Clean the vegetables by scrubbing with a brush; cook them in gently boiling water. Use the same quantity of water in each case (when cooked in water) and add one teaspoonful of salt to each quart of water. When the vegetables are tender (test with a fork or knitting needle), drain each thoroughly, catching the water in a bowl. Dry each vegetable by shaking the saucepan containing it over a flame.

Pour into a test tube a little of the water from each water-cooked vegetable; cool, and then test with iodine for starch.

Also pour some of the water from each water-cooked vegetable in an evaporating dish. Boil the water until the moisture is entirely evaporated. Then continue to heat the contents of the dish until charred material appears and then disappears. Is any solid material left? If so, it is mineral matter.

Which vegetables,—those cooked (in water) with or without the skins,— lose the more starch and ash?

Which vegetables without the skins,—those cooked in water or those cooked in steam,—lose the more starch and ash?

As far as saving nutriment is concerned, which method of preparation is better for vegetables cooked in water? Which method of cooking is better for vegetables without the skins?

Peel the vegetables that were cooked with the skins. Cut all into dice. Prepare about half as much White Sauce as you have of the vegetable, using the ingredients for the sauce in the following proportion:

1 1/2 tablespoonfuls flour 1/2 teaspoonful salt 1 tablespoonful butter or substitute 1 cupful liquid

For the liquid of the sauce for those vegetables cooked in water without the skins, use half milk and half vegetable stock. Use only milk for the sauce for the vegetables cooked in water with the skins and for steamed vegetables. (For method of making White Sauce, see Cream Toast) Add the vegetables to the sauce, reheat, and serve. Divide the vegetables among the pupils of each group so that each tastes the six vegetables.

Which vegetables,—those cooked with or without the skins,—have the more pleasing color?

Which vegetables,—those cooked with or without the skins,—have the more pleasing flavor?

As far as appearance and flavor are concerned, which method of preparation is better for potatoes? Which method for carrots?

As far as both nutriment and flavor are concerned, which method of cooking is better for both vegetables?

Suggestions for Cooking Root Vegetables.—All vegetables growing beneath the ground should be cleaned by scrubbing with a small brush. Unless a vegetable is dried or wilted, it should not be soaked in water for any length of time before cooking.

The comparison just made shows that the outside skins of vegetables should not be removed before cooking in water if we wish to retain all the nutriment. There are some who contend, however, that a more delicate and pleasing flavor results when old and strong-flavored vegetables have their skins removed before cooking, and that the flavor is more to be desired than a saving of all nutrients. Often vegetables are more pleasing in color when cooked without their skins.

The nutrients lost by paring root vegetables and cooking them in water consist not only of carbohydrates, but of ash and other valuable materials. [Footnote 30: Vitamines, see Division Seven]

Satisfactory results may be obtained by baking or steaming vegetables. By using the latter method, vegetables can be pared and cut into pieces and then cooked with little loss of nutrients. It has been pointed out, [Footnote 31: See Journal of Home Economics, Vol. XI (May, 1919), "Changes in the Food Value of Vegetables," by Minna C. Denton.] however, that there may be considerable loss of nutrients in steamed vegetables. The extent of the loss depends in part upon the type of steamer and the method of using it. If the bottom of the upper pan of a steamer is perforated and the vegetables are placed in contact with the perforated portion, the condensed steam "washes" the mineral matter from the vegetable. This "vegetable broth" then drops into the lower pan of the steamer.

An evidence of this can be secured by steaming spinach or squash in the manner described above and observing the coloring which appears in the water beneath the steaming vegetable. Loss of nutrients in such a steamer can be avoided by placing the vegetable in a pan or plate and inserting the latter in the upper portion of the steamer. The pan or plate should, of course, be of smaller diameter than the top of the steamer. By using the type of steamer which has perforations at the top of the upper pan (see Figure 31), no loss of nutrients occurs, provided the accumulated vegetable broth is used.



Care should also be taken not to steam vegetables for long periods at a very high temperature as is sometimes done in using the pressure cooker. This results in both loss of nutrients and flavor.

If starchy vegetables are cooked in water, when tender immediately drain away the water and dry them. Serve at once or let them remain uncovered in a warm place. The steam is thus allowed to escape. Condensed steam makes starchy vegetables soggy.

BOILED POTATOES

If potatoes are to be cooked without their skins, pare them as thin as possible, or in the case of new potatoes, scrape them. Cut away any green portion [Footnote 32: Green spots on potatoes are caused by the tubers growing too near the surface of the ground. This colored portion contains an injurious substance called solanin.] which appears on the potato. If the potatoes are sprouted, [Footnote 33: Sprouted potatoes also contain some solanin. Potatoes should not be allowed to sprout since nutritious material is used up by the growing sprouts and, as mentioned above, an injurious material is formed. Potatoes can be prevented from sprouting by storing them in a dry, dark, cool place.] also cut away the portion around the sprouts.

In cooking potatoes in water, follow the directions given on page 59, Cooking Vegetables in Water. When they are tender, drain off the water immediately; shake gently and dry on the back of the range with the saucepan uncovered or with a cloth folded over the top to absorb the moisture. Sprinkle generously with salt. Boiled potatoes may be put through a ricer before serving.

CREAMED AND SCALLOPED VEGETABLES.—Cooked vegetables may be creamed by cutting them into cubes, adding White Sauce, and then reheating. If the cut vegetables are cold, they can be heated by adding them to the sauce with the last portion of liquid. By the time the sauce reaches the boiling point, the vegetables will be heated. Care should be taken not to break the vegetables while heating them in the sauce. Care should also be taken to prevent the sauce from scorching. An asbestos mat over a gas burner is desirable for this purpose. Use one part of White Sauce with 2 or 3 parts of diced vegetables.

Vegetables may be scalloped by placing Creamed Vegetables in an oiled baking-dish, covering with buttered crumbs, and browning in the oven.

WHITE SAUCE FOR VEGETABLES

1 1/2 tablespoonfuls flour 1 tablespoonful butter or substitute or 2 tablespoonfuls flour 1 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute 1/2 teaspoonful salt White pepper 1/2 cupful milk 1/2 cupful vegetable stock

Cook as directed for Cream Sauce (see Cream Toast). The thickness of White Sauce for vegetables depends upon the kind of vegetable. The thinner sauce is generally more satisfactory with starchy vegetables.

CRUMBS FOR SCALLOPED DISHES

1 cupful soft bread crumbs 1/8 teaspoonful salt White pepper or cayenne 1 tablespoonful butter or substitute

Mix seasonings and crumbs together, then add to the melted fat, or place the fat in bits over the seasoned crumbs.

QUESTIONS

How should the water boil in cooking vegetables? Why?

Why should not potatoes be covered with a tin lid or plate after cooking?

Are potatoes sold by the pound or bushel? What is the price per pound or bushel?

Mention at least three ways of cooking root vegetables so as to retain their nutriment.



LESSON XXVII

ROOT VEGETABLES (B)

EXPERIMENT 30: THE EFFECT OF SOAKING STARCHY VEGETABLES IN WATER,—Over several pieces of potato pour enough water to cover. Allow the vegetable to stand at least 15 minutes. Pour the water from the vegetable into a test tube and heat it. Cool, then test the water with iodine. What does the water contain? What conclusion can you draw concerning the soaking of vegetables in water before cooking?

SWEET POTATOES

Cook sweet potatoes with or without the skins (see Cooking Vegetables in Water). Peel (if cooked with the skins), mash, add a little hot milk, salt, and butter, beat thoroughly and serve.

Cooked sweet potatoes may also be cut into halves lengthwise, spread with butter or substitute, sprinkled with a very little sugar, and browned in the oven.

SWEET POTATOES (Southern style)

3 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute 2 tablespoonfuls sugar 6 sweet potatoes Salt and pepper Boiling water

Scrub and pare the sweet potatoes, cut them into halves lengthwise. Put the butter and sugar in a frying pan and when hot, add the sweet potatoes. Brown the potatoes, add the salt and pepper and enough boiling water to cover the bottom of the frying pan. Cover and cook slowly until the potatoes are tender. Nearly all the water should be evaporated when the potatoes are cooked. That which remains should be poured over the potatoes as a sauce for serving.

Sweet potatoes may also be cooked in a casserole in the oven. Uncover the casserole when the potatoes are almost tender, in order to brown them.

MOCK OYSTERS (parsnips with nuts and rice)

4 parsnips 2 eggs 1 cupful nuts, chopped 1/8 teaspoonful pepper 1 cupful cooked rice [Footnote 34: If the rice is cooked by boiling, use the rice water instead of plain water in making Tomato Sauce.] 4 tablespoonfuls flour 1 teaspoonful salt

Boil or steam the parsnips until tender. Press them through a coarse sieve or colander. Add the beaten eggs. Then add the remainder of the ingredients. If the mixture is too thick to drop from the spoon, add a little milk. Drop by tablespoonfuls on to an oiled baking-sheet. Bake until slightly brown. Serve hot with Tomato Sauce. Tomato Catsup or Celery Sauce may also be used in serving Mock Oysters. (Adapted from Ninety Tested Recipes, Teachers College.)

TOMATO SAUCE

1/2 can tomatoes 1 cupful water 2 cloves 3 allspice berries 3 peppercorns 2 sprays of parsley 3 tablespoonfuls fat 2 slices onion 1/4 cupful flour 1 teaspoonful salt

Allow tomatoes, water, spices, and herbs to simmer 15 to 20 minutes. Brown the onion in the fat, add flour and salt, then the tomato mixture. Follow the method of making White Sauce (see Cream Toast). Strain and serve.

QUESTIONS

From the results of Experiment 30 explain why vegetables should be placed in boiling rather than in cold water for cooking.

Why should the water be drained from boiled vegetables immediately after cooking?

From your grocer, find out in what quantities sweet potatoes are usually purchased. What is the price of them? How do they compare in price with white potatoes?

What is the price per pound of parsnips?

In preparing Tomato Sauce, what is the purpose of cooking the tomatoes and spices together for 15 or 20 minutes?

Why are the tomatoes strained after thickening rather than before?



LESSON XXVIII

ROOT VEGETABLES (C)

Tapioca is a food material prepared from the roots of the cassava plant grown in South America. Like many other foods prepared from the roots of plants, it consists of a large percent of starch. In its preparation, tapioca is heated so that the starch is partially cooked. Tapioca is prepared for the market in two forms,—pearl tapioca, and minute or granulated tapioca. The latter requires a much shorter time to cook. If granulated tapioca is substituted for pearl tapioca, but one half the quantity is required.

APPLE TAPIOCA

3/4 cupful pearl tapioca or 3/4 cupful granulated tapioca 2 1/2 cupfuls boiling water 1/2 teaspoonful salt 6 apples 1/2 cupful sugar

If pearl tapioca is used, cover it generously with cold water and allow it to stand one hour or overnight. While soaking keep the tapioca covered. If any water is unabsorbed, do not discard it,—use less than the given quantity of boiling water.

If granulated tapioca is used, no cold water is needed. For either granulated or pearl tapioca, add the boiling water and salt to the tapioca and cook over the naked flame and then over hot water as in the case of breakfast cereal (see General Rules for Cooking Cereals). Cook in the double boiler until transparent. Wash, core, and pare the apples; place them in a buttered baking-dish; fill the cavities with sugar, pour tapioca over them, and bake in a moderate oven until the apples are soft. Serve with sugar and cream, or with Lemon Sauce.

Other fruits may be substituted for apples. If canned fruits are used, substitute the fruit sirup for part of the water in which the tapioca is cooked.

RHUBARB TAPIOCA

Use the same ingredients for the rhubarb dessert as for Apple Tapioca, substituting for the apples 3 cupfuls of rhubarb, cut into pieces, and using twice the quantity of sugar. Bake until the rhubarb is soft.

LEMON SAUCE

3/4 cupful sugar 2 tablespoonfuls flour 2 cupfuls boiling water 1 lemon,—juice and rind 1 tablespoonful butter

Mix sugar and flour thoroughly; then slowly add the boiling water. Cook 10 minutes. Add the lemon juice and rind, then the butter. Stir until the butter is melted, when the sauce will be ready to serve.

For economy, the butter may be omitted. It adds to the flavor, however.

SWEET SAUCES.—Sweet Sauces usually contain sugar and butter and are thickened with a powdered cereal. It is interesting to consider which of the two materials—sugar or butter—should be used to separate the grains of the flour or corn-starch.

The quantity of fat used with the flour of White Sauces (see below) is a little less than that of the flour. It is difficult to separate starch grains when the quantity of fat equals only one half the quantity of flour. On the other hand, when starch grains are separated by means of sugar, the quantity of the sugar should equal at least the quantity of the starchy material (see Blanc Mange). In the recipe for Lemon Sauce above, it will be noted that the quantity of fat is one half that of the flour; the quantity of sugar greatly exceeds that of the flour. Hence the sugar affords a more satisfactory means of separating the starch grains in Lemon Sauce.

PROPORTIONS OF INGREDIENTS FOR SAUCES

Flour Fat Liquid

Thin White Sauce 1 tablespoonful, 3/4 tablespoonful, 1 cup (Toast, sweet sauce, certain cream soups, etc.)

Medium White Sauce 2 tablespoonfuls, 1 1/2 tablespoonfuls, 1 cup

(Vegetables (see page 109), gravy, tomato sauce, etc.)

Thick White Sauce 3 tablespoonfuls, 2 tablespoonfuls, 1 cup (Gravy, tomato sauce, etc.)

Very Thick White Sauce 4 tablespoonfuls, 3 tablespoonfuls, 1 cup (Croquettes, etc.)

(If richer sauces are desired, equal quantities of fat and flour should be used.)

QUESTIONS

What is the purpose of soaking pearl tapioca in water before cooking? Give the reason for covering pearl tapioca while it is soaking. Why is it necessary to cook it in a double boiler?

What is the use of flour in Lemon Sauce? Why is the flour mixed with the sugar before adding the boiling water (see Experiment 24)? How long does it take the flour to thicken? How long a time does the recipe give for cooking the flour mixture? What is the purpose of cooking it for so long a time?

What precautions can be taken to prevent the sauce from scorching?

If, after cooking the required length of time, the sauce is not thick enough, what is the simplest method of thickening it?

For a sauce recipe in which very little fat and no sugar are given, devise a method of preparing smooth sauce.



LESSON XXIX

STARCHY FOODS COOKED AT HIGH TEMPERATURE

STEAM UNDER PRESSURE.—Which is hotter,—the "steam" (i.e. water vapor) coming from boiling water in an uncovered saucepan or teakettle or the "steam" which has been held underneath the lid of a covered saucepan or teakettle (see Figure 32)? Steam confined in a small space or held under pressure may reach a temperature higher than that of boiling water.

EFFECT OF HIGH TEMPERATURE UPON POP CORN AND POTATOES.—Pop corn contains water. When heated, the water changes to steam. The covering of cellulose holds the steam in the kernel. When the steam expands and reaches a temperature far above the boiling point of water, it finally bursts the covering and the starch swells at once.



In baking potatoes, the water contained in them vaporizes. The vaporized water or steam is held under pressure by the skin of the vegetable. The steam thus becomes hotter than boiling water, hence a baked potato is cooked at a higher temperature than a boiled potato, and no nutrients are lost.

POP CORN

Moisten pop corn with cold water. Almost cover the bottom of a popper with the kernels. Hold the popper first at some distance from the heat and then gradually bring it closer, shaking it well all the time to keep the corn from burning. The corn should not begin to pop before three and one half minutes. When popping commences, most of the kernels should open. If there is some time between the popping of the first and last kernels, the corn will become tough.

BUTTERED POP CORN NO. I

4 quarts freshly popped corn 1/4 cupful butter Salt

Melt the butter and pour it over the corn, stirring with a spoon. Sprinkle at once with salt from a salt shaker, continue stirring.

BUTTERED POP CORN NO. II

1 tablespoonful butter and 1 tablespoonful oil or 2 tablespoonfuls oil 1/2 cupful shelled pop corn Salt

Put the fat in a large frying pan; when melted, add the salted corn. Stir until the corn is evenly coated with fat. Cover closely and heat gradually, shaking the pan vigorously all the time.

BAKED POTATOES Scrub potatoes and place them on the grate of a hot oven (500 degrees F.). (Potatoes should be baked in a hot oven, to prevent them from becoming waxy or soggy.) Bake until soft when tested with a fork or knitting needle, usually 50 to 60 minutes. Break the skin at once to allow the steam to escape, or make two gashes in the top of each potato, one at right angles to the other. Gently press the potato so that the steam may escape. Serve in an uncovered dish. Place the steaming potatoes on a folded napkin for serving.

STUFFED POTATOES

2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute 1 teaspoonful salt 3 tablespoonfuls milk Pepper 6 baked potatoes

Cut the baked potatoes in halves lengthwise. Remove the inside, taking care not to break the skin; mash the potatoes, add the milk, butter, and seasoning, and beat them as ordinary mashed potatoes. Return the mixture to the potato shells, place the stuffed potatoes in a pan, and bake in a hot oven (500 degrees F.) until brown.

Before browning the stuffed potatoes, grated cheese may be sprinkled over them.

QUESTIONS

Explain why pop corn can be cooked thoroughly in about 5 minutes while rolled oats or wheat requires 1 1/2 hours for sufficient cooking.

Analyze the difference in taste of a baked and a boiled potato. To what is the sweet taste of a baked potato due (see Experiment 26)? Explain fully why baked potatoes are more easily digested than boiled potatoes (see Experiment 26 and Solution and Digestion).

Which contains more nutriment,—baked potatoes or boiled potatoes? Explain (see Comparison of Vegetables Cooked with and without the Skins, and in Water or in Steam).

What is the purpose of breaking the skins of potatoes at once after baking? Why are baked potatoes served in an uncovered dish? What could be used to cover them?



RELATED WORK

LESSON XXX

DINING ROOM SERVICE [Footnote 35: NOTE.—See Suggestions for Teaching, Appendix.]

BASIC PRINCIPLES.—Practically all rules for laying the table and all methods of serving have been formulated to bring about neatness, convenience, and order. The standard of living, [Footnote 36: NOTE.—See Suggestions for Teaching, Appendix.] the occasion, the size of the dining room, the number of guests, and the attendants, all have to be taken into consideration in dining room service. Therefore the method of serving must be governed by conditions. It is possible here to give only general suggestions.

THE TABLE

TABLE LINEN.—Table padding, or a silence cloth, should first be placed on the table, then the table-cloth should be laid straight and smooth.



Napkins should be folded simply and laid at the left of the plate. A dinner napkin is folded four times, a luncheon napkin is folded twice to form a square, or three times to form either a triangle or an oblong.

If desired, the table-cloth may be omitted for breakfast or luncheon. Doilies with pads underneath them, lunch or breakfast cloths, or table runners (see Figure 33) may be used instead of the table-cloth. The two latter coverings are especially practical, since they are more quickly laundered than table-cloths. Their initial cost is also usually less than that of a table-cloth.

Doilies may be placed on the serving tray. They are also often used on plates containing crackers, bread, and cakes. Baked potatoes, corn, and hot breads may be served in a folded napkin.

CHINA AND GLASSWARE.—The term "cover" means the space, with its china, silver, and glassware, allowed for each guest. At least twenty-two inches of space should be allowed for a cover (see Figure 33).

The quantity of china on the table depends upon the occasion and the style of serving. In any form of service, the first course, if cold, may be placed on the table before the guests are seated. If the first course is a hot food, it is always placed on the table after the guests are seated. For informal occasions, and sometimes for formal occasions, the bread-and- butter plate is used. It is placed beyond the tines of the fork. Glasses are placed beyond the tip of the knife. A sugar bowl and cream pitcher, salts, peppers, etc., may also be placed on the table. A salt and a pepper shaker should be placed so as to be accessible to each two covers. Dishes containing olives or nuts are sometimes placed on the table before the guests are seated.

For breakfast, the coffeepot, hot-water pitcher, milk and cream pitchers, spoon tray, and cups and saucers may be placed so as to form a semicircle about the hostess's place. The coffeepot should be placed at the right, and the cups and saucers at the left. If tiles or stands for the coffeepot and hot-water pitcher are used, they should also be a part of the table service. A large tray may be used to hold all of the coffee service.

If the serving is to be done without a maid, it is advisable to place all the china, glass, and silver to be used for the meal either on the table or on the serving table.

SILVER.—Convenience and order have determined the customary way of placing the silver at each cover. At the right of the plates place the knives, the spoons, and the forks that are to be used without knives (as for oysters, fish, or salad). At the left, place all the forks that are to be used with knives. Many prefer, however, to place all the forks, except the oyster fork, at the left of the plate. Enough silver for all courses, except the dessert course, is usually placed on the table; it is permissible, however, to place the silver for all courses. If the silver for any course is not placed on the table before the meal is announced, it may be brought in on a tray and placed at each cover just before serving the course; or it may be laid on each serving dish of the course.

While a general rule for laying silver is to place each piece at each cover in the order of its use, the knives are usually all grouped together at the right of the plate and the spoons laid together at the right of the knives. It is advisable, however, to place the spoons and knives in the order of their use, i.e. place the spoon that is to be used first farthest to the right and the knife that is to be used first, farthest to the right of the group of knives. Since only forks are placed at the left of the plate, they should be laid in the order of their use, that first to be used being placed farthest to the left (see Figure 33).

All silver should be placed from one half to one inch from the edge of the table; the sharp edges of the blades of the knives should be turned towards the plates; the spoons and forks should be placed with their bowls and tines turned up. The butter spreaders may be laid across the bread- and-butter plates. Generally when soup and raw oysters are served, the oyster fork is laid across the soup spoon. If the silver that is to be used in serving a dish of food is placed on the table, it should be laid beside not in the dish of food.

TABLE ACCESSORIES.—A low bowl of flowers or fruit, tastefully arranged, makes a pleasing centerpiece. A centerpiece, however, should be a real source of pleasure; it should not obstruct the view of guests opposite (see Figure 33).

Place cards afford a graceful means of seating guests. When used, they should be placed on the napkin. Menu cards, sometimes used for occasional dinners, are also placed on the napkin.

STYLES OF SERVING

There are several styles of serving:

ENGLISH (ordinary family service).—The foods are served at the table, the host serving fish, meat, and vegetables; the hostess serving soup, salad, and dessert; and other members of the family serving fruit and the vegetables that are served in individual dishes. The served dishes may be passed to each guest by the maid, or when no maid serves, they may be passed from one person to another. This method is used for family and informal service, and also when serving is done without a maid.

RUSSIAN (serving from the side).—This may be observed in one of two ways:

(a) Foods are separated into portions on individual plates and placed before the guests.

(b) Foods are separated into portions on the serving dishes and passed to the left of each guest so that he may help himself, or the portions may be served by the maid. The necessary serving spoon or fork should be provided with the serving dishes. The Russian style of serving is the most formal and requires the service of at least one maid.

COMPROMISE.—Sometimes it is desirable to use one style of serving for one course and another style for another course, as the Russian style for the soup course, and the English style for the meat course. Or the foods of one course may be in such form that it is convenient to follow both styles of serving, as meat served in English style and "side dishes" served in Russian style. Such style of serving is termed the compromise.

METHODS OF SERVING WITH A MAID

ESTABLISHED RULES FOR SERVING.—While each hostess follows her own inclination in the details of serving, there are certain rules that are always observed:

Cold foods are served on cold dishes; hot foods on hot dishes.

Dishes offered to a guest are passed to the left of the guest; other dishes are placed to the right of a guest, except when a plate is placed at the same time a soiled or served plate is removed,—it is then placed at the left. Plates are removed from the right when possible.

When the Russian style of serving is observed, the following plan of removing and placing plates at the close of a course is followed:

The maid carries the clean or served plate of the following course in her right hand and goes to the left of the guest. She removes the soiled plate of the course just concluded with her left hand and then places the empty or served plate before the guest with her right hand. She then goes to the kitchen or pantry with the soiled plate, returns with a clean or served plate, and proceeds as before.

In following the English style in serving plates, the maid first places the dish to be served (the platter of meat, for example) in front of the host. Then an empty plate is placed before the host. The maid then gets another clean plate, returns to the left of the host, takes up the served plate in her left hand, and places the empty plate before him. She then places the served plate before one of the guests from the right side. Again she goes to the left of the host, places a plate before him, and proceeds as before.

At the end of a course, remove the dishes of each cover, then such dishes as the platters and tureens, and finally the crumbs. All dishes belonging to a particular course should be removed at the end of that course. Soiled dishes are always unsightly; hence care should be taken to remove them in the neatest way. Plates should not be piled on top of one another. When the dinner plate, the bread-and-butter plate, and the side dishes are to be removed, the smaller dishes (bread-and-butter plates and side dishes) should be removed on the serving tray. The larger plates may be removed one at a time, and an empty or service plate may be put in the place of each. If no empty or service plate is to be placed for the next course, two soiled plates may be removed at the same time, one in each hand.

USE OF THE BUFFET AND SERVING TABLE.—Many dining rooms have both a buffet and serving table. When such is the case the serving table is used for holding the dishes and foods that are used in serving the meal, such as dessert plates, creamer and sugar, plate of bread, etc.; the buffet is used for holding dishes that are used occasionally, such as the coffee service, chafing dish, etc.

Accidents at the table may be quickly remedied, if extra silver and a soft (i.e. unfolded) napkin are placed on the serving table before the meal is announced.

USE OF THE SERVING TRAY.—The serving tray should be used for carrying all silver. It should also be used for small dishes, such as preserves, olives, sauces, and for the creamer and sugar, and the cups and saucers. In passing large dishes, such as plates, platters, and tureens, use a folded napkin underneath the dishes instead of a tray.

REMOVING THE CRUMBS FROM THE TABLE.—For a table with a cloth, the crumb tray and scraper, or better, a plate and folded napkin are used to remove the crumbs. A brush is not desirable for "crumbing" the table. For a table without a cloth, the folded napkin and plate are used. The table may be crumbed before and after the salad course or before the dessert course.

USE OF FINGER BOWLS.—Finger bowls are used after the fruit course of breakfast, and at the end of a luncheon or dinner. They should be placed on plates, with a doily between the plate and finger bowl.

For breakfast, the finger bowls and plates may be brought in first. The finger bowl and doily should be removed to the left so that the same plates may be used for the fruit course.

For formal luncheon or dinner, finger bowls on doilies and plates are brought in, one at a time, when removing the main dish of the dessert. The finger bowls and doilies are then set aside and the plate used for bonbons and nuts, which are passed on a tray. Or, if desired, the finger bowls may be brought after the bonbons. In this case the finger bowl and plate are exchanged for the plate of the dessert course. An informal way is to pass finger bowls on plates and doilies before the dessert course. Then the finger bowl and doily are set aside as at breakfast and the dessert served on the same plate.

ORDER OF SEATING AND SERVING GUESTS.—The host and hostess usually sit opposite each other, i.e. at the head and foot of the table. If there is a waitress to do the serving, the head of the table should be farthest from the entrance of the dining room. If there is no maid, the hostess's chair should be nearest the kitchen door or pantry. A woman guest of honor sits at the right of the host; a gentleman guest, at the right of the hostess.

The order of serving guests varies in different homes and for different occasions. Sometimes the women at the table are served before the men. This is usually done, however, for home service or when only a few persons are at the table. At a large dinner table or a banquet, guests are usually served in the order in which they sit. In many homes, the guests are served first, while in others the hostess is always the first to be served. At a family meal, when no guests are present, the hostess should always be served first.

METHOD OF SERVING WITHOUT A MAID

When there is no maid, a woman has a threefold duty to perform when serving a meal. She must act as cook, as waitress, and as hostess. Much skill, ingenuity, and practice are required to do this successfully. The underlying principle of its accomplishment is forethought. A hostess must plan, even to the minutest detail, the performance of each duty.

PREPARATION BEFORE ANNOUNCING THE MEAL.—In planning the menu, a wise selection should be made. Simple foods should be selected and but few courses should be served. A young hostess should remember that a simple meal easily served is more enjoyable and more fitting than an elaborate dinner where the hostess must frequently leave the table. Foods should be selected that can be prepared before the meal is served, and that will not be harmed by standing. A souffle which must be served immediately when taken from the oven is not a wise choice for such a meal.

For almost all meals some of the dishes and foods must be left in the warming oven or in the refrigerator, but as many dishes and foods as possible should be taken to the dining room before the meal is announced. The suggestion has been made that dishes be kept warm by placing them in a pan of hot water on the serving table. This would mean, however, that a tea towel be at hand to dry the dishes before using. Special hot-water dishes for the purpose can now be obtained in city shops.

A serving table or a wheel tray (see Figure 34) is of great service to a woman acting as hostess and waitress. It should be placed near the hostess so that she can reach it without rising from her chair. In the absence of a wheel tray, a large serving tray is a great convenience in setting and clearing the table; it saves many steps.



SERVING AT THE TABLE.—The English style of serving should be followed. The hostess may thus have the aid of the host and the other members of the family in serving. Moreover, serving in this manner gives an air of hospitality.

As hostess, a woman must not leave her place at the table many times or for many minutes. If the details of the meal have not been well planned, she will have to make many trips to the kitchen. This is one of the indications that the presence of guests is a burden to the hostess. She should never leave or enter the dining room empty-handed, for a saving of energy is more sensible than faithful adherence to form. The soiled dishes, as they are removed from the table, may be placed upon the serving table. By the use of the latter, the dining table can be kept free from an overcrowded appearance and the hostess saved many steps. The lower shelf of the serving table is the most desirable place for the soiled dishes.

For a family meal, the table may be crumbed as follows: Let the hostess use the crumb tray while seated at her place, and then let her pass it on so that each member of the family may in turn remove the crumbs from his own cover. It is perfectly proper to omit crumbing when guests are present and where there is no maid.

The host and the other members of the family can do much to add to the pleasure of a meal by introducing an interesting topic of conversation that will occupy the attention of the guests during the absence of the hostess. If the hostess is sole entertainer, she would do well to start an absorbing subject of conversation just before leaving the dining room.

QUESTIONS

Why is it desirable to use doilies on plates containing crackers, bread, and cakes?

Why should baked potatoes, corn, and hot breads be served on a folded napkin?

Why should the coffeepot be placed at the right of the hostess's cover and the cups and saucers at the left of her cover?

In laying the table, why should the knives, spoons, and the forks that are to be used without knives be placed at the right of the plates? Why should the forks that are to be used with knives be placed at the left of the plates?

In serving, why should dishes which admit of choice be passed to the left of a guest? Why should dishes which do not admit of choice be placed at the right?

Why should this order of clearing the table at the end of a course be followed: first, the soiled dishes, then the food, then the clean dishes, and finally the crumbs?

Why should all dishes belonging to a particular course be removed at the end of the course?

Why is a brush not desirable for crumbing the table?

Why are finger bowls used after the fruit course of breakfast and at the end of luncheon or dinner?

Make a list of the linen, silver, glass, and china needed for the dining and serving tables, when serving the menu given below. Give method of serving each course, using the English style.

Cream of Tomato Soup—Soup Sticks Veal Cutlets Rice Rolls—Butter Cucumber Salad Wafers Snow Pudding, Custard Sauce Cakes—Coffee



LESSON XXXI

COOKING AND SERVING BREAKFAST

Cook and serve a breakfast.

If the lesson period is limited to 90 minutes, it is advisable to plan only a simple meal. The following menu is suggested:

Seasonable Fruit,—fresh or cooked French Toast with Sirup Milk

Determine the number of persons each recipe for the foods above will serve. It may be necessary to prepare only a portion of a given recipe or more food than the quantity stated in the recipe. The pupil should become accustomed to dividing or multiplying the quantities given in recipes.

Commence your work at such a time that the food will be in proper condition—hot or cold—at the time set for serving the breakfast.

Follow the English or family style of serving.

Serve the breakfast with or without a maid (see previous lesson).



LESSON XXXII

REVIEW: MEAL COOKING

MENU

Seasonable Fruit Sauce Breakfast Cereal Coffee

See Review, for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson.



LESSON XXXIII

HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 37: See Lesson IX]

SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.—If cooked cereals are desired for breakfast at your home, prepare breakfast cereals in the evening for the following morning.

Make a dessert for the evening meal at least three times a week.

SUGGESTED AIMS:

(1) To cook the cereal a sufficient length of time to produce a sweet flavor and make it tender, to evaporate the moisture sufficiently so that mastication will be necessary, to allow no scum to form on top.

(2) To select a variety of desserts so that a different one may be served each time.



DIVISION FIVE

ENERGY-GIVING OR FUEL FOODS,—RICH IN FATS AND OILS

LESSON XXXIV

FAT AS A FRYING MEDIUM

COMPARISON OF FATS AND CARBOHYDRATES.—Fat is a foodstuff. Fat and oil [Footnote 38: Fat and oil are very similar, oil being fat that is liquid at ordinary temperature.] form another great class of energy-giving or fuel foods. In the body, these foods, like carbohydrates, give energy; in fact weight for weight they furnish more than twice as much energy as carbohydrates. There is, for example, about as much fat by weight in one pound of butter as there are carbohydrates in one pound of tapioca. By measurement it has been found that one pound of butter gives to the body almost two and one fourth times as much energy as does one pound of tapioca.

Fats and oils are not only used as food (butter for example) and as constituents of foods (fat in pastry), but as a medium for cooking. The use of fat as a cooking medium follows:

EXPERIMENT 31: TEMPERATURE AT WHICH FATS AND OILS DECOMPOSE OR "BURN."— Into each of 6 test tubes put 2 teaspoonfuls of butter, cottonseed oil, corn oil, beef drippings, lard, and Crisco. Gently heat each one of the fats or oils until fumes first arise from them. Then insert a thermometer [Footnote 39: Care should be taken in using a thermometer in hot fat. It should be allowed to cool before washing.] in each tube and note the temperatures. These are the temperatures at which the various fats decompose. Record these temperatures in your notebook.

How do the decomposing temperatures of fat compare with that of boiling water? Which would be the hotter medium for cooking—hot fat or boiling water?

Which fat reaches the highest temperature before it begins to decompose? If fat is used as a medium of cooking, which of these fats, as far as temperature is concerned, would be the most desirable? Give a reason for your answer.

What is the price per pound or pint of each of these fats or oils?

Which of these are vegetable and which are animal fats or oils?

FATS FOR DEEP-FAT FRYING.—As shown by the above experiment, fat reaches a high temperature when heated. For this reason fat may be used as a cooking medium. The process of cooking food in deep fat is called frying. From the standpoint of temperature the best fat for frying is that which can be heated to a very high temperature without burning.

Other factors such as flavor and cost, however, have to be taken into consideration. Fat not only heats foods, but it imparts flavor since some of the fat in which a food is cooked, clings to the food. The costs of the various fats differ greatly. This must be regarded in selecting fats for cooking. Taking these factors into consideration, many prefer the cheaper vegetable fats for frying, while others find a mixture of beef drippings and lard satisfactory.

EXPERIMENT 32: BREAD FRIED IN "COOL" FAT (CLASS EXPERIMENT).—Put some suitable fat for frying in an iron pan and heat. Note carefully the change that takes place in fat as it heats. When the fat "foams" or bubbles, or reaches a temperature of about 300 degrees F., drop into it a piece of bread. After one minute remove the bread from the fat; examine the bread by breaking it apart to see if the fat has soaked into the bread. Is it desirable to have the fat soak into fried foods? What conclusion can you draw as to frying foods in "cool" fats?

EXPERIMENT 33: THE TEMPERATURE OF FAT FOR FRYING (CLASS EXPERIMENT).— Continue to heat the fat of Experiment 32. When fumes begin to rise from the fat, or the fat reaches a temperature of 365 degrees F., again drop a bit of bread into it. After one minute remove the bread and examine it as above. Has as much fat soaked into it as in the first bit of bread? What conclusion can you draw from this in regard to the proper temperature for frying foods?

Cooked foods and foods needing but little cooking require a higher temperature than batters or other uncooked foods. If a bit of bread is browned in 40 seconds, the fat is of proper temperature for cooked foods and for oysters. If bread is browned in 60 seconds, the fat is of proper temperature for uncooked foods.

GENERAL RULES FOR FRYING.—Since fat, when heated, reaches such a high temperature, the kettle in which it is heated should be of iron.

If there is any moisture on foods, it must be evaporated before the foods brown. Excessive moisture also cools the fat considerably, hence, foods that are to be fried should be as dry as possible.

Place the foods to be cooked in a bath of fat deep enough to float them. The kettle should not be too full, however, as fat is apt to bubble over especially when moist foods are placed in it.

Foods may be placed in a frying basket, or they may be lowered into the fat and taken from it with a wire spoon. All fried foods should be drained on paper.

When one quantity of food has been removed, the fat should be reheated and its temperature tested before adding the second quantity of food.

Fat used for frying should be cooled and clarified with potato as directed on the following page.

If a coal range is used for heating the fat, sand or ashes and a shovel should be near at hand in case the fat takes fire.

If hot fat must be carried or lifted, wrap a towel about the hand before grasping the handle of the kettle.

TO TRY OUT FAT.—The fat of meat consists of fat held by a network of connective tissue. To make meat fat suitable for frying it is necessary to separate the fat from the tissue. This is done as follows:

Remove the tough outside skin and lean parts from meat fat and cut it into small pieces. Put the fat into an iron kettle, and cover it with cold water. Place it uncovered on the stove and heat. When the water has nearly all evaporated, set the kettle back, or lessen the heat, or place in a "cool" oven, and let the fat slowly try out.

As the fat separates from the pieces of tissue, it is well to strain or drain it into a bowl. If this is done, the fat is less apt to scorch. The heating of the connective tissue should continue, until it is shriveled in appearance and no fat can be pressed out from it with a fork. The strained fat should be set aside to become firm and then stored in a cool place.

TO CLARIFY FAT.—Add a few slices of raw potato to fat and heat slowly until it ceases to bubble. Cool, strain through a cloth, and let stand until solid.

FRIED OYSTERS [Footnote 40: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.—If the price of oysters is too high, some seasonable small fresh fish such as pike may be used in place of oysters. These may be prepared for frying in the same manner as oysters. If desired, corn-meal may be substituted for dried bread crumbs.]

Large oysters Dried bread crumbs Salt and pepper Eggs 1 tablespoonful water or oyster juice for each egg

Remove pieces of shell from the oyster by running each oyster through the fingers. Wash the oysters, drain immediately, and dry them on a soft cloth or towel (see Cleaning Oysters). Season with salt and pepper. Beat the eggs slightly and dilute by adding one tablespoonful of water or strained oyster juice to each egg. Sprinkle salt and pepper over the dried bread crumbs. Dip the oysters into the prepared crumbs, then into the egg mixture, and finally into the crumbs. Fry one minute, drain, place on paper, and serve.

Lemons cut into eighths are desirable to serve with fried oysters. Parsley makes a pleasing garnish.

To Clean Utensils that have Contained Fat.—An alkaline substance such as washing soda is effective in cleaning utensils that have held fat. To show the action of washing soda on fats try the following:

EXPERIMENT 34: SAPONIFICATION OF FAT.—Into a test tube put 1/2 teaspoonful of washing soda and 1 teaspoonful water, then heat until the washing soda is entirely dissolved. Melt 1 teaspoonful of solid fat and add it to the soda solution. Boil the contents of the tube for a few minutes and then examine it. What substance does the foaming suggest? What has been formed by the union of fat and soda? What application can be drawn from this with regard to the use of soda in cleaning utensils that have contained fat?

Wipe out with soft paper the utensil that has held fat. Fill it full of water, add some washing soda, and heat. Empty the water and wash. Do not use washing soda in aluminum utensils (see Preparing Dishes for Washing).

QUESTIONS

What is taking place when hot fat emits an odor?

Name two advantages in dipping foods that are to be fried in egg.

Why are dried rather than soft bread crumbs used for covering foods that are to be fried?



LESSON XXXV

FAT AS A FRYING MEDIUM—FOOD FATS

FOOD FATS.—Fats and oils are extracted from various materials and refined so as to make them suitable for food. Food fats are of both animal and vegetable origin. Fats separated from milk (butter), meat fats (suet, lard) are animal fats while those separated from seeds (cottonseed and peanut), cereal (corn), fruit (olive), nuts (coconuts) are vegetable fats. A discussion of various food fats follows:

(a) Butter is made by churning ripened cream so as to separate the fat from the other ingredients contained in milk. It is salted and usually colored before putting it on the market.

The popularity of butter is dependent upon its flavor, for its fuel value is not greater than any other fat. Indeed butter does not contain as much fat as do the vegetable oils and fats, and certain other animal fats. Butter contains 85 per cent of fat while many vegetable oils and fats and lard contain 100 per cent of fat. Butter contains, however, certain growth-producing substances called vitamines (see Division Seven). All fats do not contain vitamines. The latter are found in butter, but are not present in vegetable oils and fats and in pork fat.

Butter is one of the most expensive foods of a household. Its use, therefore, must be carefully considered. Because of its pleasing flavor, for some purposes no fat is as desirable as butter. If, however, fat is to be combined with foods of pronounced flavor, i.e. foods whose flavor is strong enough to cover up other food flavors, other fats may be substituted with satisfactory results.

(b) Oleomargarin is a combination of several different fats. It is usually made by churning soft beef fat (called oleo oil) and neutral (i.e. carefully rendered) lard with milk or cream. Sometimes butter and cottonseed and peanut oils are added. Because colored oleomargarin is highly taxed, this fat is usually not colored in its preparation for the market.

The term oleomargarin is used not only as the trade name for fat of the composition stated above, but as the legal name of any food fat prepared as a butter substitute. To comply with the law, solid fats found at market and containing no oleo oil are labeled oleomargarin.

(c) Nut Margarin is also a mixture of various fats. It usually consists of coconut oil combined with cottonseed or peanut oil.

(d) Meat Fats.—The fat of pork is commonly "tried out" or "rendered" to free it from connective tissue. That obtained from trying out the fat from around the kidneys is called leaf lard; ordinary lard is obtained from the fats of other parts of the animal. The former is considered of superior quality.

Beef suet or the fat from around the kidneys and loin of beef is also tried out and used for cooking. All scraps of fat—cooked or uncooked—as well as any drippings from beef, veal, pork, and chicken, should be saved and used in cooking. The fat from mutton has a peculiar flavor and so cannot be used in food, unless cooked with certain flavoring materials (see Mutton). It may be saved for soap-making. Fat from soup and drippings need only be clarified before using for cooking; suet and other uncooked fat of meat must be first tried out.

(e) Vegetable Oils.—The oil from cottonseed, corn, and peanut is prepared for table use and sold under various trade names. Oil is also extracted from the olive. This is an extremely expensive oil. Its food value is no greater than that of other vegetable oils; only "olive flavor" is secured for the greater price. Refined cottonseed and corn oils are bland in flavor. Peanut has a characteristic flavor pleasing to most persons. When these vegetable oils become rancid, however, their flavor is disagreeable.

FAT COMBINATIONS.—Every thrifty housekeeper should have several kinds of fats in her larder, and should use all with discretion. Fats may be combined for certain purposes. Many times in making pastry or in sauteing and frying, it is desirable to use a firm and a soft fat together, such as butter and lard, suet and oil, or suet and chicken fat.

FISH BALLS

1 cupful salt codfish 4 small potatoes 1 egg 1/2 tablespoonful butter or substitute 1/8 teaspoonful pepper

Wash the fish in water and tear into small pieces; wash and pare the potatoes. Cook the fish and the whole potatoes together in gently boiling water, containing no salt, until the potatoes are soft. Drain and shake over the fire until dry; mash, add the beaten egg, fat, pepper, and salt (if needed), and beat until light. Take up the mixture by spoonfuls, mold slightly, and place in hot deep fat. Do not fry more than six balls at one time. Fry until brown, drain, garnish, and serve at once. White or Cheese Sauce may be served over Fish Balls.

The potatoes used in fish balls may be steamed. The codfish, however, must be soaked or cooked in water.

QUESTIONS

Why is it not necessary to soak codfish for Fish Balls in water before cooking?

Why is salt not added to the water in which codfish and potatoes are cooked?

If a food that is to be fried contains much water, what happens to the water when placed in the hot fat? Explain why it is better to leave the potatoes whole rather than cut them into pieces for cooking. Why is it especially necessary to dry the fish and potato mixture before frying?

What ingredient do Fish Balls contain that hardens immediately on being heated? Of what advantage is this ingredient in mixtures that are to be fried?

What is the price per package of codfish? What is the weight and measure of a package?



LESSON XXXVI

FAT AS A FRYING MEDIUM—DIGESTION OF FAT

EXPERIMENT 36: ACTION OF OIL AND WATER.—Pour a little corn or cottonseed oil into a test tube, add the same quantity of water, and shake the tube. Set the tube aside for a minute and examine. Which material rises to the top? Is oil soluble in water? What application can be made from this concerning the effectiveness of cleaning the fat of meats with water?

EXPERIMENT 36: EMULSION OF FAT.—In a test tube put a bit of soap and 2 tablespoonfuls of water. Heat until the soap is melted. Add 1/2 teaspoonful of vegetable oil. Shake the mixture and then examine. What familiar food does the mixture look like? Set the tube aside for a minute. Does the oil rise to the top as in Experiment 35? The fat is in an emulsified condition.

BREAKING UP OF FATS.—Fats and oils are not soluble in any substance found in the digestive juices, but they are acted upon by an enzyme [Footnote 41: Steapsin or lipase is the enzyme found in the pancreatic juice which acts upon fat.] and by an alkaline substance found in the pancreatic juice. The enzyme breaks up some of the fat into a fatty acid [Footnote 42: Fatty acids are substances related to fats; they have certain acid properties.] and glycerin.

During digestion, fat is emulsified, i.e. divided into tiny globules which do not coalesce.

When a fat is emulsified, it often looks like milk. (Milk contains fat in an emulsified form; the fat separates, however, by standing and rises to the top to form cream.) Fats can be emulsified by several different substances. A soap solution is one of the substances that will emulsify fats. (The action of soap solution in emulsifying fat was shown in Experiment 36.)

If fats are emulsified by means of soap, one might ask where the soap comes from in the process of digestion. The soap is thought to be formed by the action of the alkali of the pancreatic juice upon some of the fatty acids formed by the splitting up of the fat. By means of the soap thus formed, fat is emulsified during digestion. During digestion, fat is broken up into fatty acids and glycerin.

FRYING AND DIGESTION.—Fat is a slowly digesting foodstuff. Not only fats, but foods coated with fat are digested slowly. Because of the longer time in the digestive tract, foods may cause digestive disturbances.

When fats are heated to a high temperature, they are decomposed and irritating substances (free fatty acids) are formed. These substances are absorbed by foods which are browned in fats.

It is well, then, to have the least possible quantity of fat soak into foods cooked in fats. It has been found that foods soak up much more fat when sauted (i.e. browning in a small quantity of fat) than when fried. The greatest care should be taken in frying, however, to have the fat and the food to be fried in such condition that as little fat as possible will be absorbed. The fat should be sufficiently hot (see Experiments 32 and 33), the food as dry as possible, and the browned food drained on paper.

Care should be taken not only in frying foods, but in avoiding the use of an excessive amount of fat such as butter, cream, and vegetable oils in sauces, dressings, and pastry.

CROQUETTES.—Croquettes are cooked vegetable, cereal, meat, or fish mixtures dipped in dried crumbs and eggs and browned in deep fat. These food mixtures are shaped in various ways. Rice and potato croquettes are usually cylindrical in shape, while chicken croquettes are formed into cones.

Croquettes may be dipped in melted butter or substitute or they may be "dotted" with bits of fat and browned in the oven or broiling oven instead of frying in deep fat.

Starch occurs in considerable quantity in the vegetables and cereals commonly used for croquettes. Meat and fish are usually mixed with a thick White Sauce when used for croquettes, hence croquettes invariably contain a starchy substance. If croquette ingredients are heated while mixing, it is necessary to cool them thoroughly before shaping, in order that the starch may be as stiff as possible.

POTATO CROQUETTES

1 pint mashed potatoes Celery salt 2 tablespoonfuls butter Onion juice Cayenne 1 teaspoonful chopped parsley 1 teaspoonful salt 1 egg-yolk or 1/2 egg

Mix ingredients together, shape into smooth round balls and then into cylinders. Roll in dried bread crumbs, eggs, and crumbs again (see Fried Oysters). Fry in deep fat until brown.

QUESTIONS

How does the temperature of fat hot enough for frying compare with that of boiling water? Why is an iron kettle preferable to one of tin or granite for heating fat (see Caramelized Sugar)?

What happens to foods that are cooked in fat too cool for frying (see Experiment 32)?

What is the purpose of covering with egg, mixtures that are to be fried? How should the egg be prepared for "dipping"?

How can the remaining white or half an egg be utilized in preparing Potato Croquettes?

If "left over" mashed potatoes are used for making croquettes, what ingredient in the recipe above should be omitted?



LESSON XXXVII

FAT SAVING

BAKING VS. FRYING.—Foods fried under the most ideal conditions and in the most skilful manner absorb much fat. Many foods well fried, especially doughnuts, are about 1/3 fat.

Fish Balls and croquettes, as mentioned previously, can be baked instead of fried. Baked croquettes seem somewhat more dry, however, than the fried food. If this is objectionable a sauce may be poured over them before serving.

Tomato, cheese, and brown sauces are tasty with most croquettes.

Doubtless many housekeepers who dislike the odor of hot fat and the cleaning of utensils used in frying foods, will consider the process of baking croquettes very much more satisfactory than that of frying.

RICE CUTLETS WITH CHEESE SAUCE

3/4 cupful rice 3 cupfuls boiling water 1 teaspoonful salt

Wash the rice, add the water. (If unpolished rice is used, let it soak for several hours.) Then add the salt and heat the mixture until it boils. Proceed as directed on page 85, Rice (cooked over boiling water). (Unpolished rice requires about 2 hours of cooking.) Make a White Sauce of the following ingredients:

4 tablespoonfuls flour 1 teaspoonful salt Dash pepper 3 tablespoonfuls fat 1 cupful milk

To 2/3 of the White Sauce add:

Cooked rice 1 or 2 hard-cooked eggs, chopped 1 tablespoonful parsley, chopped

(Reserve the remainder of the White Sauce for the preparation of Cheese Sauce.) Shape the mixture into cutlets.

Dip in dried bread crumbs (or corn-meal) and egg as directed for Fried Oysters.

Place the cutlets on greased dripping pan. Place bits of fat on top of the cutlets, then bake in a hot oven until they are browned. Serve hot with the following sauce:

Remainder of the White Sauce 3/4 cupful milk 1/4 to 1/2 cupful cheese, cut in small pieces 1 pimento chopped

Dilute the White Sauce with the milk. Add the cheese and pimento. Heat and stir until the cheese is melted. If necessary, add seasoning. Serve hot over the cutlets.

FAT SAVING AND SOAP-MAKING.—The housekeeper who endeavors to waste no food may find that she has saved some fat which is not suitable for food. Such fat can be utilized in soap-making. By using "modern lye" soap-making is not the laborious task as was the preparation of soft soap in colonial days.

The fat for soap-making need not necessarily be decolorized. It should, however, be tried out (if it is meat fat) and clarified before using in the preparation of soap. (These processes are given above.)

Soap made at home differs somewhat from that made at a factory. When fat and lye are combined chemically, soap and glycerin are formed. A commercial soap-maker extracts the glycerin from soap, the housekeeper does not.

Homemade soap, however, usually proves very satisfactory. When the time consumed in making it is not needed for other duties or obligations, it is a saving to make soap at home.

SOAP

1 can Babbit's lye 1 quart cold water 6 pounds clarified fat 2 tablespoonfuls ammonia

Turn the lye into a granite kettle, slowly add the cold water, stirring with a stick or a wooden spoon. Work most carefully to avoid getting the lye or the lye solution on the hands. When the water is added to the lye, the mixture becomes very hot. Let it stand until it is cool.

Put the fat into a large kettle or dish pan. Heat it until it melts. Then remove it from the fire. Let it cool sufficiently to bear the hands in it. Slowly add the lye solution, stirring constantly. Add the ammonia and continue stirring until the mixture becomes about the consistency of thick cream. Then turn the soap into a wooden box lined with paper or into a granite dripping pan. When the soap becomes firm, cut into pieces of suitable size.

The materials above will make about 8 1/2 pounds of soap.

NOTE.—If desired one small cake of soap may be prepared by each pupil in the classroom. The following recipe may be used:

1 teaspoonful lye 4 teaspoonfuls cold water 2 tablespoonfuls fat 1/8 teaspoonful ammonia

Proceed as directed for the large quantity. Pour the mixture into one cup of a granite muffin pan or into a small pasteboard box.

QUESTIONS

How does unpolished rice differ from polished rice? Explain why the former takes a longer time to cook than the latter (see Polished and Unpolished Rice).

Explain why baked croquettes require a sauce to make them most tasty for serving, while fried croquettes do not.

State at least 3 advantages of baking croquettes rather than frying them. Under what conditions do you think it would be desirable to make soap at home?



RELATED WORK

LESSON XXXVIII

DINING ROOM COURTESY

THE VALUE OF GOOD TABLE MANNERS

No matter how cultivated in mind and spirit one may be, if there is an absence of refinement of manners, the higher qualities are likely to be overlooked. No one can afford to slight the study of good manners. The basis of all good manners is tact, i.e. a kindly consideration of others. This consideration may be shown at the dining table quite as well as at a social gathering. Graceful and easy table manners and a knowledge of how to serve and be served add to the comfort as well as to the pleasure of one's associates in the dining room.

Most of the rules of table conduct have been adopted because they lend ease and grace or because they are sensible; others have been established by custom and long usage.

SUGGESTIONS CONCERNING TABLE MANNERS

THE CHAIR.—If the chair is placed so that the front edge of the seat just touches the table-cloth, there is no necessity for moving the chair when taking one's seat or when rising. One should stand back of the chair until the hostess moves to seat herself and then move to the left of the chair to assume the seat assigned. One should also rise at the left of the chair.

THE KNIFE AND FORK.—There is but one "right" way to hold the knife or fork. When the knife and fork are used together, grasp the handle of the knife or fork with the first finger and the thumb so that the end of the handle touches the center of the palm of the hand. The hands should almost cover the handle, but the first finger should not extend down on the blade of the knife or on the prongs of the fork (see Figure 35). The knife is held in the right hand only, and is used for cutting foods and spreading butter on bread. For the latter, a small knife, called a butter spreader, is sometimes provided. After the knife has been used for cutting, it should be so laid on the plate, that it rests wholly on it, never partly on the plate and partly on the table. It is not pleasing to see a guest at the table holding his knife upright or waving it in the air while he is talking.



The fork is held sometimes in the left hand and sometimes in the right. It should be in the left, when holding foods that are being cut with the knife. It may be held in either hand when conveying food to the mouth. It used to be considered "good form" to use only the right hand in lifting food to the mouth, though this necessitated changing the fork to the right hand after the knife had been laid aside. The common-sense method of keeping the fork in the left hand to carry food to the mouth is now accepted (see Figure 36). When the fork is held in the right hand and used for conveying such food as mashed potato to the mouth, its handle should be grasped by the thumb and first finger in somewhat the manner as a pen is held.

When a second serving is desired, the knife and fork should be placed together on one side of the plate, in order to make room for the food. At the end of a course the knife and fork should be placed side by side in the center of the plate.



THE FORK AND SPOON—Since both the fork and the spoon are used to convey food, there may be some indecision as to the best use of each. The fork should be used whenever it is possible and sensible to do so. Soft foods, such as soft-cooked eggs, custards, certain fruits, and desserts served with cream or sauce, should be eaten with a spoon. The fork should be used for brick ice-cream or stiffly frozen desserts. All vegetables, salads, and pastry are eaten with a fork. In the case of salads and pastry, it is sometimes necessary to cut them with a fork. It is unconventional to cut lettuce with a knife at the table; it may be shredded or torn into pieces before it is served.

For beverages, the spoon is used for stirring and tasting, but not for sipping. After the spoon has been used it should be placed in the saucer (see Figure 37). When tasting with a spoon, the side—not the tip—of the spoon should be used. When using a spoon for serving, or for sipping soup, there is less danger of spilling the food if the spoon is moved away from, rather than toward, oneself (see Figure 38).



THE FINGERS.—Almost all foods are served with a fork, or a spoon. The serving-dish for all such foods should of course be provided with a fork or a spoon. There are a few foods, however, such as bread, cake, and wafers, which should be taken with the fingers. A slice of bread should not be cut in pieces at the table. It is better to break off a piece of bread and then butter it than to spread the entire slice at one time. If cake is soft, it should be eaten with a fork. Celery, hard cheese (if cut into pieces), radishes, confections, and most uncooked fruits are taken with the fingers, and eaten from them. Olives and salted nuts may be taken from the serving-dish with the fingers, but usually spoons are provided for the purpose. Pieces of chicken or chops should be handled only with the knife and fork. Special utensils are sometimes provided for holding corn served on the cob.



Fruits served whole are sometimes difficult to manage. When possible the hostess should prepare them before they are served. Oranges and grapefruit may be cut into halves or peeled and sliced; bananas may be peeled, scraped, and sliced. If fruits, such as apples, pears, and peaches, are served whole, they should first be cut into quarters, and each quarter should be pared separately and eaten. Peaches may be cut into halves and eaten with a spoon.

THE NAPKIN.—When the napkin is placed on the lap, it need not be spread entirely out, but may be left with one fold in it. A guest who is to be present at consecutive meals should fold his napkin after eating; if, however, he is dining in a hotel or restaurant, or if he is in a home for but one meal, the napkin should be laid on the table without folding.

QUIET EATING.—Quiet mastication without hurry and without noise is an obligation that we owe ourselves and our companions. It is well to refrain from talking during mastication. One cannot eat quietly unless the lips are kept closed while chewing.



LESSON XXXIX

COOKING AND SERVING BREAKFAST

Cook and serve a breakfast.

The following is a suggestive menu:

Breakfast Cereal with Dried Fruit Baked Fish Balls with White Sauce Toast—Butter Coffee

Follow the English or family style of serving. Serve the breakfast with or without a maid (see Lesson XXX).



LESSON XL

REVIEW: MEAL COOKING

MENU

Cooked Fruit,—fresh or dried Creamed Toast Coffee

See Review (Lesson XIV) for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson.



LESSON XLI

HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 43: See Lesson IX.]

SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.—Save all scraps of fat or bits of meat fats which are unfit for food. Try out the latter kind of fat. When you have 3 or more pounds of fat, make soap. When the soap is firm and ready for use, weigh it.

Prepare Fish Balls (either fried or baked), Rice Cutlets with Cheese Sauce, or some other fish or cheese dish which could be used as a substitute for meat.

SUGGESTED AIMS:

(1) To calculate the cost of the soap made at home. To calculate the cost of an equal weight of factory-made soap. To determine how much you have saved by making soap at your home.

(2) To determine the difference in cost between meat and meat-substitute sufficient to serve the family.



DIVISION SIX

ENERGY-GIVING AND BODY-BUILDING FOODS,—RICH IN PROTEIN

LESSON XLII

EGGS [Footnote 44: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.—If the egg lessons came in the mid-winter months, they may be omitted until the price of eggs is reasonable; or the "theory" concerning eggs and the experiment concerning the temperature of cooking protein-rich foods may be given, and the cooking of eggs take place later in the year.]

PROTEIN, A BODY-BUILDER AND REPAIRER.—An automobile requires not only fuels for its use but occasional repair. The body also needs not only fuel but building and repairing materials. The function of the fuel foods considered thus far is to give energy to the body. But there is another great class of foods, or foodstuffs—those included under the term protein—that not only give energy to the body but also build up or promote growth and repair it or support life. The process of building and repairing takes place in the body cells. Hence the body differs from an automobile in that it possesses the property of self-building and repairing.

The child must have protein food so that it can grow and live when growth is completed, the adult must have protein food so that it can live and maintain health. The slightest using of the body causes the wearing away of some of the tissues, hence the importance of food containing the foodstuff, protein.

Protein is a very broad term, including many different materials, having different properties. Some proteins will promote the growth of the body and support life, while others are growth promoting but not life supporting, while still others are only life supporting.

The first type of protein is sometimes called complete protein, while the two latter types are called incomplete protein. In food study and meal planning, it is not sufficient to know that a food contains protein; one should know whether the protein is complete or incomplete. The incomplete proteins need to be supplemented with other foods containing the lacking type of protein. Milk, eggs, cheese, meat, and fish contain complete proteins, while beans, peas, gelatine, and certain cereals contain incomplete proteins.

A consideration of eggs, a food rich in complete protein, follows:

EXPERIMENT 37: THE COAGULATION OF EGG WHITE.—Put the white of an egg in a dish and break the membranes by cutting with a pair of scissors. Then place a small quantity of the white of egg in a test tube. Apply heat. Into what form is the liquid egg white changed by heat?

When eggs are cooked, the protein in the white called albumin stiffens or coagulates. The yolk also contains a kind of protein which coagulates when heated.

EXPERIMENT 38: THE SOLUBILITY OF ALBUMIN.—Put a small portion of the broken egg white in a test tube. Half fill the tube with cold water. Then turn the contents of the tube on to a folded filter paper, and catch the filtrate in another test tube. Are the contents of the tube clear?

Apply heat to the filtrate. What happens? Does this prove that egg albumin was dissolved in the water before applying heat to the contents of the tube? Explain.

EXPERIMENT 39: TEMPERATURE AT WHICH EGGS COAGULATE.—Place a teaspoonful of white of egg in a test tube. Insert a thermometer in the test tube and place the test tube in a beaker of water (see Figure 39). Heat the water gradually. Note and record: (a) Temperature at which coagulation first appears. (b) Temperature at which the egg white is entirely coagulated. Has the water reached the boiling point when the egg white has entirely coagulated? What application can you draw from this as to the temperature of the water in which eggs may be cooked?

EXPERIMENT 40: COMPARISON OF COOKED AND BOILED EGGS.—Remove at once about half of the coagulated egg from the test tube of Experiment 39. Examine it and press it between the fingers.

Continue to heat the remainder of the egg in the test tube, allowing the water to boil a few minutes. Then remove the egg, examine it, and press it between the fingers. Compare it with the egg cooked below the boiling point of water. Which is more tender? Which breaks more easily? Which do you consider more palatable? What conclusion can you draw concerning the temperature at which eggs should be cooked to make them most tender and palatable?

DIGESTIBILITY AND PALATABILITY OF EGGS.—The experiments of this lesson show that eggs cooked at simmering temperature are more tender than those cooked at boiling temperature. The question may arise, is the tender egg more wholesome than the tough egg? It is true that eggs cooked below the boiling temperature will digest in a little less time than those cooked in boiling water. Since, however, the tougher egg is as completely digested as the more tender, the difference in the time of digestion is a matter of little importance.



But even though the difference in digestion is not considered, the difference in palatability is worth some attention. If soft-cooked and soft-boiled eggs are compared, the soft-cooked will be found to be much more uniformly cooked. The white of a soft-boiled egg may be firm, while its yolk is very soft or the white may be soft while its yolk is raw.

STRUCTURE OF EGGS.—A hen's egg consists of shell, membrane, white, yolk, and the little mass in the yolk called the embryo, from which the young chicken grows. The yolk is kept in place by two twisted cords of white membrane. This membrane is the first part to disappear when the egg begins to spoil.

CARE AND USE OF EGGS.—(a) Wash eggs just before using. [Footnote 45: Washing removes a coating on egg-shells. This coating prevents the entrance of microorganisms. Hence eggs should not be washed until they are to be used.] The shells may be used for clearing coffee.

(b) Keep eggs in a cool place.

(c) The unbroken yolk of an egg may be kept from hardening by covering with cold water.

(d) All protein-rich foods contain substances which spoil or decompose readily. The egg loses water by evaporation through the pores in the shell; air enters to take the place of this and since the air contains microorganisms, the egg spoils. Eggs may be kept fresh by keeping air out of them. They may be preserved by packing them, small end down, in bran, sawdust, or sand; by immersing them in water-glass.

(e) When using several eggs, if not sure of their freshness, break each separately into a saucer and examine before adding to the rest.

(f) When using a number of eggs, it is well to scrape out the bit of white clinging to the inside of the shell.

TESTS FOR FRESHNESS.—(a) A fresh egg has a rough shell. (b) Drop an egg into cold water. If it sinks, it is fresh; if it floats, it is stale.

SOFT-COOKED EGGS

Place eggs in enough boiling water to cover. Remove from the fire, cover, and allow to stand from 5 to 8 minutes.

The time of soft-cooking an egg varies with the different conditions. The time depends upon:

(a) Temperature of the eggs.

(b) Number of eggs cooked.

(c) Quantity of water used.

(d) Place on the stove.

One must determine by experience the length of time of cooking to produce the desired results.

By following the method above, eggs may be cooked at the dining table.

HARD-COOKED EGGS. [Footnote 46: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.—The Hard-cooked Eggs prepared in this lesson may be used in the preparation of Goldenrod Eggs of the following lesson.]—Place eggs in cold water and heat the water gradually until it reaches the boiling point. Remove from the fire at once; cover and place on the back of range, or in a warm place, for 20 minutes. Plunge into cold water, so that the shells may be removed easily.

Eggs may be hard-cooked by using the same method as for soft-cooked, allowing the eggs to remain in the hot water for 40 minutes or longer.

Eggs may also be hard-cooked in the double boiler. Put boiling water in the top and bottom of the double boiler. Place the eggs in the top part and cook 40 minutes.

If hard-cooked eggs are not well masticated, they are apt to cause distress during digestion. To insure thorough mastication, it is well to chop them fine and mix them with some other food (see Goldenrod Eggs). Hard-cooked eggs used in this way cause no digestive disturbances to the normal person.

QUESTIONS

Is it possible to cook eggs hard in water that is below the boiling point? Explain your answer.

Why should eggs be called hard- or soft-cooked rather than hard- or soft-boiled?



LESSON XLIII

EGGS: DIGESTION OF PROTEIN

THE DIGESTION OF PROTEIN.—It was mentioned previously that proteins are made up of many different substances. The materials composing proteins are called amino acids. There are 18 common amino acids. All proteins are not made up of the same amino acids. Amino acids in the various proteins differ not only in kind, but in quantity.

When proteins are digested, they undergo certain changes and are finally separated into their amino acids. As amino acids proteins are finally absorbed and carried to all parts of the body.

The digestion of protein begins in the stomach and continues in the intestines. The digestive juices [Footnote 47: The pepsin and hydrochloric acid of the stomach, the trypsin of the pancreatic juice, and the erepsin of the intestinal juice digest proteins.] of these organs change protein into soluble forms.

POACHED EGG

Fill a shallow pan about two thirds full of boiling water. Add 1/2 teaspoonful of salt to each pint of water; place buttered muffin rings in the pan. Break separately each egg into a saucer and carefully slip it into a buttered muffin ring. Cover the pan and place it where the water will keep hot but not boil. Pour a spoonful of the hot water on each yolk occasionally.

Let stand (about 5 minutes) until the white is coagulated and a film covers the yolk. Take up with a skimmer, drain, place on slices of toast, and serve at once.

An egg poacher may be used in place of the muffin rings, or the water in the pan may be stirred in a circular motion and the eggs dropped at once into the "whirlpool." This tends to keep the white of egg from separating into pieces.

Eggs are thought by some to be much more tasty when poached in milk rather than in water.

GOLDENROD EGGS

3 or 4 hard-cooked eggs 2 tablespoonfuls flour 1/8 teaspoonful pepper 3/4 teaspoonful salt 1 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute 1 1/2 cupfuls milk 6 pieces of toast Parsley

Separate the yolk and white of the cooked eggs and chop the whites. Make a White Sauce of flour, seasoning, fat, and milk. Add the chopped egg whites to the sauce and pour it over the toast. Press the yolks through a strainer or crush them with a fork and sprinkle them over the top of the toast. Garnish with parsley and serve at once.

If the crusts are not cut from bread in making toast, it is well to dip the edges of each slice of toast for an instant in hot, salted water before adding the sauce (see Cream Toast).

QUESTIONS

Why is it advisable to pour occasionally a spoonful of hot water over the yolks of eggs that are being poached?

Explain why the chopped hard-cooked eggs in Goldenrod Eggs should be more easily digested than plain hard-cooked eggs (see Experiment 12, and Solution and Digestion).



LESSON XLIV

EGGS: OMELETS (A)

TO BREAK AND SEPARATE THE WHITE AND YOLK.—An egg is sometimes broken by cracking the shell with the blade of a knife or by striking the egg on the edge of a bowl or pan. The following method has also been found satisfactory, especially when it is desired to separate the white and yolk.

Strike the egg one blow upon the surface of the table. Put the thumbs together at the crack in the shell, then hold the egg upright, and gently break the shell into two parts. Then slip the yolk several times from one part of the shell to the other until all the white has run over the edge into a bowl or plate. Scrape out the shell of the egg.

Two kinds of egg beaters are used for eggs,—the Dover egg beater and the wire spoon. If the former utensil is used, the egg is generally dropped into a bowl; if the latter, the egg is placed on a plate.

TO BEAT AN EGG.—When the wire spoon is used to beat an egg, draw the spoon straight and swiftly through the egg, tilting the dish and lifting the egg beater so that the material will be turned over at each stroke. Egg whites are beaten stiff when the impression made by the beater is retained; and they are beaten dry, when the gloss has disappeared and flaky bits fly off as the egg is beaten. Egg yolks are beaten thoroughly when they are thicker and much lighter in color than before beating.

TO CUT AND FOLD BEATEN EGG WHITES AND OTHER MATERIALS.—Pour the beaten egg whites into the material with which they are to be mixed; then with a tablespoon edgewise, cut the ingredients, lift them, and turn them over the whites. Repeat quickly until the ingredients are mixed thoroughly.

EXPERIMENT 41: EFFECT OF BEATING A WHOLE EGG.—Break an egg into a bowl. What is its approximate measure? With a Dover egg beater or wire spoon beat it thoroughly. What is the approximate increase in quantity? What has been beaten into the egg? What other difference is there between a beaten and an unbeaten egg?

(Use this egg for making Scrambled Eggs. See below.)

EXPERIMENT 42: COMPARISON OF EGGS BEATEN WITH A DOVER EGG BEATER AND WITH A WIRE SPOON.—Half the pupils of the class beat eggs with Dover egg beaters and the other half with wire spoons. Compare results. What is the difference in the size of the air cells made by using the different utensils? Is there any difference in the quantity of the beaten eggs? Which contains the more air?

EXPERIMENT 43: EFFECT OF BEATING EGG YOLK AND WHITE SEPARATELY.—Separate an egg and beat thoroughly the white and then the yolk with a Dover egg beater or wire spoon. What is the approximate increase in quantity? Which becomes lighter when beaten,—a whole or a separated egg? From this explain why every bit of yolk should be removed from the egg white before beating, if it is desired to beat the egg white as stiff as possible.

(Use this egg for making Foamy Omelet. See below.)

SCRAMBLED EGGS

4 eggs 1 teaspoonful salt Pepper 1/2 cupful milk 1 teaspoonful butter

Scald the milk in a double boiler and add the butter. Beat the eggs and add the seasoning. Pour the hot milk over the egg mixture; return the whole to the double boiler, and cook, stirring constantly. When the mixture is thick and "lumpy" but still tender, remove from the double boiler and serve at once.

For economy, the butter may be omitted.

FOAMY OMELET

4 eggs 4 tablespoonfuls milk or water 1/2 teaspoonful salt Pepper 2 teaspoonfuls butter or substitute

Separate the yolks and whites of the eggs. Beat the yolks of the eggs until creamy; add seasonings and milk or water. Then beat the whites until stiff and cut and fold them into the yolk mixture. Place the fat in an omelet pan, heat, and turn the omelet into it. Cook slowly, occasionally turning the pan so that the omelet may brown evenly When the omelet is set and delicately browned underneath, place it in a hot oven for a few minutes to dry the top. Fold and serve immediately.



TO FOLD AN OMELET—Run a spatula underneath the omelet to loosen it. Make a slight incision with a knife through the middle of the omelet at right angles to the handle of the pan, and fold the omelet over upon itself away from the handle of the pan. Grasp the handle of the pan in the right hand, placing the back of the hand underneath with the thumb pointing away from you. Then turn the omelet upon a platter (see Figure 40).

QUESTIONS

How are Scrambled Eggs usually cooked? From your work concerning the effect of intense heat upon eggs, explain the advantages of the method given above for Scrambled Eggs.

What is the proportion of liquid and salt for each egg of a Foamy Omelet?

Explain why it is especially important to cook a Foamy Omelet slowly.

What causes a Foamy Omelet to "fall"?

What is the test for the sufficient oven-drying of a Foamy Omelet?

How many persons may be served by using these recipes for Scrambled Eggs and Foamy Omelet?



LESSON XLV

EGGS: OMELETS (B)

WHITE SAUCE OMELET

3 tablespoonfuls flour 2 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute 1 teaspoonful salt 1 cupful milk Pepper 4 eggs 2 teaspoonfuls butter or substitute

Make a White Sauce of the milk, fat, flour, and seasoning. Separate the whites and yolks of the eggs, and beat them until light. When the White Sauce is cool, stir in the yolks and fold in the whites. Cook and serve as Foamy Omelet.

BAKED OMELET

Prepare a White Sauce Omelet. Instead of turning it into a frying pan, pour it into an oiled baking-dish. Bake in a hot oven (375 degrees F.) for 30 to 40 minutes, or until it is "puffed" in appearance and golden brown in color. Serve at once from the dish in which it was baked.

MODIFICATION OF FOAMY AND WHITE SAUCE OMELETS.—Mix and cook a Foamy or White Sauce Omelet. As soon as the omelet begins to set, spread it while cooking with finely chopped cooked ham, veal, or chicken. Continue to cook and then dry, fold, and serve as with the usual omelet.

Cooked peas, asparagus, cauliflower, or flaked fish may be added to the sauce of White Sauce Omelet. Cheese may be used in place of meat with either omelet.

Foamy Omelet may be varied by using tomato juice instead of milk. Tomato sauce may be served with either of these omelets.

Sweet Omelet may be made as follows: Add 4 tablespoonfuls of powdered sugar to the Foamy Omelet mixture; after cooking, spread with softened jelly; after folding, sprinkle with powdered sugar. Use 1/2 cupful of jelly for the Foamy Omelet recipe.

QUESTIONS

Why is the White Sauce cooled before adding the egg yolks in White Sauce Omelet?

Point out the most important differences between a Foamy and a White Sauce Omelet.

What is the purpose of cutting and folding in the whites of eggs in omelets?

What is the purpose of beating eggs?

What are the tests that show when egg white is beaten stiff and when dry?

What are the tests for thoroughly beaten egg yolk?



LESSON XLVI

MILK

MILK, AN INVALUABLE FOOD.—It has been said that there is no one food except milk which cannot be eliminated from the diet. Milk is the only food for which there are no easily found substitutes. The housekeeper or one who plans the food for the family should purchase daily, if possible, a pint of milk for each adult and a quart for each child under ten years. She should see to it that this amount of milk is entirely used either as a beverage or in cooked foods. If one must economize in foods, less should be spent for meat, and more for milk.

Although more than 4/5 of milk is water, it contains only a little more water than do potatoes and lean meat. The value of milk is due to the fact that it contains: (a) Proteins of "excellent quality." An authority on diet says [Footnote 48: See "The Newer Knowledge of Nutrition," by McCollum, p. 74.]: "There can be no doubt that the proteins of milk are far superior to those of any foods derived from vegetable sources." The most important protein existing in milk is called casein.

Casein is a complete protein and is very important for growth. It has a peculiar property; it precipitates when acid is added to milk. When milk sours, the sugar contained in the milk changes to an acid, and this acid causes the casein to precipitate. Casein is also clotted by an enzyme occurring in the digestive juice of the stomach.

(b) Valuable ash. Lime which is so essential to bodybuilding is one of the minerals in milk. The following diagram from United States Food Leaflet No. 11 shows that milk is especially rich in lime. (Lime is calcium oxide.)



(c) Vitamines. These are substances contained only in certain foods. They are essential for maintaining life and health. Milk is rich in these indispensable materials (see Division Seven).

Milk also contains fat and carbohydrate. The presence of the foodstuffs in milk is shown by the following:

EXPERIMENT 44: SEPARATION OF MILK INTO FOODSTUFFS.

(a) By means of a cream dipper, remove the cream from a bottle of milk. Place a drop of the cream on a piece of paper. Let the paper dry. What foodstuff is indicated by the stain on the paper?

(b) Take 1/4 cupful of the skimmed milk. Heat it to blood temperature (test by dropping the milk on the wrist, see Junket Custard). Crush 1/8 junket tablet and add it to the warm milk. Stir until the powder is dissolved. Let the milk stand in a warm place until it is clotted. Heat the clotted milk and boil 1 minute. Pour it into a filter paper. Catch the filtrate in a beaker. What is the foodstuff that remains in the filter paper (see Proteins of "excellent quality")?

(c) Put 15 cubic centimeters of Fehling's Solution [Footnote 49: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.—Fehling's Solution is made as follows: Prepare a solution of Rochelle salts,—175 grams of Rochelle salts, 50 grams of sodium hydroxide, and 250 cubic centimeters of water. Prepare a solution of copper sulphate,—57.73 grams of copper sulphate, 250 cubic centimeters of water, and 0.4 cubic centimeter of sulphuric acid. Then combine 1 part of the alkaline Rochelle salt solution, 1 part of copper sulphate, and 4 parts of water. Boil the mixture.

This solution deteriorates readily. The best results are obtained by using a "fresh" mixture for testing sugar and by boiling just before using.] in a flask. Boil for 2 minutes. Add 2 cubic centimeters of the filtrate from (b) and boil one minute. To what color does the blue mixture change? A red precipitate indicates sugar. What foodstuff does this test indicate that milk contains?

(d) Put the remainder of the filtrate from (b) in a custard cup and evaporate over hot water to dryness. Note the residue. What foodstuff other than sugar is contained in the residue?

(e) What foodstuff has passed off in the form of vapor during evaporation?

(f) As mentioned above, milk also contains vitamines.



LESSON XLVII

MILK WITH COCOA AND CHOCOLATE

EXPERIMENT 46: SCALDING MILK.—Fill the lower part of a double boiler one third full of boiling water. Put 1/2 cupful of milk in the top of the double boiler, cover, and heat over the boiling water. In a few minutes examine. Carefully note the appearance of the surface of the milk. Explain why it is that dishes that have contained milk should be soaked in cold water, and then washed in warm water.

Insert a thermometer in the milk and record temperature. Is it possible to boil milk over hot water? Explain your answer. (Use this scalded milk to make cocoa and chocolate.)

The taste of milk is changed by heating it above 158 degrees F. Less change, however, is produced by scalding than by boiling. Milk is also apt to scorch if cooked at boiling temperature. It is sometimes necessary to boil milk to sterilize it.

COCOA AND CHOCOLATE as found at market are prepared from cacao beans. The latter grow in pods,—the fruit of the tropical cacao trees (see Figure 41). The beans are taken from the pods, allowed to ferment, dried, and roasted. The husks loosened by roasting are then removed from the beans.

Cacao beans are ground, molded, and sold as bitter or baker's chocolate. In the preparation of sweet chocolate sugar is added to the powdered chocolate before molding. Cocoa differs from chocolate in that some of the fat is removed.

Cocoa and chocolate contain protein, fat, and carbohydrates. These materials, in addition to the milk and sugar used in preparing the beverages, make the cocoa and chocolate beverages high in food value. But in addition to the materials mentioned above, there is present in cocoa and chocolate some tannin and stimulating materials. The large percentage of fat existing in chocolate may produce distressing effects when taken in addition to a full meal. If, however, the use of these beverages causes no ill effects, they may be classed among the nutritious foods and are much preferable to tea and coffee especially for girls and boys.

Neither cocoa nor chocolate is soluble in water. Some cocoas are very finely ground and are termed soluble cocoas.



When mixed with water these cocoas do not separate as rapidly as others, but they are not soluble. Because of its insolubility, chocolate should be blended as thoroughly as possible with other materials. A satisfactory and practical method of accomplishing this is to make a smooth paste of chocolate and boiling water.

To develop flavor, it is well to cook both chocolate and cocoa at boiling temperature, especially when combining with liquids. The flavor of the cocoa beverage is improved by much cooking. Long cooking of the chocolate beverage causes the fat to separate and float.

COCOA

1/4 cupful cocoa 3 cupfuls milk 1 to 3 teaspoonfuls corn-starch 1/4 to 3/8 cupful sugar 1 cupful water 1/4 teaspoonful salt

Mix cocoa, corn-starch, and water and boil for 10 minutes. Add the milk and sugar to the mixture and cook over hot water for 1/2 hour. Add salt. Beat well and serve. Vanilla may be added to cocoa if desired.

Varying quantities of corn-starch and sugar are given so that the beverage may be thickened and sweetened to suit one's taste. If desired, the corn- starch may be omitted entirely.

CHOCOLATE

2 squares chocolate 3 cupfuls milk 1 cupful boiling water 1/4 teaspoonful salt 1/3 cupful sugar 1/2 teaspoonful vanilla

Cut the chocolate into bits and put it in a pan; add the boiling water. Stir and cook until it reaches the boiling point and is perfectly smooth. Heat the milk in a double boiler. Then gradually add the hot milk to the chocolate mixture, add the sugar, and heat all in a double boiler. Add salt and vanilla, if desired. If there is a scum over the beverage, beat well. Serve hot.

Whipped cream or marshmallows are often served with chocolate. The use of whipped cream with chocolate, however, makes the beverage excessively rich in fat.

QUESTIONS

What is the difference in method between scalding milk and boiling it? How can one determine when milk is scalded?

If it is necessary to heat milk, give two reasons why it is usually better to scald it than to boil it. Under what conditions should it be boiled?

What is the present cost of milk per quart? When is the price highest and when lowest?

If sweetened chocolate is used, how should the recipe for chocolate beverage be changed? Give two reasons why cocoa and chocolate should not be boiled after adding the hot milk.

Why is vanilla not added until the beverages are ready to be served (see Flavoring Extracts)?

What is the weight of one square of chocolate? How many squares in an ordinary cake of chocolate? What is the price per cake?

How many cupfuls are there in a half pound box of cocoa? What is the price per box?

See Chocolate Corn-starch Pudding. How much cocoa may be used for 1 ounce of chocolate when one is substituted for the other? What is the difference in cost of these quantities of chocolate and cocoa?



LESSON XLVIII

MILK AND CREAM

WHIPPING CREAM.—A popular way of preparing cream for serving is to whip it. This is done most successfully when the cream is cold and kept cold, i.e. surrounded with ice water during the beating process.

To show one of the points involved in chilling materials try the following:

EXPERIMENT 46: COMPARISON OF THE CONDUCTING POWER OF METAL AND EARTHENWARE.—Select a tin and an earthenware utensil of about the same size and shape. Put an equal quantity of water of the same temperature in each utensil. Surround each with ice water and cover. After 5 minutes, take the temperature of the water in the tin and in the earthenware utensil. Which is colder? Through which material,—tin or earthenware,—is heat transmitted more readily? When cream is to be surrounded by ice water for whipping, in which kind of utensil should it be placed? Explain your answer.

Use a Dover egg beater or a cream whip for whipping cream. Since cream "spatters" when being beaten, a cream whip arranged with a cover is very satisfactory. To prevent spattering, the bowl of cream may be covered with paper while the cream is being whipped. Cut a slit in a piece of paper, insert the Dover egg beater in the slit, put the beater in the cream and push the paper down to cover.