 1/2 hours or until tender. Remove the strings or toothpicks, and serve the meat with the sauce in which it was cooked.

If the meat has not been cut thin enough, it may be pounded with a wooden potato masher or mallet to make it sufficiently thin.

BEEF STEW

2 pounds beef 1/4 cupful flour 2 teaspoonfuls salt 1/8 teaspoonful pepper 1 onion cut into slices 1 quart hot water 2 carrots, cut in dice 1 turnip, cut in dice 4 potatoes, cut in dice 1 tablespoonful kitchen bouquet

Remove the fat from the meat to be stewed; cut the meat into 1-inch pieces. Dredge the meat with the flour; add the salt and pepper. Try out the fat in a frying pan; remove the scraps. Brown the onion and then the meat in the hot fat. Add the hot water and pieces of bone and cook in the frying pan for 2 hours at a low temperature; or turn into a double boiler and cook for the same length of time. Add vegetables, except potatoes, and cook for I hour longer; add the potatoes 1/2 hour before the stew is done. If desired, more flour,—mixed with enough cold water to pour easily,—may be added when the potatoes are added. Remove the bone, add kitchen bouquet, and serve.

THICKENING THE SAUCE OF MEAT COOKED IN WATER.—When meat is dipped in flour, then browned in fat, and finally cooked in water, the flour thickens the water and forms a sauce around the meat. Usually, however, more flour needs to be added to the sauce to make it sufficiently thick. Sometimes directions for adding a flour-and-water paste to the hot meat stock are given, but unless the flour-and-water paste is cooked for some time (boiled for 5 minutes at least) the sauce does not have a pleasing flavor. This is because the starch is insufficiently cooked or the flour is not browned. It has been found much more satisfactory to sprinkle a little extra flour into the hot fat while browning the floured meat. Thus the sauce is made smooth, and the starch cooked thoroughly by the time the sauce is ready to serve.

QUESTIONS

If round steak has been cut too thick for rolling, what is a practical way of making it of one half inch thickness?

For what purpose is rolled steak browned in fat before cooking in water?

Explain why the rolled steak is cooked in water at simmering rather than at boiling temperature.

What is the purpose of dredging these meats in flour?

Why are not the vegetables added to the Beef Stew when the boiling water is added? Why are not the potatoes added with the other vegetables?

Why is the bone added to the Beef Stew?

Name at least two cuts of beef that would be suitable for Beef Stew. What are the prices per pound of these cuts?



LESSON LXV

BEEF: METHODS OF COOKING TOUGH CUTS (D)

SWISS STEAK

1 1/2 pounds round steak, cut 1 to 1 1/2 inches thick 1/2 to 1 cupful flour Suet or bacon fat 1/2 onion, sliced 1 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt Dash pepper

With the edge of a saucer, pound the flour into both sides of the steak. In a frying pan, put the suet or bacon fat and brown the onion in it. Then brown both sides of the floured meat in the fat. Cover with boiling water and let the meat cook at simmering temperature either on top of the range or in the oven from 1 1/2 to 2 hours or until it is tender. Add enough salt and pepper to season the meat. If necessary, evaporate the sauce around the meat until it is of sufficient thickness to serve as Brown Sauce. Serve the meat and sauce hot.

If desired, the meat may be stewed in tomato juice instead of water. (If tomato is added, what kind of frying pan (i.e. of what material) should be used in cooking the meat? See Suggestions for Cooking Fruits.)

This variation may also be made: One half green pepper may be chopped and sprinkled over the surface of the steak while the latter is simmering. The onion may be omitted, if desired.

POT ROAST

3 pounds beef Flour Salt pork or suet 1/2 bay leaf 6 peppercorns Salt and pepper 1/4 cupful each,—diced carrot, turnip, onion, and celery



Try out the fat and remove the scraps. Dredge the meat generously with flour and brown the entire surface in the fat. Place the meat on a rack in the kettle; surround it with the vegetables and spices, and season it with salt and pepper. Add 3 cupfuls of boiling water; cover closely and simmer for 4 hours. Turn after the second hour. Serve hot both the meat and the sauce containing vegetables.

NOTE—This meat may be saved and used in the following lesson regarding the uses of cooked beef



SUMMARY OF THE METHODS OF COOKING TOUGH CUTS OF MEAT—There are many recipes for cooking meats All, however, are modifications of a few methods. Moist heat must be applied to tough cuts of meat (see Tough Cuts of Beef) The methods of cooking such cuts can be summed up as follows

1 Soup-making—Soak meat, bone, and fat in cold salted water, and then cook below boiling temperature in the water.

2. "Boiling" or Stewing.—Plunge meat into boiling water; boil until well seared; then cook in water below the boiling temperature.

3. Pot-roasting and Braising.—Sear meat by boiling or browning in fat, then cook in steam. If the cooking is done on the top of the range, it is called pot-roasting. If it is done in the oven, it is called braising.

QUESTIONS

What is the chief difference between pot-roasting and braising?

Why is it not necessary to baste meats cooked by these methods?

What is the difference between braising and roasting meats (see Roasting)? Why is braising suitable for tough cuts, and roasting for tender cuts (see Experiments 51 and 52)?

Name at least three cuts of meat suitable for pot roasts. Give the price per pound of each.



LESSON LXVI

BEEF: USES OF COOKED BEEF

"LEFT OVERS"—Small pieces of cooked meat should not be thrown away; they can be used in many ways. Even though the meat has been cooked so as to extract its juices, there still remains practically all of the myosin, and this is a valuable constituent. If the juices have been drawn from the meat, a little fresh meat should be added to it, or it should be seasoned well with condiments, spices, or herbs. Water in which the meat has been cooked, and "left over" gravy, should be utilized in making sauces for cooked meats. Cooked meat of tender cut should merely be reheated, not recooked. Hence it is usually well to cut it into pieces or chop it fine in order to heat it quickly.

As in soup-making, ingenuity in combining and using "left over" materials is required in making meat dishes. Stewed tomatoes can be substituted for stock or gravy, and one starchy food substituted for another. The recipes here given simply serve as suggestions. The ingredients and proportions should be changed to utilize available materials.

SCALLOPED MEAT

2 cupfuls chopped meat 2 tablespoonfuls fat 3 tablespoonfuls flour l-1/2 teaspoonfuls salt 1/8 teaspoonful pepper 1 teaspoonful scraped onion or chopped parsley l-1/2 cupfuls milk, stock, or water 2 cupfuls buttered crumbs (See Crumbs for Scalloped Dishes.)

Make a Brown Sauce of the fat, salt, pepper, flour, onion or parsley, and milk or stock. Mix with the meat. Butter the crumbs, and place about one half cupful in the bottom of the buttered baking-dish. Add the meat mixture, and cover the top with the remainder of the crumbs. Bake in the oven until the mixture is thoroughly heated and the crumbs are brown.

Cold fish may be shredded and used in the same way.

COTTAGE PIE.—Use the same ingredients as for Scalloped Meat, substituting mashed potatoes for buttered bread crumbs. Place the potato only on the top of the mixture. A little nutmeg may be substituted for the onion.

QUESTIONS

How does meat left from beef stock differ from fresh meat in nutritive value? How does it differ in taste?

Name a starchy food that could be substituted for potatoes in Baked Hash.

Why are spices and herbs added to left over meat dishes?

Name at least three vegetable-and-meat combinations that would be desirable for hash.

How many cupfuls of chopped cooked meat can be obtained from one pound of fresh meat?

Why should cooked meat of tender cut be reheated rather than recooked?



LESSON LXVII

GELATINE (A)

EXPERIMENT 57: EFFECT OF COLD WATER ON GELATINE.—Pour 1 teaspoonful of cold water on 1/4 teaspoonful gelatine. Cover and let stand a few minutes. Examine. Has the water combined with the gelatine? Press a bit of the gelatine with a spoon. How does it compare with the dry gelatine as to hardness?

EXPERIMENT 58: EFFECT OF HOT WATER ON GELATINE.—Pour 1 teaspoonful boiling water on 1/4 teaspoonful gelatine. Place the mixture over hot water. Stir. What is the effect of boiling water on gelatine?

NOTE.—Use the gelatine from these two experiments for the preparation of the gelatine dessert of the lesson.

GELATINE.—When the beef stock of Lesson LXII was strained and cooled, what material, other than fat and protein, was present in it? From what substance in the meat and bone was this material formed (see Protein in Meat; Use of Bone and Fat in Soup-making; Examination of Cold Beef Stock)?

The gelatine which is found at market is prepared from the bones, gristle, skin, and other portions of animals. Although gelatine may be purchased in several different forms, housekeepers find the granulated or pulverized gelatine the most convenient to use.

One ounce of granulated gelatine will stiffen 1 1/2 to 2 quarts of jelly. In hot weather more is required. If fruit, vegetables, or nuts are to be molded in the jelly, use 1 1/2 ounces of gelatine.

Gelatine should be first hydrated (i.e. combined with water) by means of cold water, and then dissolved in boiling water.

THE VALUE OF GELATINE.—Gelatine is an incomplete protein, i.e. it is lacking in certain amino acids and hence while a good fuel, it does not, without the help of other proteins, both build and repair the body.

The usual gelatine dish contains such a small quantity of gelatine that the question of its food value may be disregarded. The sugar and fruit, however, that are invariably used in gelatine dishes give them food value. Since gelatine liquefies readily by heating, it is valuable in liquid diet.

LEMON JELLY

1 tablespoonful granulated gelatine or 1/4 ounce shredded gelatine 1/4 cupful cold water 3/4 cupful sugar Salt 1 1/2 cupfuls boiling water 1/4 cupful lemon juice

Mix the gelatine and cold water. Let them stand until the water is absorbed. Add the boiling water, sugar, and salt. Stir until the gelatine is dissolved completely, then add the fruit juice, strain, and pour into a mold. Set in a cool place to harden. Gelatine mixtures should be covered while soaking and cooling.

To remove jelly from the mold, apply a cloth wrung out of hot water to the outside of the mold.

FRUIT JELLY

Prepare lemon jelly mixture. Cover and allow to cool until it begins to stiffen. Peel oranges and bananas; cut them into small pieces or slices. Cut nuts into pieces. Stir in the prepared fruit and nuts. Turn into a mold, cover, and put in a cool place until firm. Serve cold, with or without cream.

Other fruits may be used instead of those mentioned in the recipe. If pineapple is used it must be cooked before adding to jelly. Pineapple contains an enzyme which liquefies gelatine. Hence jelly containing fresh pineapple fails to stiffen.

WHIPPED JELLY

When a gelatine mixture is cool and begins to stiffen, it may be whipped with a Dover egg beater. Air beaten into a gelatine dessert changes it in appearance and quantity.

Lemon Jelly may be varied as follows:

Prepare lemon jelly mixture. Cover and set aside to cool. Then divide into two portions. Add fruit to one portion and turn it into a mold and set aside in a cool place.

Whip the second portion of jelly. When the jelly in the mold is stiff, pour the whipped jelly over it and set aside to cool.

When ready to serve, unmold, garnish with fruit or nuts, if desired. Serve with top milk, plain or whipped cream or Custard Sauce.

QUESTIONS

What is the purpose of covering the gelatine while soaking and cooling?

Why is it necessary to dissolve the gelatine completely?

What would be the effect of adding cold fruit juice to the hot gelatine mixture? What must be the temperature of water to dissolve gelatine? From this explain why the gelatine should be dissolved before the fruit juice is added.

What is the purpose of straining gelatine mixtures?

Through what should gelatine mixtures be strained?

Of what material should jelly molds be made? Why?

How are jellies removed from the molds without breaking or marring the jellies? Explain.

When fruit is to be added to jelly, what is the purpose of allowing the jelly to cool and almost stiffen before adding the fruit?



LESSON LXVIII

GELATINE (B)

SNOW PUDDING

1 tablespoonful granulated gelatine 1/4 cupful cold water 1 cupful sugar Salt 1 cupful boiling water 1/4 cupful lemon juice 2 or 3 egg whites

Mix these ingredients (except egg whites) as for Lemon Jelly. Set aside to cool. Beat the egg whites until stiff. When the gelatine mixture begins to stiffen, beat it (surrounded by ice water) until it becomes frothy, then add the beaten egg whites and continue beating until the mixture begins to stiffen. Turn into a mold and set aside in a cool place. Serve with chilled Custard Sauce.

For the sauce, follow the recipe for Soft Custard, using egg yolks (instead of whole eggs) and 3/8 cupful of sugar (instead of 1/4 cupful). In case only 2 egg yolks are used in making the custard, 1 teaspoonful of corn-starch may be used for additional thickening, as suggested.

The addition of 1/2 cupful of chopped nuts to Snow Pudding makes a pleasing variation. The nuts should be added just before turning the mixture into the mold.

Snow Pudding may be prepared by whipping plain Lemon Jelly as directed in the previous lesson and serving it with Custard Sauce. The use of egg whites, however, adds to the food value of the dessert and makes it more tasty.

PINEAPPLE BAVARIAN CREAM

1 tablespoonful gelatine 1/4 cupful cold water 1 small can (8 ounces) shredded pineapple Boiling water 1/2 cupful sugar Salt 2 tablespoonfuls lemon juice 1/2 cupful (or more) whipped cream

Mix the gelatine and cold water and let stand until the water is absorbed.

Drain the sirup from the shredded pineapple and add enough water to it to make 1 1/2 cupfuls. Heat the pineapple sirup and water to boiling point. Then pour it over the gelatine mixture. Stir until the gelatine is dissolved. Add the sugar and salt and continue stirring until they are dissolved. Add the lemon juice. Cover and set aside in a cold place until the mixture begins to stiffen.

Whip the cream. Add the shredded pineapple and whipped cream to the gelatine mixture. Surround this with ice water and beat until the mixture again begins to stiffen. Turn into a mold and set aside in a cool place. Serve cold.

QUESTIONS

What is the price per package of gelatine?

How many ounces are there in one package? How many tablespoonfuls in one package?

Determine the cost of Lemon Jelly. Of Snow Pudding. What is the difference in the cost?

Which is lighter in weight,—beaten egg white or plain Lemon Jelly? From this, explain why it is necessary to set the gelatine mixture aside until it begins to stiffen before adding the beaten egg-white in the preparation of Snow Pudding.

Explain why the gelatine mixture should be in a slightly stiffened condition before the whipped cream is added to it in the preparation of Bavarian Cream.



LESSON LXIX

FISH (A)

EXPERIMENT 59: EFFECT OF SOAKING FISH IN WATER.—Soak a piece of fresh fish in water for at least 10 minutes. Strain the water and heat it to the boiling point. What foodstuff is found in the water? What practical application can be drawn from the result of this experiment as to washing fish?

EXPERIMENT 60: EFFECT OF BOILING FISH RAPIDLY.—Boil a small piece of fresh fish rapidly for a few minutes. What happens to the fish? Judging from this experiment, what care must be taken in cooking and serving fish?

From the results of Experiments 59 and 60, which method,—boiling or baking,—would be more desirable for cooking fish? Why?

COMPARISON OF BEEF WITH FISH.—Fish is an animal food containing protein. It differs from beef in structure and composition. Most fish contains more water than does beef, hence it has not as high a nutritive value. In the quantity of protein, however, fish is about equal to beef; its protein is also complete. Hence many consider it quite as nutritious as beef. It is lacking in extractives, and needs careful seasoning.

FAT OF FISH.—The fat content of fish varies greatly in different kinds of fish. A few fish, such as salmon for example, contain considerable fat. The edible portion of most fish, however, contains less fat than beef. The ease with which we digest fish depends upon the fat it contains. Fish containing the least quantity of fat is the most easily digested.

CLASSES OF FISH.—According to the quantity of fat it contains, fish may be divided into two classes: (a) dry, or lean fish, and (b) oily fish. Cod, haddock, smelt, flounder, perch, bass, brook trout, and pike are dry, or lean fish. Salmon, shad, mackerel, herring, eel, halibut, lake trout, and white fish are oily fish. (This latter group contains from 5 to 10 per cent of fat.)

Fish may also be divided into two classes, according to the water in which they live, fish from the sea being termed salt-water fish, and those from rivers and lakes fresh-water fish

Since fish contains about as much protein as does beef, it should be generally used as a meat alternative. Inspection of the fish found at market will doubtless acquaint you with many kinds of fish.

SALMON TIMBALE OR LOAF

1 can salmon 1 cupful soft bread crumbs 1 1/2 teaspoonfuls chopped parsley 1/2 teaspoonful salt Pepper 1 or 2 eggs 1 tablespoonful lemon juice 1/4 to 1/2 cupful milk

Mix all the ingredients thoroughly, adding enough milk to moisten. Pour into buttered timbale molds or into one bowl. Place on a rack in a pan, surround with hot water, and cover. Bake in the oven or cook on top of the range until the fish mixture is firm and is heated thoroughly. Turn out, and serve with White Sauce to which chopped parsley has been added (for White Sauce, see White Sauce for Vegetables. For the fat of the White Sauce, use the oil drained from the salmon).

Peas in White Sauce make a pleasing addition to Salmon Timbale, Tuna fish or other cooked fish may be used instead of salmon.

CASSEROLE OF FISH

Cook 1 cupful of rice or barley (see page 85). Measure the ingredients given in Salmon Timbale or Loaf, using salmon or any kind of canned or cooked fish, and prepare a fish loaf.

Let the cereal cool slightly after cooking. Then line a baking dish or a mold with about three fourths of the cooked rice or barley, pressing it in the dish firmly with a spoon. Put the fish mixture in the cavity and cover it with the remainder of the cereal. Steam the food 30 to 45 minutes. Turn from the mold and serve hot with White Sauce as directed for Salmon Timbale.

Any kind of cooked and chopped meat may be used instead of fish and combined with rice or barley as described above. QUESTIONS

What purpose do the eggs serve in Salmon Loaf?

Think of the effect of intense heat upon the different ingredients in this fish mixture, and then explain why it should not cook for a long time or at a high temperature.

What is the price per can of salmon? Of tuna fish?

Name two fresh fish that are in market now. What is the price per pound of each?



LESSON LXX

FISH (B)

FRESHNESS OF FISH.—Fish is a food which spoils very quickly, and which is dangerous to eat if not fresh. For this reason the housekeeper should be able to judge of the freshness of fish. In fresh fish:

(a) The flesh is firm and elastic, especially along the backbone.

(6) The gills are bright.

(c) The eyes are bright and bulging.

The sinking of fish when placed in water has also been given as an indication of its fitness for use as food. Decayed fish floats on water.

Since fish spoils readily, it must be frozen if kept for any length of time. Frozen fish is not undesirable provided it is kept in a frozen state until used; it should be thawed out by placing it in cold water just before cooking. Fish that has been thawed out and kept for some time before cooking may contain at times poisonous substances called ptomaines. Ptomaines in food may produce distressing effects or may even prove fatal.

Fresh fish should be kept in a cool place until used, but should not be placed uncovered in the refrigerator. It may, however, be tightly covered,—put in a tin pail or glass jar,—and placed in the refrigerator. Before cooking, fish should be washed thoroughly with a wet cloth. On account of the odor, all utensils used in the cooking of fish should be washed in salted water.

BAKED FISH

Clean and wash a large fish. The head or tail may or may not be removed before baking. If the head is retained, the eyes should be removed before serving; this is done more easily after cooking. If the tail is retained, it should be wrapped in oiled paper to prevent it from burning.



Sprinkle salt on the inside of the fish and also on the outside, and then fill with stuffing. Skewer the cut edges of the fish together or close the incision as follows:

Hold the edges of the skin together and thrust toothpicks across the opening, through both cut edges of the fish. Then fasten the opening by "lacing" string around the toothpicks. Cut gashes on each side across the fish and put strips of salt

pork into them or insert strips of pork with a larding needle. Oil a baking sheet or the rack of a fish kettle (see Figure 60) and place the fish on it, forming the fish into an "S" by means of skewers. Place the sheet in a baking-pan and add pieces of salt pork. Bake 15 minutes for each pound, or until the flesh can be separated easily from the bones by means of a skewer or a fork. If the baking-pan is uncovered, baste every 10 minutes. When done, carefully remove the fish from the pan and place on a platter, garnish with parsley and lemon, and serve with Tomato Sauce or Sauce for Fish (see below).

In the absence of a baking sheet, two well oiled strips of muslin may be placed across the baking-pan, underneath the fish. When baked, the fish may be removed easily from the pan by means of the strips of muslin.

STUFFING FOR FISH

2 cupfuls soft bread crumbs 1/2 teaspoonful salt 1/8 teaspoonful pepper Cayenne 1 teaspoonful scraped onion 1 teaspoonful chopped parsley 1 teaspoonful capers or chopped pickles 2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute

Mix the ingredients in the order given (see Crumbs for Scalloped Dishes)

SAUCE FOR FISH

3 tablespoons butter or substitute 1/4 cupful flour 1/2 teaspoonful salt Cayenne l 3/4 cupfuls hot water 1/4 cupful vinegar or 1 large lemon,—juice 1 tablespoonful chopped parsley

Prepare the first five ingredients as in White Sauce (see White Sauce for Vegetables. Then add vinegar or lemon juice and chopped parsley. Serve hot over fish.

Hard-cooked eggs make a pleasing addition to this sauce. Chop the whole eggs or slice the whites and mash the yolks with a fork; then add to the sauce.

QUESTIONS

Why should fish not be left uncovered in the refrigerator?

Why should fish be cleaned by wiping with a cloth, rather than by placing in a pan of water (see Experiment 59)?

What is the purpose of placing fish on a baking sheet or placing strips of muslin underneath for baking (see Experiment 60)?

How is fish tested for sufficient cooking?

How can the odor be removed from utensils in which fish has been cooked?



LESSON LXXI

FISH (C)

PLANKED (BROILED) FISH

An oak plank,—one inch in thickness and as long and wide as a large platter,—is a satisfactory device for broiling fish. For planking or broiling, fish steaks or thin, flat fish, such as mackerel or bluefish, should be selected.

Clean the fish, then place it, skin side down, on the plank. Sprinkle with salt and pepper, and spread with softened or melted butter. Place in the broiling oven and broil until done, usually 15 or 20 minutes.

A border of potato puff mixture makes a pleasing addition to the fish (see Potato Puff). A few minutes before the fish is done, remove it from the oven and arrange the potato mixture around it. (A pastry bag and tube may be used for this purpose.) Brush the potato with egg diluted with water (1 tablespoonful of water to 1 egg). Return the plank to the oven to finish broiling the fish and to brown the potatoes. Serve the fish and potatoes on the plank.

FRIED OR SAUTEED FISH

Clean fish and season with salt and pepper. Mix equal parts of corn-meal and flour. Dip the fish in this mixture. Fry in deep fat or saute. Drain and serve with a sauce. Dried bread or cracker crumbs, and egg may be used for dipping instead of the corn-meal and flour mixture (see Fried Oysters).

FISH CHOWDER

1/2 pound salt fish or 2 pounds fresh fish 1 quart potatoes cut in pieces 2 tablespoonfuls bacon drippings or other fat 1 onion, chopped 2 tablespoonfuls corn-meal 1 pint milk Crackers

If salt fish is used, hold it under running water for a few minutes (why?), then shred it.

If fresh fish is used, Wash it, remove bones if possible, and cut it into six or eight pieces.

Brown the onion in the fat. Into a kettle put layers of fish and potatoes and add a little browned onion and corn-meal to each layer. Cover with hot water and boil gently until the potatoes are tender. Add the milk and continue heating until the mixture is hot. Just before serving, add a few crackers broken into pieces.

QUESTIONS

State the advantages of using a plank for broiling fish.

Why select fish steaks or thin, flat fish for broiling?

What is the purpose of brushing the potato mixture with egg?

Give two reasons for using well seasoned sauces and stuffing with fish (see Comparison of Beef with Fish).



LESSON LXXII

LEGUMES (A)

THE LEGUMES include peas, beans, lentils, and peanuts. These plants bear pods containing seeds; the seeds—green or ripened—and the pods of some of the plants are commonly used as foods.

PROTEIN IN SEEDS.—Many foods rich in protein belong to the animal kingdom. The seeds of plants, however, contain protein. The common cereals, wheat and corn, contain almost 10 per cent of protein, while oats contain about 16 per cent. But the dried seeds of legumes exceed all seeds in protein content. Peas, beans, lentils, and peanuts contain more protein than most cuts of meat. About 25 per cent of their composition is protein. Soy-beans are much richer in protein than any of the other legumes. They contain about 37 per cent.

It has been mentioned that proteins differ in quality. Although the dried legumes are especially rich in protein, they do not all contain complete protein. With the exception of peanuts and soy-beans, these foods need to be supplemented with other protein-rich foods such as milk, eggs, and cheese.

Since the dried legumes are a much cheaper source of protein than meat, they should be used oftener than they are. Legumes supplemented with milk or combined with a small quantity of meat furnish economical sources of protein food. The protein in legumes is called legumin.

COOKING DRIED LEGUMES.—The dried legumes should be soaked overnight in water, to which a little baking soda has been added. These vegetables require long cooking to soften them, and also to develop flavor. A little soda added to the water in which they are cooked also aids in softening them and neutralizes the vegetable acid found in some of the legumes. During the long heating, dried legumes break up, if not carefully cooked.

Dried soy-beans have a strong flavor which is objectionable. This can be removed as follows: Soak the beans overnight in a large quantity of hot water, drain, add fresh water and baking soda (about 1 teaspoonful for each cupful of beans), and cook the beans for about 40 minutes, then drain, add more water, and cook until they are tender. Dried soy-beans require long cooking,—usually 4 or 5 hours. After the 40-minute cooking, they may be drained, heated in more water, and then placed in a fireless cooker. The pressure cooker may be used effectively in cooking these dried beans.

Soy-beans may also be baked after the 40-minute cooking in the same manner as navy beans (see Boston Baked Beans). Serve cooked soy-beans with Tomato Sauce.

Although dried legumes are comparatively cheap, the fuel required to cook them for so long a time may increase their cost to a considerable extent. In cooking these foods, care should be taken to utilize fuel that is already required for some other purpose. The fireless cooker is most satisfactory in cooking these dried foods.

BOSTON BAKED BEANS

2 cupfuls navy beans 2 tablespoonfuls molasses or brown sugar 2 teaspoonfuls salt 2 ounces salt pork or bacon 1/2 teaspoonful mustard

Soak the beans overnight as directed in Cooking Dried Legumes. Add a little baking soda and gradually heat to the boiling point. Then add the seasoning to the beans; place half of them in a bean crock; and add the pork which has been scraped and scored. (To score salt pork cut gashes in it nearly to the rind.) Add the remainder of the beans and enough water to cover them slightly. Bake in a slow oven (250 degrees F.) 6 to 12 hours. Keep the beans below the boiling point and see that they are covered with liquid.

Lentils may be baked in the same way as beans.

SALTED PEANUTS

1/2 cupful salt 1 cupful shelled unroasted peanuts 3 cupfuls water 2 teaspoonfuls butter or substitute

Remove the skins from the peanuts by placing them in boiling water for 3 minutes; drain, cover with cold water; and then slip off the skins. Heat the salt and water, and when boiling, add the peanuts. Cook 8 minutes. Drain, rinse off the salt, place in a baking-pan, add the fat, and bake until slightly browned, stirring often. Turn from the pan on paper.

QUESTIONS

Why should dried vegetables be soaked in water before cooking?

Measure the beans after soaking. How much have they increased in bulk?

What is the reason for keeping the beans below the boiling point while baking?

Devise a method for preparing Baked Beans, when they can remain in the oven but an hour or two.

How are fatty meats cleaned? Why can they not be cleaned by washing in water (see Experiment 35)?

What is the purpose of scoring the salt pork or bacon?

What is the advantage of seasoning peanuts by cooking in strong salted water rather than sprinkling salt over them after browning?

What are the prices of beans and raw peanuts per pound?

How many cupfuls in a pound of each?



LESSON LXXIII

LEGUMES (B)

BEAN SOUP

2 cupfuls beans 3 quarts water Baking soda 1 piece of celery root or 1/2 teaspoonful celery salt or Dried celery leaves l 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute 2 slices onion Cayenne 1/8 teaspoonful pepper 2 teaspoonfuls salt 1/4 teaspoonful mustard 2 tablespoonfuls flour

Soak the beans overnight; add soda, onion, and celery. Cook slowly until the beans are soft. Add more water, if more than one quart evaporates. Press through a strainer. Use the remainder of the ingredients in making a sauce. The strained beans should be used as the liquid for the sauce (see Thick Soups).

Slices of lemon and of hard-cooked eggs may be used as a garnish for this soup.

SPLIT PEA SOUP

1 cupful split peas 2 1/2 quarts water Baking soda 2 slices onion 1 pint milk 1/8 teaspoonful pepper l 1/4 teaspoonfuls salt 3 tablespoonfuls flour 2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute

Soak the peas overnight; add soda and onion; and cook slowly until the peas are soft. Press through a strainer. Make a White Sauce of the remainder of the ingredients. Add the strained peas, heat, and serve.

Cooking a ham bone with the split peas changes the flavor.

GREEN PEA SOUP

1 pint or can of peas 1/2 teaspoonful sugar 1 pint liquid round peas and water Pepper 1 teaspoonful salt 1 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute 1 pint milk 2 tablespoonfuls flour

Turn the peas into a saucepan; add the liquid, water, and sugar; and cook until very soft. Press the peas through a strainer. Make a White Sauce of the remaining ingredients. Add the strained peas, heat, and serve.

Peas too old to serve as a vegetable may be used for soup. Some of the pods of fresh peas may be cooked with the peas.

CRISP CRACKERS

Spread thin crackers very lightly with butter. Brown in the oven and serve with soup.

QUESTIONS

How should the water boil to prevent dried legumes from breaking (see Cooking Vegetables in Water)?

What is the simplest way of thickening soup, if it is too thin? Too thick?

If a ham bone is cooked with split peas, what ingredient should be omitted in making the soup? Why?

How many persons will these recipes for soup serve?

How many cupfuls in a pound of split peas? What is the cost per pound of split peas? How much does one cupful of split peas increase in bulk by soaking? What quantity of split peas would be equal to a can of peas? What is the cost of a can of peas? How much is saved in making soup by using split peas rather than green peas?



LESSON LXXIV

LEGUMES (C)

BEAN ROAST

1 cupful white beans, cooked 1 cupful roasted peanuts 1/2 cupful bread crumbs 1 teaspoonful salt Speck pepper 1/2 cupful milk

Put the beans and peanuts through a food chopper, add the remaining ingredients. Mix and shape into a loaf. Place in an oiled dish and bake 30 minutes in a moderate oven. Serve hot with Tomato Sauce.

PEANUT BUTTER SOUP

1 cupful peanut butter 1/2 cupful chopped celery 1 1/2 cupfuls water 3 cupfuls milk 2 teaspoonfuls salt 1/8 teaspoonful pepper 1 grated potato

Mix the peanut butter with I cupful of milk. Heat 2 cupfuls of milk in a double boiler. Cook the celery in the water until the vegetable is tender. Add the grated potato, cook, and stir until the mixture is thickened. Then add it to the hot milk. Also add the peanut butter mixture and seasoning. Heat until it is hot. Beat with a Dover egg beater. Serve hot.

Dried celery leaves may be used instead of fresh celery.

QUESTIONS

Mention the nutrients contained in the food materials of Bean Roast and Peanut Butter Soup. Discuss the value of each nutrient.

Calculate the cost of Bean Roast. How many persons will it serve?

How many persons will one pound of chopped beef serve? Estimate the difference in cost of one serving of Bean Roast and of Chopped Steak.

What is the purpose of grated potato in Peanut Butter Soup? What substance could be substituted for the grated potato? State the method of mixing and cooking if the substitution were made.



RELATED WORK

LESSON LXXV

COST OF FOOD

FOODS DIFFER GREATLY IN COST.—One pound of rice costs much less than one pound of beefsteak. One cut of meat may cost less per pound than another. Twenty-five cents buys much less in weight of sweetbreads than of beefsteak.

Many factors other than difference in cost must, however, be taken into consideration when determining the value of foods.

COST OF FOOD IN RELATION TO NUTRITIVE VALUE.—Foods differ in nutritive value per pound. One pound of dried split peas contains more than three times as much nutriment as one pound of fresh peas. The nutritive value of a pound of sweetbreads is much less than that of a pound of beefsteak.

COST OF FOOD IN RELATION TO REFUSE.—Although one cut of meat may sell for more than another, the higher priced one may be cheaper because there is less waste. In most localities flank steak costs more per pound than shoulder steak; yet flank steak is the cheaper meat because it is all edible, while there is about one fifth waste in most shoulder steak. One pays for some refuse even when purchasing eggs.

COST OF FOOD IN RELATION TO SEASON.—Most foods are higher in price when out of season. Strawberries may cost seventy-five cents per quart in February and twenty-five cents in the spring or summer months. An unseasonable food is invariably expensive.

COST OF FOOD IN RELATION TO WEIGHT.—Food labels often contain valuable information. The weight of the contents of a package, can, or bottle, and sometimes the composition of food appears on them.