Break the egg in a mixing bowl. Beat it, then add the sugar. If solid fat is used, melt it. Add the fat or oil to the sugar and egg mixture. Add the sour milk and rolled oats.

Sift the flour, then measure it. Turn it into a sifter, add the salt, baking soda, and baking powder. Sift these dry ingredients into the first mixture. Wash the raisins, dry them on a towel, then sprinkle a little flour over them and add to the other ingredients. Mix well and drop the mixture by the teaspoonfuls on an oiled baking sheet. Bake in a moderate oven (375 degrees F.) until golden brown in color.

These cookies may be served with coffee.

QUESTIONS

How long should coffee boil? Why not boil it longer?

When the coffee is poured from the coffeepot, examine the grounds and then explain the use of the egg white and egg-shell in preparing coffee.

Why is a cupful of coffee poured out and returned to the coffeepot after the coffee is boiled?

Why should cold water be added to coffee after boiling?

In what form,—ground or whole,—should coffee be purchased? Why?

In what kind of jars should tea and coffee be kept? Explain.

How many cupfuls in one pound of coffee? Estimate the number of heaping tablespoonfuls in one pound of coffee.

What is the average price per pound of coffee?



RELATED WORK

LESSON IX

HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 16: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.—One of the most insistent ideas of modern educators is that the pupil be taught not merely to get him ready to live, footnote: but that he be taught to live. It is thought that the processes of present growth will serve as the best training for future needs. If the school girl is living in her home, she is in immediate need of such training as will help her contribute her share to the workings of her home. To a certain degree, success in school activities can be measured by the way they function in the home.

Perhaps there is no more effective way of making the school work function in the home than by the educative process called the project. Stevenson defines a project as a problematic act carried to completion in its natural setting, while Kilpatrick says a project is a whole- hearted purposeful activity proceeding in a social environment.

In order to aid the pupils in their home work, it is necessary to know the needs of the home. If possible, interest and cooperation of the pupils' mothers in this matter should be secured. It is hoped that the afternoon tea suggested in the following lesson may afford means for the teacher to become acquainted with the mother to find out something of the needs of the home and to secure the mother's cooperation for her daughter's work in the home.

In order to assign definite projects to the pupils, it will be necessary to confer with the girl. By discussing plans for home work you can doubtless discover what type of work interests her and what she can contribute with profit to her home. You can thus assign a project which will be performed in a "hearty" manner.

Definite plans should be made for carrying out the work in the home. For successful results it is most necessary that the pupil understand that a project is an act which involves mental effort, and that the activity must be carried to completion. The fact that the project is to be performed in the home carries out one of the premises of the project, viz., that the act be performed in its natural setting or in a social environment. Reports concerning the progress and results of work should be submitted by the pupil. Home visitation on the part of the teacher is most desirable and in most cases necessary for satisfactory results.

The following articles regarding Projects are most illuminating:

Teachers College Record, Volume XIX, Number 4 (Sept. 1918), "The Project Method" by William H. Kilpatrick; The Journal of Home Economics, Volume X, Number 3 (Mar. 1918), "The Project in Home Economics Teaching" by W. W. Charters; School Science and Mathematics, Volume XIX (Jan. 1919), "The Project in Science Teaching" by John Alford Stevenson.]

WORTHY HOME MEMBERSHIP.—Each member of a home has certain obligations to fulfill. The course in foods which you are following in school offers an unusual opportunity for you to contribute your share in performing home duties. In a most definite way, it may help you to qualify for "worthy home membership."

APPLYING SCHOOL ACTIVITIES TO HOME WORK.—There is no more effective way of gaining skill in cooking and housekeeping than by applying the methods learned at school in your home. It is not enough for you to make cookies or cook potatoes once in the school kitchen. If you would become an expert in these processes, repeat them many times in your home. Your efforts will be more than repaid by your own growth and by the satisfaction your achievements will bring to the entire household.

Discuss your school work in food study with your mother. You will doubtless find many things of mutual interest and your mother will be glad to have your cooperation in housekeeping.

Household duties assigned by the teacher and performed in the home with a determination to accomplish a definite aim, we will term "Home Projects." To secure successful results, your home work must be done thoughtfully, and earnestly, and in a whole-hearted way. We shall suppose, for example, that your teacher assigns you the home project of setting the table of the evening meal for one week. She also instructs you to keep in mind the following aims:

(1) To make as few trips as possible from the cupboard to the dining table.

(2) To plan the entire number of dishes, knives, forks, spoons, and other things needed during the meal, and then place these on the dining table or other suitable place where they may be conveniently obtained when the meal is being served.

In order to accomplish these things, you must work with a determination to succeed at what you are doing and to keep your mind steadfastly on the work at hand. With such an attitude toward your work you will doubtless have accomplished several things by the end of a week. You will have set the table in an orderly manner, and thus have given real assistance and satisfaction to the members of your family; you will have become more skilful in spreading the table, and you will have made it possible to spend less time in setting the table in the future. You could not have accomplished all this if you had not earnestly thought as you worked.

You will find it interesting and beneficial to make each assignment of home work as complete as possible. If, for example, you are to make cakes, it will be most desirable if you not only mix and bake cakes, but, if possible, select and purchase the materials for them and compute their cost.

Suggestions for Home Projects:

Make the beverages for one or more meals each day. Wash the dishes of the evening meal. Prepare a scalloped dish or any of the foods given in Lessons I to V once a week.

Suggested Aims:

(1) To prepare tea or coffee so as to draw out as little tannin as possible.

(2) To wash dishes well but to make as few movements as possible. To note the time required to do the dishes each day and by means of efficiency methods strive to lessen the time.

(3) To utilize left-over pieces or crumbs of bread in preparing scalloped dishes. To prepare seasonable fruits and vegetables so well that the members of your home will find them most palatable.



LESSON X

AFTERNOON TEA

PLANNING THE TEA.—To entertain friends is a pleasure. Meeting friends or having them become acquainted with a pleasure. This lesson is arranged that you may entertain your mother at afternoon tea and that she may visit with your teacher and classmates.

In planning for any special occasion, it is necessary to decide upon the day and hour for the party. If the occasion is at all formal, or if a number of persons are to be present, it is also necessary to plan how to entertain your guests,—what you will have them do to have a pleasant time. If it is desired to serve refreshments, you must decide what to serve, how much to prepare, and when to prepare the foods. The method of serving them must also be considered.

The Refreshments for an afternoon tea should be dainty and served in small portions. Tea served with thin slices of lemon or cream and sugar and accompanied by wafers, sandwiches, or small cakes is the usual menu. Sweets or candies are often served with these foods.

The following menu may be prepared for your first tea: Tea with Lemon (or Cream) and Sugar Toasted Wafers with Cheese or Oatmeal Cookies Coconut Sweetmeats

From previous work, estimate the quantity of tea, lemons (or cream), sugar, wafers, or cakes you will need. A recipe for Coconut Sweetmeats follows. It makes 20 sweetmeats about one inch in diameter.

COCONUT SWEETMEATS

1/4 cupful powdered sugar l 1/4 cupfuls shredded coconut 2 tablespoonfuls flour 1/8 teaspoonful salt 1 teaspoonful vanilla 1 egg white

Mix the dry ingredients, then add the vanilla. Beat the egg white stiff. Add the other ingredients and mix thoroughly.

Grease a baking sheet and dredge it with flour. Drop the coconut mixture by the teaspoonfuls on the baking sheet. Bake in a moderate oven (375 degrees F.) for 20 minutes or until slightly browned. Remove from the pan, place on a cake cooler. When cold store in a tin box.

SERVING THE TEA.—For an afternoon tea, the beverage may be poured in the kitchen and carried into the dining room or the other room where the guests are assembled, or it may be poured in the dining room in the presence of the guests.

When the latter plan is followed, the teapot, cups, plates, spoons, and napkins are placed on the dining table. Seated at the table, one of the pupils [Footnote 17: If afternoon tea is served in a home to a number of guests, an intimate friend of the hostess or a member of the household usually pours tea. In this way the hostess is free to greet every guest and to see that every one is having an enjoyable time.] pours the tea, and places a filled cup and a teaspoon on a plate. The tea (with a napkin) is then passed to the guests; the lemon or cream and sugar, wafers or cakes and sweets are also passed. The slices of lemon should be placed on a small plate or other suitable dish and served with a lemon fork. Wafers, sandwiches, or small cakes should be placed on plates or in dainty baskets. No article of silver is provided in serving them; the guests take them from the plates with their fingers.

Those who are serving the tea should be watchful and note when the guests have drunk their tea and relieve them of cup and plate. They should also replenish the teapot, and see that the one pouring the tea has all the materials and dishes needed.



DIVISION THREE

BODY-BUILDING AND BODY-REGULATING FOODS, RICH IN ASH (MINERAL MATTER)

LESSON XI

FRESH VEGETABLES (A)

ASH.—In a previous lesson, it was mentioned that most foods do not consist of one material, but of several substances. Ash or mineral matter is a common constituent of food. It is a foodstuff. The term "ash" does not apply to one substance; it is used to indicate a group of substances. Milk, eggs, vegetables, both fresh and dried fruits, and cereals are valuable sources of ash. They do not all, however, contain the same kind of ash.

The presence of ash in food is not apparent until the food is burned. The substance that remains after burning, i.e. the "ashes," is mineral matter or ash.

Although ash exists in combination with other substances in most foods, a few materials consist almost entirely of ash. Common salt is a mineral substance; another example is the white scaly substance which sometimes forms on the inside of a teakettle or on any pan in which water has been heated. Soda is still another familiar mineral substance. The condiment salt—ordinary table salt—(see Condiments) must not be confused with the term "salts"; the latter applies to many mineral substances besides common salt.

USE OF ASH IN THE BODY.—Ash as well as water does not burn in the body. It is therefore considered an incombustible foodstuff. Bones, teeth, and many other parts of the body contain certain mineral materials. Ash helps to build the body.

Ash exists in the fluids of the body. For example, there is salt in perspiration and in all excretions of the body. The digestive juices also contain mineral materials, and ash aids in the digestive processes of the body. Scientists have shown that ash participates in many ways in the regulation of body processes.

Thus ash has two main uses in the body: (a) it aids in building the body; and (b) it aids in regulating body processes. Ash, therefore, is an absolute necessity in diet.

FRESH VEGETABLES.—It was mentioned above that fresh vegetables are one of the most valuable food sources of ash. The leaves, stems, pods, and roots of certain plants, and also those fruits which are used as vegetables, may be classed as fresh vegetables. Some of these are: cabbage, brussels sprouts, lettuce, water cress, spinach, celery, onions, tomatoes, cucumbers, beets, carrots, and turnips.

Fresh vegetables contain not only the foodstuff ash, but water. Indeed most fresh vegetables contain from 75 to 90 per cent of water.

In addition to these two foodstuffs, vegetables contain cellulose. The latter is a fibrous substance which forms for the most part the skins and interior framework of vegetables and fruits. The strings of beans and celery and the "pith" of turnips and radishes, for example, contain much cellulose.

Foods containing both ash and cellulose have a laxative effect. Hence the value of fresh vegetables in diet. The use of fresh vegetables cannot be too strongly urged. Certain vegetables, especially the green leaved vegetables, also contain substances which are necessary to make the body grow and keep it in good health (see Division Seven).

Most persons should use fresh vegetables more freely than they do.

SUGGESTIONS FOR COOKING GREEN VEGETABLES.—If ash is such a valuable constituent of vegetables, the latter should be cooked so as to retain all the ash. Unfortunately vegetables are not always cooked in such a way that the minerals are saved. Just as salt dissolves readily in water, so many of the mineral materials found in green vegetables dissolve in the water in which vegetables are cooked. Hence if it is necessary to drain off water from vegetables after cooking, it is evident there may be much loss of nutriment.

Ash is also one of the substances which gives flavor to vegetables. Insipid flavors of certain vegetables may be due to improper cooking.

A most important point to consider in the cooking of vegetables is the saving of the minerals. This can be accomplished in several ways:

1. Cooking in water with their skins.

2. Cooking in water and using the water which must be drained away after cooking for sauces and soups.

3. Cooking in such a small quantity of water that none needs to be drained away after cooking.

4. Cooking in steam.

5. Cooking in the oven by means of dry heat.

COOKING VEGETABLES IN WATER.—Water in which vegetables are cooked should be salted. Use 1 teaspoonful of salt for each quart of water. The water should be boiling when the vegetables are added and should be kept boiling gently during the entire cooking. Rapidly boiling water wears off the edges of vegetables and breaks them.

The water in which vegetables are cooked is called vegetable stock. When vegetables are pared or scraped before cooking in water, the stock should be utilized in making vegetable sauces.

Test vegetables for sufficient cooking with a fork or knitting needle.

BEETS

Clean beets by scrubbing them with a small brush, using it carefully so as not to break the skin. Leave two or three inches of the stems on until the beets are cooked. Cook them whole in boiling salted water (see Cooking Vegetables in Water). Test only the largest beet for sufficient cooking. Use a knitting needle or wire skewer for testing. Drain and cover with cold water and rub off the skin with the hands. Cut the beets into slices, sprinkle generously with salt and pepper, and add a little butter. A small quantity of vinegar may be added, if desired. Serve hot.

Beets may also be served with a sauce. Prepare the sauce like White Sauce, using for the liquid three parts of water and one part of vinegar.

Beets may be pickled by slicing them or by cutting into cubes and placing in plain or spiced vinegar. Serve cold.

SCALLOPED TOMATOES WITH ONIONS

2 cupfuls sliced onions 2 cupfuls tomatoes 1 tablespoonful fat Salt and pepper 1 cupful bread crumbs

Parboil the onions for 15 minutes; drain. [Footnote 18: When the water is drained from the onions, there is a loss of nutriment. In cooking onions, however, we usually consider it advisable to lose some food value for the sake of flavor. See "Nutriment versus Flavor".] Into a greased baking-dish put a layer of tomatoes, then one of onions, and sprinkle with salt and pepper. Repeat until all the vegetables are added.

Mix the bread crumbs and fat as directed for Stuffed Tomatoes. Sprinkle these crumbs on top of the vegetables. Bake in a moderate oven (400 degrees F.) for 30 minutes or until the onions are tender. Serve hot.

BROILED TOMATOES

Wash and cut tomatoes in halves, crosswise; do not peel them. Place them (with cut surface up) in a "frying" pan (without fat). Cook on top of the range or in the oven at a low temperature for about 30 minutes, or until the tomatoes are soft, but not broken. Add a bit of butter to each half of tomato and season with salt and pepper. Serve at once.

QUESTIONS

Since sugar is manufactured from beets, the latter must contain considerable sugar. From this fact and the results of Experiment 11, explain why beets must not be pared or cut in pieces before cooking.

State another reason why beets should not be pared or cut into pieces before cooking. Also give the reason for leaving a portion of the stem on beets during cooking.

Explain why only one beet should be tested for sufficient cooking, and why it should be tested with a knitting needle or wire skewer rather than with a fork.

What is the price of beets per pound? How many beets in a pound?

Carefully explain how the nutriment is retained by cooking beets and tomatoes according to the recipes of this lesson.

What is the advantage and disadvantage in draining water from onions after parboiling them?



LESSON XII

FRESH VEGETABLES (B)

FOOD PREJUDICES.—Most persons have decided likes and dislikes for certain foods. These opinions very often have no reasonable foundation. One taste of a food poorly prepared or a disparaging remark heard in childhood may be the cause for a lifetime's aversion for a food.

There is no better way to overcome food prejudices than by learning to prepare foods well—to make them tasty and nutritious—and to appreciate their nutritive value. Food prejudices like most others may be overcome by a thorough knowledge of the subject.

Come to the school kitchen with an open mind. When you understand why certain foods are valuable in diet and are able to prepare them skilfully, you may learn to enjoy them. To discover that foods which you previously considered commonplace and uninteresting are tasty, is really a pleasing experience.

TIME FOR COOKING FRESH VEGETABLES IN WATER.—It is not possible to state just how long a vegetable will be required to cook in water. The time varies with the kind of vegetable, its size, and age. Usually the older a vegetable, the longer the time required for cooking. Young vegetables, especially green corn and tender cabbage, may be spoiled by too long cooking.

For novices, a time table may be helpful not only in determining when a food is sufficiently cooked but in deciding how long to allow for cooking a food before it is to be served. But do not depend entirely upon a time table. Judging by appearance and using the fork or knitting needle is the most reliable test.

TABLE

Asparagus 15-20 minutes Beets (young) 45-60 minutes Beets (old) 3-4 hours Cabbage 15-30 minutes Carrots 30-60 minutes Cauliflower 20-30 minutes Celery 20-45 minutes Green Corn 12-20 minutes Lima beans (fresh) 45-60 minutes Onions 30-45 minutes Parsnips 30-45 minutes Peas (fresh) 20-30 minutes Potatoes 25-30 minutes Spinach 15-30 minutes Squash (summer) 20-30 minutes String Beans 1-3 hours Sweet Potatoes 15-25 minutes Turnips 30-45 minutes

PARING VEGETABLES.—If the outside skin of a vegetable is removed, it should be pared as thin as possible. The covering of the carrot and new potato is so thin that it can be removed by scraping, thereby saving the valuable nutritive substances just beneath the skin.

Turnips are an exception to the rule, a thick layer of cellular material covers them. For this reason, a thick paring is cut from turnips. (Cut a turnip in two and note the thickness of its skin.)

MASHED TURNIPS

6 medium turnips Salt and pepper 2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute

Scrub and pare the turnips. Cut each into cubes. Place in the top part of a steamer (see Figure 31) and cook until tender when tested with a fork or knitting needle.

Mash the turnips with a potato masher. Add butter or substitute and enough salt and pepper to season. Serve hot.

BUTTERED CARROTS

4 cupfuls carrots, cut into strips 2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute 2 teaspoonfuls salt Dash pepper

Scrub and scrape carrots, cut them into strips. Put them in a saucepan and add water to a depth of 1 inch. When the carrots are tender and only a small amount of water remains, add the butter or substitute and seasonings. Continue to cook slowly until almost all of the remaining water has evaporated. Serve the vegetables and surrounding liquid hot.

Young string beans cut in halves lengthwise and parsnips cut in strips may be cooked in the same way.

(Adapted from a United States Department of Agriculture recipe.)

QUESTIONS

Why should the outside skin of a vegetable be pared as thin as possible? What is the exception to this rule?

How should vegetable stock be utilized? Why?

Housekeepers usually add milk to potatoes when mashing them. Why is moisture not added to mashed turnips?

What, advantage is there in steaming turnips rather than cooking them in water?

Why are carrots cooked in a small quantity of water rather than a large amount?

What are the prices of turnips and carrots per pound? How many of each of these vegetables in a pound?



LESSON XIII

FRESH FRUITS

FRUIT, A NECESSITY.—An authority [Footnote 19: See "Feeding the Family" (p 240), by Mary Swartz Rose, Ph.D.] on diet says that at least as much money should be spent for fruits as for meat, eggs, and fish. Fruit should no longer be considered a luxury but a necessity in diet.

Fruits as well as vegetables are effective in preventing constipation,— the common disorder which may lead to serious disturbances. Most fruits, especially those containing considerable acid, such as lemons, oranges, and apples, are laxative. Prunes and figs are also valuable in constipation. Blackberries are unlike other fruits in this respect,—they are constipating.

A disease called scurvy is often due to a lack of fresh vegetables and fruits in diet. Orange juice is especially valuable in preventing scurvy. Fruits are valuable not only because they aid in preventing constipation and scurvy, but because they contain ash. Fruits are rich in mineral matter.

KINDS OF FRUITS.—In a broad sense fruits are seed vessels. This classification includes many foods that are ordinarily considered vegetables. So in this text seed vessels that are used as desserts are termed fruits. Rhubarb is not properly a fruit; it is a vegetable, but because it is used in the diet the same way as fruit, it is classed as such.

Fruits are sometimes classified as food fruits and flavor fruits. This distinction depends upon the quantity of sugar and water that fruits contain,—those containing much sugar, such as ripe bananas and dried fruits, being called food fruits and those containing much water and less sugar, such as oranges and strawberries, being termed flavor fruits. This classification may be somewhat misleading, however, for all fruits may be considered food fruits. Fruits containing much water are generally rich in ash and other valuable substances and hence have decided food value.

WHEN TO ADD THE SUGAR to cooked fruits—before or after cooking—is a practical problem for every housewife. Fruits contain acids, and most cooked fruits require the addition of sugar to make them palatable.

The flavor of fresh fruit is generally popular. In cooking fruit it is desirable to retain the fresh fruit flavor. Housekeepers have found that a less desirable flavor results—the fruit "loses" more of its "fresh flavor"—if the sugar is cooked with the fruit. Moreover, when sugar is cooked with fruit, a sirup is formed, which is more apt to scorch than a mixture of fruit and water. For these reasons, it is well to add sugar to fruit after cooking, unless it is desired to preserve the shape of the fruit or unless fruit is made into jelly. Fruit is cooked in a sirup if it is desired to preserve its shape.

SUGGESTIONS FOR COOKING FRUITS.—Fruits should be washed, cut into pieces, and then pared or peeled, unless they are to be strained after cooking. For some fruits it is not necessary to remove the skins before straining.

We have all seen the dark stain on a steel knife that has been used for paring fruit or certain vegetables. This black substance is formed by the action of the acid of the fruit or vegetable on the metal. It is disagreeable in taste and may produce harmful results. For this reason all fruits should be cooked in granite, earthenware, or glass utensils.

The characteristic odors from cooking fruits indicate loss of flavor. This can be prevented somewhat by cooking fruits at a low (simmering) temperature in a covered utensil. The casserole used on top of a range or in the oven is most desirable for cooking fruits. Slow cooking prevents some fruits from breaking into pieces.

FRUIT SAUCES

Cook fruit in enough water to keep from scorching. When the fruit is tender, remove it from the fire, stir or beat until smooth, or press through a colander or strainer. Add the sugar at once and stir until the sugar is dissolved. Use 1/8 to 1/4 cupful of sugar for each cupful of cooked fruit.

If fruit is somewhat lacking in flavor, it is often improved by adding spices or other flavoring. Some apples are made more palatable by adding cinnamon, nutmeg, or lemon juice.

STEWED FRUITS

Make a sirup of sugar and water, using one cupful of water and 1/2 to 1 cupful of sugar. When the sirup is boiling, add the fruit and cook gently until tender. If the sirup is not thick enough when the fruit is tender, remove the fruit from the sirup, cook the sirup until of proper consistency, and then pour over the fruit.

Very firm fruit, such as quinces and sweet apples, as well as some unripe fruits, should be cooked in clear water until tender and then sweetened.

COMPARISON OF FRUIT SAUCE AND STEWED FRUIT.—Use the same kind of fruit and the same quantity of sugar, and make a Fruit Sauce and a dish of Stewed Fruit. Compare the fruit cooked by the two methods as to flavor and appearance. Which is more like fresh fruit in flavor?

At what time during its preparation should sugar be added to cooked fruit? Explain your answer clearly. Give two exceptions to this rule. Should sugar be added to cooked fruit while the fruit is hot or after it is cool? Why? (See Experiments 10 and 11.)

What is gained by not paring or peeling fruit that is to be strained after cooking? When fruit is cooking, what indicates a loss of flavor? What two precautions can be taken to preserve the flavor of fruits? What means, other than cooking in sirup, can be employed to retain the shape of cooked fruit?

RHUBARB SAUCE

Cut rhubarb (without peeling) into one-inch pieces. Place these in the top of a double boiler. Cook in a double boiler until soft, stirring occasionally. When cooked, add 1/3 to 1/2 cupful of sugar for each cupful of cooked rhubarb.

The casserole may be used for cooking rhubarb. Place the rhubarb in a casserole. Add one tablespoonful of water for each cupful of rhubarb. Cover and simmer on top of a range, or bake in a slow oven until soft. Add sugar as directed above.

QUESTIONS

How many pounds in one peck of apples? How many medium sized apples in a pound?

What is the price per pound of fresh peaches?

For what substances is fruit especially valuable in diet? Give suggestions for retaining these nutritious materials when cooking fruit. Make a list of fresh fruits, stating when each is in season.

NOTE TO THE TEACHER.—If desired, the lessons of Division Seventeen, The Preservation of Food, may follow this lesson. Also see the note at the end of Lesson VI.



RELATED WORK

LESSON XIV

REVIEW: MEAL COOKING

MENU [Footnote 20: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.—The "menu" of a "meal" lesson is to be assigned during the lesson previous to the "meal" lesson, so that its preparation can be planned before class time. Since only review foods are assigned, no instruction other than criticism of the finished product is to be given during the lesson. By cooking the group of foods in individual quantity, it is possible for pupils to complete the "meal" lesson in a 90-minute class period. It is more desirable, however, to cook enough of each food to serve five or six persons, provided the laboratory period is sufficiently long and the foods can be utilized in the lunch room.]

Scalloped Corn Baked Apple Tea

Outside Preparation of Lesson.

(a) Examine the recipes for these foods given in the text.

(b) Determine the number of servings each recipe will make.

(c) Study the methods of preparation so that no written directions regarding the process of cooking will be needed in class.

(d) Note the kind of utensils to be used for each food.

(e) Plan the order of preparing these foods so as to cook them in the least time. (f) Plan the preparation so that all foods may be ready to serve in the proper condition—hot or cold—at one time.

Preparation of Lesson in Class.

(a) Having your plans well in mind, begin to work at once. Work independently.

(b) Cook a sufficient quantity of each food to serve one or more persons as the time permits.

(c) Soil the least number of dishes possible.

(d) Keep the table and utensils neat while working.

(e) Have the serving dishes ready,—warmed, if necessary.

(f) Taste the food before serving to see if properly seasoned.

(g) Just before serving food, clear the table so that it may be ready for serving.

(h) Serve all the foods at once, as a hostess cooking and serving without a maid.

(i) If your work is a failure in any way, determine the cause of the failure and its remedy.



LESSON XV

HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 21: See Lesson IX.]

SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.—Prepare vegetables for at least one meal daily.

Cook fruit at least once a week.

Suggested Aims:

(1) To cook vegetables in such a way that no nutriment is lost.

(2) To retain as much of the nutriment and fresh flavor of the fruits as possible.



DIVISION FOUR

ENERGY-GIVING OR FUEL FOODS,—RICH IN CARBOHYDRATES

LESSON XVI

SUGAR: DIGESTION OF SUGAR

ENERGY; FUEL.—An automobile is a machine. The use of gasoline in this machine gives it energy or the power to move.

The human body is also a machine. Certain foods are taken into the human machine. The utilization of these foods gives the body energy or the power to move (i.e. to do work). The body is capable of both voluntary and involuntary work. Walking and running are examples of the former kind of work, while the beating of the heart and the circulating of the blood are examples of the latter kind.

At the same time that the body works, heat is generated. Hence foods not only give the body the power to do work, but incidentally they heat the body. Foods which enable the body to work are termed energy-giving or fuel foods.

There are a number of energy-giving or fuel foods: sugar is the first one to be considered.

EXPERIMENT 10: THE SOLUBILITY OF GRANULATED SUGAR IN COLD WATER—Place half a teaspoonful of granulated sugar in a test tube, add a little cold water, shake. Is the mixture clear? Set it aside for a few minutes. Does the sugar separate from the water?

EXPERIMENT 11: THE SOLUBILITY OF GRANULATED SUGAR IN HOT WATER.—Dissolve half a teaspoonful of granulated sugar in hot water. Compare with Experiment 10. Which dissolves sugar more readily,—cold or hot water? If you desired to dissolve some sugar quickly, at what temperature would you have the water?

EXPERIMENT 12: THE SOLUBILITY OF POWDERED SUGAR.—Dissolve half a teaspoonful of powdered sugar in the same quantity of hot water used in Experiment 11. Does it dissolve more readily than granulated sugar? Explain this difference. If you desired to dissolve some lumpy sugar quickly, how would you prepare it?

THE DIGESTION OF SUGAR.—Since sugar is so readily dissolved, and since dissolving is an important step in the process of digestion (see Solution and Digestion), it would seem that the digestion of sugar would be easy. Some sugars, such as glucose, need no digestion in a chemical sense, and are wholesome provided their solution is not too concentrated. The digestion of other sugar, such as granulated sugar, is slightly more complex.

Because the digesting of some sugar is simple, one should not conclude that this food should be used in large quantities or in preference to other fuel foods. If sugar is eaten in large quantities there is so much dissolved sugar for the organs of digestion to take care of that the stomach and small intestines become irritated. This is especially true when candy is eaten between meals,—at a time when the stomach is empty. Then, too, it may ferment in the stomach or intestines and produce digestive disturbances. All sweets should be eaten only in moderation and either during a meal or at its close. When sugar is mixed with other foods, it is diluted, and is not so apt to cause distress.

SUGARS AND SIRUPS.—In various plants and in milk, the chemist finds a number of different kinds of sugar. These may be classified into two groups:—(1) single sugars and (2) double sugars. Dextrose or glucose is one of the single sugars, while sucrose or cane sugar is an example of a double sugar.

The solid sugars and sirups found at market and having different trade names consist of one or more of the different kinds of sugars. A discussion of these follows:

(a) Granulated sugar is made either from the sugar cane or sugar beet. The juice is pressed or soaked out of these plants, then purified, refined, and crystallized. Powdered sugar is prepared by crushing granulated sugar. Confectioners' sugar is a very finely ground form of cane or beet sugar. Granulated sugar is 100 per cent sugar. Crushed sugars sometimes contain flour or other materials.

Brown sugar is made from the cane or beet, but is not refined as much as is granulated sugar. It contains some ash and moisture.

(b) Corn sirup is made by boiling corn-starch with an acid and then refining the product. This sirup contains no cane sugar. Its sweet flavor and sirupy consistency are due to the presence of 38.5 per cent glucose and 42 per cent dextrin. Glucose is not as sweet as granulated sugar. Hence, in depending upon corn sirup alone, the tendency is to use more sugar than is advisable so as to satisfy our taste for sweets. At least 1 1/2 times as much corn sirup as granulated sugar is needed to produce the sweetness of the solid sugar. A mixture of corn sirup and granulated sugar is often used for sweetening foods.

(c) Molasses and Sorghum.—Molasses is a by-product of cane sugar. In addition to sugar, it contains certain mineral materials such as lime. Since it is especially necessary that foods given children contain lime, the use of molasses in place of sugar may be recommended for children.

One should remember, however, that much sugar of any kind is not good for children. Molasses contains some acid. Because of modern methods of sugar refining, however, molasses is less acid than the sirup of former days. It also differs in flavor.

Sorghum is a sirup prepared from the sorghum plant. It contains ash and has a characteristic flavor. If the flavor of molasses or sorghum is too strong to be pleasant, a mixture of equal parts of corn sirup and molasses or sorghum may be found desirable. Mixtures of different sirups sold under various trade names may be purchased.

(d) Honey is sugar extracted from flowers. Its limited supply and cost prevent its general use. It is not so rich in mineral matter as is molasses.

(e) Maple Sirup and Sugar.—Maple sirup and sugar are prepared from sap extracted from the maple tree. They both have a distinctive flavor in addition to their sweet taste. Maple sugar contains approximately 83 per cent of sugar, while maple sirup contains about 71 per cent.

PEANUT CANDY

2 cupfuls granulated sugar or 1 cupful granulated sugar and 1 cupful corn sirup (dark) 3/4 cupful chopped peanuts 1/4 teaspoonful salt

Mix the peanuts and salt and place in the warming oven to heat. If sugar is used alone, put it in an iron pan. Place the pan over a low flame and stir constantly until the sugar is changed to a light brown sirup.

If a combination of sugar and sirup is used, put them in a pan, stir, and cook until the mixture is very brittle when tried in cold water.

Add the chopped peanuts and salt to either kind of sirup, stirring them in as quickly as possible. Pour immediately into a hot, unbuttered pan. When slightly cool divide into squares with a chopping knife.

Puffed cereals or shredded coconut may be used instead of peanuts. Commercial salted peanuts may be used also. When the latter are used, the salt in the recipe above should be omitted.

CARAMELIZED SUGAR.—It should be noted that when heat is applied to granulated sugar, the latter liquefies and becomes brown in color. This brown liquid is called caramel The process of making it is called caramelization.

When sugar is caramelizing, it reaches a high temperature. The melting point of tin is near the temperature of caramelized sugar. The enamel of granite ware is apt to chip off if subjected to great changes of temperature. Iron is not affected by the highest cooking temperature, hence it is desirable to use an iron utensil for caramelizing sugar.

NOTE.—When cane or granulated sugar is caramelized, a small quantity of an injurious substance called furfural is formed. (See Journal of Home Economics, Vol. IX (April, 1917), p. 167.) The more sugar is heated, the more of the injurious substance is produced. Also, cane sugar yields more furfural than glucose,—the kind of sugar that is present in corn sirup. When caramelized sugar is boiled with water, however, the furfural is expelled.

In making Peanut Candy, the caramelized sugar cannot be boiled with water, hence it is desirable to use a combination of granulated sugar and corn sirup and heat the mixture until it is only light brown in color.

EXPERIMENT 13: THE SOLUBILITY OF CARAMEL.—Immediately after removing the candy from the iron pan, pour hot water into the pan. Allow it to stand for several minutes, then examine. Is caramel soluble in water? Does it dissolve more or less readily than granulated sugar? What practical application can be drawn from this experiment with regard to washing a pan in which sugar has been caramelized?

QUESTIONS

Weigh one pound of granulated sugar. How many cupfuls does it measure?

Weigh one pound of powdered sugar. How many cupfuls does it measure?

What is the price per pound of granulated and of powdered sugar?

What is the price of corn sirup per can? How much does a can measure?

Calculate the cost of peanut candy made entirely with granulated sugar and that made with granulated sugar and sirup.

Note the proportion of unshelled to shelled peanuts. How many unshelled peanuts are required for one cupful of shelled peanuts?

Why is an iron rather than a granite pan used for making peanut candy?

What is the advantage of heating the pan?

Why is it necessary to pour the mixture into the pan immediately after adding the peanuts?

Why is a mixture of granulated sugar and corn sirup used in the making of peanut candy rather than corn sirup? (See Corn Sirup.)

From your work in physiology, explain the relation of the digestion, absorption, and assimilation of foods.



LESSON XVII

SUGAR-RICH FRUITS: DRIED FRUITS (A)

DRIED FRUITS.—The wrinkled skins of dried fruits indicate that there has been a loss of some material. The water of fresh fruits evaporates as they are dried. Hence dried fruits contain very much less water than fresh fruits. But weight for weight they contain a greater quantity of sugar and ash.

Like all fruits, dried fruits are especially valuable for their ash. They are also valuable for their sugar. Three fourths of the weight of most dried fruit is sugar.

Dried fruits such as raisins, dates, figs, and prunes are valuable sweets for boys and girls. It is much better to eat one of these fruits than candy. This is because the sugar is mixed with other materials and as explained previously does not irritate the digestive organs as does the concentrated sugar existing in most candies. (See the Digestion of Sugar.) The fact that mineral materials exist along with sugar is another point in favor of the sweet fruits. All the above-mentioned fruits contain iron. Very young children are fed prune juice because of its laxative effect.

The unpopularity of prunes is unfortunate. This may be because prunes were formerly one of the cheapest fruits or because they are cooked and served in the same way too often. A pleasing variation may be made by combining them with other food materials. Many kinds of very tasty desserts containing prunes may be made. Many varieties of prunes may be cooked without the addition of any sugar. Desirable results can often be secured by combining prunes and other dried fruits with tart fruits such as apricots, apples, and rhubarb.

Raisins are a favorite food of mountain climbers and those tramping long distances. They serve as a satisfying diet on such trips because of their high sugar content (sugar has been mentioned previously as energy-giver). Since they are a dried fruit, a small quantity furnishes much food. This is an advantageous factor in carrying them.

GENERAL RULES FOR COOKING DRIED FRUITS.—Wash the fruit carefully. Place it in the saucepan in which it is to be cooked and pour enough cold water over the fruit to cover it. Cover the saucepan and allow the fruit to soak for several hours or overnight. Then cook the fruit at simmering temperature in the water in which it was soaked. When the fruit is tender, remove the saucepan from the fire, add sugar if desired, and stir carefully until the sugar is dissolved. Serve cold.

PRUNES

Prepare according to the general rule. For each 2 cupfuls of prunes add about 1/4 cupful of sugar and one tablespoonful of lemon juice. The sugar may be omitted and only the lemon juice added.

APRICOTS

Prepare according to the general rule. For 1/2 pound of apricots add 1/2 cupful of sugar.

TO PREPARE RAISINS FOR COOKING.—Raisins that are sold in packages need only slight washing. Before using, they should be separated and examined for any bits of stem that have not been removed before packing. It is desirable to cut each raisin in halves when used for cakes and breads.

Raisins that are sold by "bulk" need careful washing. Place seeded raisins in a strainer and pour cold water over them; drain well. If the raisins are to be used at once or in a cake, dry them on a towel.

If raisins are to be seeded, cover them with boiling water. When they are soft, drain and press out the seeds.

TO PREPARE CURRANTS FOR COOKING.—"Package" currants need but little washing, but they should be examined carefully for bits of stem before using. To clean "bulk" currants place them in a colander or strainer, shake flour over them, and rub the floured currants between the hands. Pour water through the strainer until the water comes through clear. If the currants are to be used in a cake, dry them in the sun, on a towel, or in a "cool" oven.

MIXED FRUIT SAUCE

1/2 pound dried apricots 1 pint water 1 cupful raisins 1/4 teaspoonful salt 1 lemon,—juice 1 orange,—juice and grated rind 5/8 cupful sugar

Soak the apricots for several hours or overnight in the water. Add the other fruits and cook the mixture at simmering temperature until the apricots and raisins are tender. Add the sugar and salt. Stir until dissolved. Serve the sauce cold as a dessert.

QUESTIONS

Weigh 1 cupful of dried fruit and record weight.

Weigh and measure soaked fruit (1 cupful before soaking) and record weight and measure. To what is the increase in measure of the soaked fruit due? What use should be made of the water in which dried fruit is soaked? What does this water contain? (See Experiment 10.)

What is the purpose of soaking dried fruit before cooking?

What is the purpose of covering the fruit while soaking?

Using the data regarding fresh fruit obtained in Lesson I, and that obtained by weighing dried fruit before and after soaking, estimate the difference in the cost of one pound of fresh and of soaked dried fruit.

State two reasons for combining raisins with apples and apricots in Baked Apples and Mixed Fruit Sauce.



LESSON XVIII

SUGAR-RICH FRUITS: DRIED FRUITS (B)

DESSERTS AND FOOD VALUE.—Very often dried fruits and nuts are used as accessories after a meal. Under these conditions they are digested often with difficulty, because the meal itself has taxed the digestive organs. These foods should be considered as a part of the meal and should not be added after enough other foods have been eaten. Not only dried fruits and nuts but other desserts often prove distressing, not because they are unwholesome, but because too much food has been eaten.

PRUNE PUDDING

1 cupful cooked prunes, seeded and chopped 1/2 cupful sugar 1 cupful chopped nuts 1/2 cupful milk or prune water 1 teaspoonful vanilla 1 tablespoonful butter or substitute, melted 3 crackers (rolled fine) or 1/2 cupful dried bread crumbs 1 teaspoonful baking powder Salt

Mix all the ingredients. Pour into a buttered baking-dish. Place the baking-dish in a pan of hot water. Bake in a moderate oven for 20 minutes, or until the mixture is firm. Serve hot or cold with plain or whipped cream.

DATE PUDDING

1/2 cupful sugar 1 egg 2 tablespoonfuls milk 1/3 cupful flour 1 teaspoonful baking powder Salt 1 cupful dates, seeded, and cut in pieces 1 cupful California walnuts, chopped

Mix the sugar, milk, and egg. Mix the remaining ingredients; then add to the first mixture. Mix, and turn into an oiled baking-dish or pan. Bake in a moderate oven from 30 to 40 minutes or until it is firm. Serve hot or cold with plain or whipped cream.

QUESTIONS

How many dry, uncooked prunes are required to make 1 cupful of cooked prunes? (See Questions, Lesson XVII.)

What are the prices per pound of figs and dates?

How many will the above recipes serve?

What ingredients in these puddings scorch readily? Why is Prune Pudding surrounded with hot water during baking?



LESSON XIX

CEREALS: STARCH AND CELLULOSE

STARCH is a very important FUEL food; like sugar, it gives energy to the body. Starch is closely related to sugar; it has much the same composition and the same use in the body. In certain respects, however, starch differs from sugar.

EXPERIMENT 14: THE STARCH TEST.—Put a drop of tincture of iodine on,— corn-starch, flour, rice, cream of wheat, wheatena, oatmeal, tapioca, potato, meat, and egg. What is the result?

If a substance contains starch, it changes to a blue color when tincture of iodine is added to it.

From these experiments determine in which class—animal or vegetable—the starchy foods belong.

EXPERIMENT 15: THE EFFECT OF COLD WATER ON STARCH.—Mix half a teaspoonful of corn-starch or flour with cold water in a test tube or glass cup. What happens to a solid substance when it is dissolved? (See Experiment 6.) Set the mixture aside for a few minutes, then note its appearance. Is starch soluble in cold water? What important difference between starch and sugar does this experiment show?

EXPERIMENT 16: THE EFFECT OF HEAT ON STARCH.—Hold to the light the starch and water mixture from Experiment 15. Is it opaque or transparent? Turn the mixture into a saucepan, heat, and stir it; return the mixture to the test tube or cup and again hold it to the light. What change was caused by heating it? Set the mixture aside for a few minutes. Have the starch and water separated as in the uncooked starch? Can you say it is insoluble, like uncooked starch? Can you say it is soluble, like sugar? What term indicating a half-dissolved condition can you apply to the cooked starch?

EXPERIMENT 17: STIFFENING OF COOKED STARCH.—Place the test tube containing cooked starch from Experiment 16 in cold water. After ten minutes examine it. Can you pour it out of the tube? How does cooked starch change when cooled?

EXPERIMENT 18: THE STRUCTURE OF STARCH.—Examine starch under the microscope. While you are still looking through the microscope, make a drawing of several grains of starch. Insert this drawing in your notebook.

CELLULOSE.—Cellulose is a tough substance found in the fiber of wood. As previously mentioned the outside covering of vegetables and fruits and their interior framework contain much cellulose. The fibrous material found in rolled oats consists almost entirely of cellulose.

EXPERIMENT 19: SEPARATION OF CELLULOSE AND STARCH.—Place a heaping teaspoonful of rolled oats in a cup and add just enough water to cover it. Allow it to stand for at least 15 minutes. Pour the mixture into a cheese- cloth and press out the moisture and much of the starch, catching it in a saucepan. Rinse the starch out of the cloth as thoroughly as possible by holding it under running water. Examine the substance remaining in the cloth. Tear it into pieces. Is it tough? Does it suggest any common material? What is it? Heat the contents of the saucepan. What is this substance?

The tiny grains of starch shown under the microscope (see Figure 23) contain both starch and cellulose. The latter forms the outer covering of the microscopic grains. Starchy vegetables contain much cellulose: (a) in the outside covering; (b) in the interior framework; (c) in the covering of the starch grains.



Some plants rich in cellulose can be eaten in the raw state. But certain fibrous foods, especially cereals or grains, are irritating if eaten in the uncooked condition. It is necessary to soften them if used as food. Now cellulose itself is not soluble in cold or hot water nor is it softened by boiling in water. But other materials existing with cellulose are softened or changed by cooking. Hence changes in these substances in contact with the cellulose brought about by boiling water soften the food and separate cellulose fibers.

Heat and moisture applied to starchy foods serve three important purposes:

(a) They soften the food; (b) they change the starch to a paste or make it semisoluble; (c) they improve the flavor.

Cellulose is not a fuel material; it does not serve in the body as an energy-giver. Its value in diet is due to the fact that it is bulky and furnishes ballast for the alimentary canal. It stimulates the flow of the digestive juices as it brushes against the walls of the digestive tract, and thus aids in the digestion of foods and in the elimination of waste material.

CARBOHYDRATE, A FOODSTUFF.—Because sugar, starch, and cellulose have somewhat the same composition and some properties in common, they are grouped into one class, viz. carbohydrate. Sugar, starch, and cellulose are all included in the term carbohydrate. Carbohydrate is one of the foodstuffs. Sugar is a food containing only the carbohydrate foodstuff. Cereals contain not only carbohydrates but other foodstuffs. They contain, however, a larger quantity of carbohydrate than any of the other foodstuffs, for which reason they are classed as carbohydrate-rich foods.

CEREALS.—Cereals are cultivated grasses, the seeds of which are used for food. The most important are wheat, Indian corn or maize, rice, oats, rye, and barley. From these many different kinds of flours, meals, and breakfast foods are prepared.

Cereals rank high in nutritive value. Many of them contain about 75 per cent of starch. They also contain ash and a substance which builds the body. Because they are widely distributed in various climates, they have an important place in man's diet.

At market one finds two classes of cereals sold as breakfast foods—(1) the ready to eat and (2) the uncooked or partially cooked grains. The ready-to-eat cereals cost much more per pound than the cereals that require cooking. The difference in the price per pound, however, is not an accurate difference in the cost of the two, for the cost of the fuel in cooking grains at home must be taken into consideration.

Of the cereals that require cooking, those that are partially cooked are doubtless the more popular. Many of these such as rolled oats or wheat are steamed and rolled. Hence they take much less time to prepare in the home kitchen than the uncooked grains.

All breakfast cereals require long cooking to make them most palatable, the time of cooking depending upon the character of the cellulose and the method of preparing the cereal for market.

Most partially cooked grains are improved by a longer cooking than is usually given them. It is interesting to measure equal quantities of a rolled cereal and cook one quantity for 20 minutes and the other for 1 1/2 hours and taste each. The superior flavor and texture of the well-cooked cereal is well worth the additional length of time of cocking. Grains are also found on sale in bulk and in package. The latter cost more but insure greater cleanliness. Since, however, cereals sold in bulk are those that require cooking, they will be thoroughly sterilized before serving and need occasion no concern regarding their cleanliness.

GENERAL RULES FOR COOKING CEREALS.—Pour the cereal slowly into boiling salted water. Cook directly over the flame for about 10 minutes. Then place over boiling water and cook from 1/2 to 8 hours. Usually one teaspoonful of salt is used for each cupful of cereal. The quantity of water depends upon the kind of cereal. The double boiler is particularly good for cooking cereals. The fireless cooker also is a most satisfactory device for cooking these foods easily and economically.

Starchy foods are most easily digested when well masticated. Dry foods require more mastication than moist foods. It is well then to have the water used in cooking the cereal entirely absorbed. If, when nearly done, the cereal is too moist, uncover the vessel and cook until the excess of water is evaporated.

Care should be taken, however, not to allow a tough skin to form on the top of the cereal. This digests with difficulty. Its formation can be prevented by keeping the cereal covered or by stirring occasionally.

Heat ready-to-eat cereals in the oven until they are crisp.

ROLLED OATS OR WHEAT

3 cupfuls boiling water 1 cupful cereal 1 teaspoonful salt

Prepare according to the general directions, cooking in the double boiler at least 1 1/2 hours.

CREAM OF WHEAT OR WHEATENA

3 cupfuls boiling water 1/2 cupful cereal 1 teaspoonful salt

Prepare according to the general rule, cooking in the double boiler at least 1/2 hour.

A few minutes before taking from the fire, 1/2 pound of dates, cleaned, stoned, and cut into pieces, may be added. Raisins or figs may also be used with Cream of Wheat and other cereals.

QUESTIONS

How would the temperature of boiling water be affected if a cupful of cereal were poured into it all at once? From this explain why cereals should be added slowly to the boiling water.

Compare the cooked and uncooked cereal. How does it change in appearance and quantity?

Why are cereals not cooked entirely over the naked flame?

What is the price, weight, and measure of a package of Rolled Oats or Wheat? Of a package of Cream of Wheat or Wheatena?

What is the cost of the quantity of cereal indicated in the recipes above?

Calculate the difference in the cost per pound of ready-to-eat and uncooked cereals.



LESSON XX

CEREALS: RICE (A)

POLISHED AND UNPOLISHED RICE.—At market one finds two kinds of rice,—one white and pearly in appearance called polished rice, and the other, gray or brown and lusterless called unpolished rice. In preparing rice for market, the outer husks of the grain are removed and the rice is cleaned. It may then be sold as unpolished rice or it may be further treated by rubbing or polishing to make it ready for market. Rice is subjected to this latter process merely to satisfy the demand of purchasers. The food value of polished rice is inferior to that of the unpolished grain. Much valuable ash and other material are lost. Indeed, a certain disease, [Footnote 22: Beri-beri, a disease common among those inhabitants of Oriental countries whose diet consists almost entirely of polished rice and fish.] due to improper nourishment, has been cured by giving the sufferer rice polishings. The flavor of rice is also impaired by polishing it. Unpolished rice is much the more valuable food. It requires, however, longer cooking than polished rice. Soaking in water before cooking shortens the length of time required for cooking.

TO CLEAN RICE.—To wash rice, put it in a strainer and allow the water from a faucet to run through the strainer. Rub the rice between the hands.

RICE (cooked over boiling water)

3 cupfuls boiling water 1 teaspoonful salt 1 cupful rice

Follow the General Rules for Cooking Cereals; when the rice is added to the boiling water, stir it to prevent adhering to the pan. Cook over hot water, i.e. in a double boiler, until the grains are soft (usually about 45 minutes).

The above ingredients may be placed in a steamer (see Figure 31) and cooked in steam until the rice grains are tender. It is then called Steamed Rice.

Rice is most palatable combined with various fruits.

ENERGY-GIVING OR FUEL FOODS



BOILED RICE [Footnote 23: Reserve some of the cooked rice of this lesson for the following lesson.]

3 quarts boiling water 1 cupful rice 2 teaspoonfuls salt

Add the salt to the boiling water. When the water boils rapidly, add the rice slowly, so that the water does not stop boiling. Boil rapidly for 20 minutes or until the grains are soft. Turn into a colander or strainer to drain. Rinse with hot water, drain well, then sprinkle with salt.

Save the water from the Boiled Rice for the experiment below and for preparing Cheese Sauce for class work.

When the rice is boiling, decide whether or not it should be covered tightly.

EXPERIMENT 20 THE DIFFERENCE IN NUTRITIVE VALUE OF BOILED RICE AND RICE COOKED OVER BOILING WATER—Pour a little of the water from the boiled rice into a test tube. Cool the rice water and test it with iodine for starch. Is any of the starch from rice cooked over boiling water wasted? Which method of cooking rice leaves more nutriment in the cooked product?

CHEESE SAUCE (made with rice water)

1 pint rice water 1 tablespoonful corn-starch 1 teaspoonful salt 1/4 teaspoonful mustard 1/6 teaspoonful paprika 1/2 cupful cheese grated or cut into pieces

Mix the corn-starch with about 2 tablespoonfuls of cold rice water. Heat the remainder of the liquid. Add the corn-starch mixture to the hot rice water. Stir and cook for about 10 minutes. Then add the seasonings and cheese. Continue stirring and cooking until the cheese is blended with the other ingredients. Serve hot over cooked rice.

One cupful of tomatoes or a small quantity of pimentos (cut into pieces) may be added along with the cheese to the sauce. If pimentos are used, the paprika should be omitted.

QUESTIONS

How is rice tested for sufficient cooking?

Why does rice take a shorter time to cook than most of the wheat and oat foods? (See Cereals.)

Note the difference in the quantity of water used for boiled rice and for rice cooked over boiling water. Note that the saucepan is used for cooking one and the double boiler for cooking the other. From this explain the reason for the difference in the quantity of water used.

Which method of cooking rice takes longer? Explain the difference in the length of time of cooking.

Measure the rice after cooking. How much has it increased in bulk? If one desired 2 cupfuls of cooked rice, how much uncooked rice should be used?

Compare the individual grains of rice cooked in boiling water and rice cooked over boiling water,—are the grains separated or pasted together? Explain the difference in appearance.

What ingredients do cereals contain that make it possible to mold them (see Experiment 17)? Which is the better for molding,—boiled rice or rice cooked over boiling water? Why?

What is the advantage in using rice water rather than plain water to prepare Cheese Sauce?

What other use could be made of rice water?



LESSON XXI

CEREALS: RICE (B)

RICE PUDDING

Steamed rice may be prepared for a simple dessert by using both milk and water. Follow the recipe for Rice Cooked over Boiling Water, using 1 1/2 cupfuls of water and l 1/2 cupfuls of milk. Cook the water and rice until the water is absorbed, add the milk, and continue cooking over water. Serve with cream and sugar, or with a suitable sauce.

RICE PUDDING (made with cooked rice) [Footnote 24: A portion of the rice cooked in the previous lesson may be utilized in making this pudding.]

2 cupfuls cooked rice 3/4 - 1 cupful milk 1/2 cupful raisins 1/3 cupful sugar Grated rind 1/2 lemon

These ingredients may be cooked in several different ways. By changing the flavoring, method of serving, and sauce, rice desserts of pleasing variety may be made from the materials above.

The pudding may be baked in the following manner: Mix the ingredients, place in a buttered baking-dish, and bake in a slow oven until the rice has absorbed the milk and is brown. Vanilla or nutmeg, or both, may be substituted for the lemon rind.

This dessert may be cooked over water by mixing the ingredients in the top of a double boiler and cooking until the milk is absorbed. Then butter hot custard cups or tea cups and press some rice into each. Turn out at once and serve with Caramel, Chocolate, or other sauce.

Lemon Sauce, in which dates, cut into pieces, have been cooked, makes a tasty sauce for this pudding. When Lemon Sauce and dates are used, the raisins should be omitted and the pudding flavored with nutmeg.

CARAMEL SAUCE

1/3 cupful sugar 2 tablespoonfuls flour 1 tablespoonful butter or substitute 1 cupful milk 1/2 teaspoonful vanilla Salt

Mix the sugar, flour, and butter in a frying pan; then heat the mixture to caramelize the sugar, stirring constantly. Scald the milk in a double boiler. When the sugar is caramelized, add it to the hot milk and heat the mixture until the caramelized sugar is dissolved. Add the salt and vanilla. [Footnote 25: If the sauce is to be served cold, it is well to allow the cooked mixture to cool before adding the vanilla (see Flavoring Extracts).] Serve hot or cold over puddings.

QUESTIONS

Why is it advisable to use a double boiler for cooking rice? (See Lesson XX)

If rice is cooked in a double boiler and milk is to be added, why should not the milk be added until the rice mixture is placed over hot water? (See statement regarding the scorching of milk in Questions, Lesson XXIV)

Which method of cooking the Rice Pudding—baking or cooking over water— requires more milk? Explain your answer. Also explain why a definite quantity of milk cannot be stated in the recipe.

See "Note," Lesson XVI. Is any of the injurious substance formed in caramelizing sugar present in Caramel Sauce?



LESSON XXII

CEREALS AND THE FIRELESS COOKER

THE FIRELESS COOKER.—The fact that fuels are expensive and that the supply of some fuels is diminishing, makes it advisable to conserve heat. This can be done in no more satisfactory way than by means of a fireless cooker.

It has been said that future historians in summing up the great achievements of the first quarter of the twentieth century will probably name as the most important, wireless telegraphy, aviation, and fireless cookery. The fireless cooker cannot be used with all methods of cooking, but its possibilities are many.



THE PRINCIPLE OF FIRELESS COOKERY.—In Experiment 2 it was found that wood did not transmit heat rapidly, while tin did. Another familiar illustration will show the difference between wood and metal in transmitting heat. A metal door knob feels very cold on a winter day, because the metal conducts the heat away from the hand rapidly, while a wooden knob is comfortable to touch. Wood is termed a poor conductor of heat. Metals are good conductors of heat.

Paper, hay, excelsior, sawdust, cork, wool, feathers, and many other materials are poor conductors of heat. If any hot substance is surrounded by any of these poor conducting materials, the heat of that substance is retained for some time. Also, if any cold substance is surrounded by a poor conductor, the substance remains cold. In throwing a piece of carpet or newspaper over an ice cream freezer, to prevent the ice from melting, one makes use of the latter principle.



The walls of a well-built refrigerator consist of a number of layers of non-conducting materials (see Figure 25).

To understand the principle involved in "cooking without fire," try the following:

EXPERIMENT 12: RETENTION OF HEAT.—Fill 2 tin measuring cups half full of boiling water. Immediately inclose one cup of water in a paper bag or wrap paper about it so there will be considerable air space between the cup and paper. After 15 minutes, insert a thermometer into the water in each of the cups. Which is hotter? What has "kept in" the heat of the hotter water?

The fireless cooker is a device containing cooking kettles which are surrounded by some poor conductor. When food is heated thoroughly, the heat can be retained for a number of hours by placing the hot food in the fireless cooker.



In the ordinary fireless cooker it is possible to cook all foods that can be cooked in water at a temperature below the boiling point of water, i. e. simmering temperature. Another type of fireless cooker has a metallic or an enamel lining and is provided with movable stone disks. Both the stones and food are heated on a range and then introduced into the cooker in such a way that the stones are under and over the kettle of food. By this arrangement, foods can be cooked at a higher temperature than in the ordinary fireless cooker (see Figures 26 and 27).

There are also electric fireless cookers (see Figure 28). Such cookers are equipped with a heating element which is placed in the bottom of the insulated box. With these it is not necessary to heat the food before placing it in the cooker. The uncooked food is put into the cooker and the current turned on. By means of a clock arrangement the current may be cut off when the desired length of time of heating has passed.



The principle of the fireless cooker is used on some of the modern gas and electric ranges. The walls of the ovens of these ranges are surrounded by insulating materials. When an oven is heated and has reached the desired temperature, the gas or electricity is cut off, but the baking temperature is retained for some time. The top burners of some gas ranges have a fireless cooker attachment in the form of an insulated hood. The food is first heated over the burner, then the hood is lowered over the food, and the gas is cut off. The food continues to cook, however, by the retained heat (see Figure 29).

SUGGESTIONS FOR USING A FIRELESS COOKER.—One should keep the following in mind in using the ordinary fireless cooker:



1. Have the food heated thoroughly before placing in the fireless cooker. (This direction does not apply to an electrical fireless cooker such as shown in Figure 28.) If the foods are small, as cereals, 5 minutes' boiling is usually sufficient cooking on the range; if large in size, as a piece of beef, 30 minutes is required to heat it through.

2. After heating, place the covered kettle containing the food into the cooker immediately. It is well to have the cooker near the range so as to waste but little heat while getting the food into the cooker.

3. The kettle should be well filled. A small quantity of food should not be placed in a large kettle. It is possible, however, to fill the large kettle almost full of boiling water, then rest a wire rack on the rim of the kettle and place a small pan containing the food in the wire rack (see Figure 26). Or place the food in a pan with sloping sides and broad rim, such as a "pudding pan," which may be set in the large kettle so as to rest on the rim.

4. Do not open the cooker to "see how the food is getting along." If the box is opened, the food must be removed at once. The food may, however, be reheated and returned to the cooker. It is sometimes necessary to follow this plan, where food requires very long cooking.

5. The length of time a food must be left in the fireless cooker varies with the kind of food and style of cooker. In many of the homemade boxes, the water does not remain hot enough for cooking after 12 hours; in some, for not more than 8 hours. If foods require longer cooking than this, they should be removed and reheated as mentioned above. Food should never be allowed to become cool in a fireless cooker.

6. After using any type of fireless cooker, let the lid remain wide open for 2 or 3 hours. Except when in use do not close it tightly.

Every thrifty housekeeper should possess and use a fireless cooker. As has been mentioned, it saves fuel, prevents the strong odor of food permeating all parts of the house, lessens work and care in cooking, prevents burning and scorching, and provides workers and picnickers with warm lunches. A fireless cooker can be made satisfactorily at home with little expenditure of effort and money. It has been found that paper crumpled so as to afford considerable air space is a satisfactory non-conducting material for a fireless cooker. Detailed directions for making a fireless cooker are given in United States Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 771, "Homemade Fireless Cookers and Their Use" and in several popular books.

CORN-MEAL MUSH

4 cupfuls boiling water 1 cupful corn-meal 1 teaspoonful salt

Mix the ingredients in the small pan of the fireless cooker and cook directly over the flame of a range, boiling for 5 minutes, and stirring occasionally. Cover and place in the large kettle of the fireless cooker which contains boiling water. Place in a fireless cooker for 5 to 10 hours.

NOTE.—If corn-meal mush is to be cooked over a flame in a double boiler, prepare according to the general rule for cereals and cook over boiling water for at least 3 hours.

CORN-MEAL MUSH FOR "FRYING"

2 cupfuls corn-meal 2 tablespoonfuls flour 2 teaspoonfuls salt 2 cupfuls cold water 1 quart boiling water

Mix the dry ingredients, add the cold water, and mix thoroughly. Place the boiling water in the small pan of the fireless cooker. Stir the corn-meal mixture into the boiling water and cook 10 minutes directly over the flame, stirring constantly. Cover and place in the large kettle of boiling water. Place in the fireless cooker 5 to 10 hours. Remove the pan of mush from the water and allow the mush to cool.

NOTE.—Corn-meal Mush for frying may be cooked over a flame in a double boiler according to the recipe given above. Cook it for several hours.

RICE AND TOMATOES

1/2 cupful rice 1 tablespoonful butter or substitute 1/2 teaspoonful celery salt l-1/4 cupfuls boiling water 1 cupful tomatoes 1 slice onion 1 teaspoonful salt 1/8 teaspoonful pepper

In the small pan of the fireless cooker cook (over a flame) the rice, onion, and fat, stirring constantly until they are slightly brown. Add boiling water and cook until the water is almost absorbed. Add the tomatoes and seasoning and heat the mixture until it boils. Cover and place in the large kettle of boiling water belonging to the fireless cooker. Place in the fireless cooker for 3/4 hour. This food may be served as a border around meat.

QUESTIONS

In your own way, explain the principle of "cooking without fire."

What ingredient does Corn-meal Mush for "Frying" contain that plain Corn- meal Mush does not? What is the use of this ingredient in Corn-meal Mush for "Frying"? (See Wheat Flour and Corn-meal.)

How does the method of preparing Corn-meal Mush for "Frying" differ from the usual method of cooking cereals?

How many cupfuls of corn-meal in one pound? Of rice in one pound? What is the price per pound of corn-meal and rice?



LESSON XXIII

CEREALS FOR FRYING OR BAKING

"FRIED" OR BAKED MUSH

Cut Corn-meal Mush for "Frying" into slices 1/3 inch thick. Dip each slice in flour and brown in a little hot fat (butter or substitute, or a slice of salt pork fat may be used).

The slices of mush may be spread with softened fat, or dipped in melted fat, and browned in the oven or broiling oven.

Instead of spreading the mush with fat, the slices may be dipped in cracker or fine dried bread crumbs, then dipped into egg mixture—1 egg beaten and diluted with 1 tablespoonful of water—and again dipped into cracker or bread crumbs. Place the "breaded slices" in a dripping pan, put fat in bits over the top and bake for about half a hour or until the crumbs are brown.

Hot mush may be served plain or with sirup.

In the same way, left-over wheatena, cream of wheat, farina, and other breakfast cereals may be molded, cooled, and then "fried" or baked.

FRENCH TOAST

1 or 2 eggs 1 cupful milk 1/4 teaspoonful salt 6 or 8 slices of stale bread

Beat the eggs slightly, add the salt and milk, and dip the bread in the mixture. Heat a griddle or "frying" pan and place a little butter or substitute, or a combination of butter and some other fat, in the pan. Brown the bread on one side in the hot fat. Place a bit of fat on the top of each slice, turn, and brown the other side. Serve hot. A mixture of powdered sugar and cinnamon, or sirup is sometimes used in serving French Toast.

SIRUP

1/2 cupful corn sirup (dark) 1/4 cupful boiling water 2 tablespoonfuls brown sugar 1/8 teaspoonful salt 1 teaspoonful vanilla

Mix the corn sirup, sugar, water, and salt. Heat until the boiling point is reached. Cool and then add the vanilla. If it is desired to serve the sirup hot, its flavor is improved by the addition of 1 teaspoonful of butter.

QUESTIONS

In preparing French Toast, what care must be taken in dipping the stale bread in the milk and egg mixture?

Since it is desirable to serve the slices of toast whole, which are the better for French Toast,—large or small pieces of bread?

What is the advantage of placing a bit of fat on each slice of bread just before turning it?

Why is it advisable to add butter to the sirup only when the latter is to be served hot?

What is the purpose of adding sugar to corn sirup? (See Corn Sirup.)



LESSON XXIV

POWDERED CEREALS USED FOR THICKENING

EXPERIMENT 22: STARCH GRAINS AND BOILING WATER.—Pour 2 tablespoonfuls of boiling water over 1 teaspoonful of flour. Stir and heat over the flame. Is the mixture smooth? Examine the center of a "Jump." How does it compare with uncooked starch? Are all the starch grains swelled and semisoluble?

EXPERIMENT 23: SEPARATION OF STARCH GRAINS WITH COLD WATER.—Mix 1 teaspoonful of flour with 1 teaspoonful of water. Add 2 tablespoonfuls of boiling water, stir, and heat. Is the mixture smooth? Explain clearly the use of cold water in this mixture.

EXPERIMENT 24: SEPARATION OF STARCH GRAINS WITH SUGAR.—Mix 1 teaspoonful of flour with 1 teaspoonful of sugar. Add 2 table-spoonfuls of boiling water, stir, and heat. Is the mixture smooth? Carefully explain the use of sugar in the mixture.

EXPERIMENT 25: SEPARATION OF STARCH GRAINS WITH FAT.—Mix 1 teaspoonful of flour with 1 teaspoonful of fat. Add 2 tablespoonfuls of boiling water, stir, and heat. Is the mixture smooth? Explain the use of fat in this mixture.

To cook starch successfully, it is necessary to swell every grain of starch contained in the starchy food. To accomplish this each grain must be surrounded by heat and moisture. In vegetables and cereals, the cellular framework separates the starch grains so that they are uniformly cooked. Since there is nothing to separate the grains in a powdered starchy substance, as shown in the foregoing experiments, it becomes necessary to mix it with certain materials so that the heat and moisture can penetrate every grain at the same time.

BLANC MANGE

2 cupfuls milk 1/4 cupful corn-starch 1/2 cupful sugar 2 teaspoonfuls vanilla Nutmeg 1/8 teaspoonful salt

Scald the milk in a double boiler. Mix the sugar and corn-starch. Add the hot milk slowly to the sugar and corn-starch mixture, stirring rapidly. Return to the double boiler and cook 30 minutes, stir rapidly until the mixture thickens. Add the salt and flavoring and pour into a mold which has been moistened with cold water. Cool, turn from the mold, and serve with sugar and cream.

If a softer and more creamy dessert is desired, the corn-starch may be reduced to 3 tablespoonfuls. If this quantity of thickening is used, the cooked dessert should be poured into sherbet glasses or other suitable dishes for serving; it will not become stiff enough to mold.

NOTE.—While cooking Blanc Mange, note the number of minutes that is required to thicken the mixture and the length of time of cooking given in the recipe. Why is it necessary to cook the mixture for so long a time after it thickens? (See Cereals.)

CHOCOLATE CORN-STARCH PUDDING

Proceed as for Blanc Mange, using 3/8 cupful of sugar instead of 1/4 cupful. Cut into pieces 1 square (i.e. 1 ounce) of Baker's chocolate. Add to it 1/4 cupful of boiling water. Stir and heat until smooth and thoroughly blended. Add this to the corn-starch mixture just before taking from the fire. Add 1/2 teaspoonful of vanilla. Mold and serve as Blanc Mange.

Note that the quantity of sugar is increased when chocolate is added to the corn-starch mixture. Chocolate mixtures require considerable sugar to make them tasty.

3 tablespoonfuls of cocoa may be substituted for the chocolate. When this is done, mix the cocoa with the corn-starch and sugar and add no water to it. Proceed as in making plain Blanc Mange.

QUESTIONS

Name three substances that can be used to prevent the lumping of powdered cereals used for thickening.

Give the reason for mixing the sugar, corn-starch, and hot milk of Blanc Mange as directed.

For how long a time after placing in the double boiler is it necessary to stir the corn-starch, sugar, and hot milk mixture?

Milk, especially a milk and starchy mixture, scorches readily (see Scalding Milk). From this explain why Blanc Mange is cooked entirely over boiling water, and not over the flame and then in a double boiler, as cereals.

Why is the flavoring not added while the mixture is cooking (see Flavoring Extracts)?

What is the price per package of corn-starch?

How much does a package of corn-starch weigh and measure?

Which material—flour or corn-starch—is the cheaper to use for thickening?

How many persons does the quantity of Blanc Mange above serve?



LESSON XXV

TOAST: DIGESTION OF STARCH

EXPERIMENT 26: CHANGE OF STARCH INTO DEXTRIN.—Place a teaspoonful of flour in a frying pan and heat slowly until it becomes very dark brown and uniform in color. Put a little of the browned flour into a test tube, add water, then shake. Add a few drops of iodine. What indicates the presence of starch? Is starch present?

The starch has been changed to dextrin. Dextrin gives a purple (reddish blue) color when treated with iodine.

EXPERIMENT 27: THE SOLUBILITY OF DEXTRIN.—Pour the remainder of the browned flour from Experiment 26 into a test tube. Add water and shake. Pour through filter paper [Footnote 26: Liquids pass through filter paper, but solids do not. Hence if a mixture of solid and liquid is poured upon filter paper, the liquid passes through, but the solid remains on the paper.] into another test tube (see Figure 30). Notice the color of the liquid that has been filtered. Add a few drops of iodine to the filtered liquid. Is dextrin present? Is dextrin soluble in water?

From these experiments, we find that dry heat has changed insoluble starch into a soluble substance called dextrin. Dextrin is found in small amounts in the crust of bread and in toast.

DIGESTION OF STARCH.—It was found in a previous lesson (Lesson XVI) that sugar is entirely soluble in water, and since digestion and solution are closely related, the digestion of some sugar is simple. Starch was found to be insoluble in cold water and only semi-soluble in hot water. In the process of digestion it would seem that some change must take place in the starch to make it soluble. Such a change does take place; starch is changed into a soluble carbohydrate or a sugar before it is digested.

Substances called enzymes which are in the saliva of the mouth [Footnote 27: Ptyalin and amylopsin are the ferments found in the mouth and intestines, respectively.] and in the digestive juices of the intestines [Footnote 28: Ptyalin and amylopsin are the ferments found in the mouth and intestines, respectively.] cause this change. To show that this change takes place to some extent in the mouth, try the following experiments:

EXPERIMENT 28: STARCH IN CRACKER.—Test a bit of cracker with iodine for starch. What indicates the presence of starch? Does the cracker contain starch?

EXPERIMENT 29: ACTION OF SALIVA UPON STARCH.—Thoroughly chew a bit of cracker. As you chew the cracker, note that it becomes sweeter in flavor. Remove from the mouth, and place upon a piece of paper. Test it with iodine. A purple (reddish blue) color indicates a soluble carbohydrate (see Experiment 27). What substance does the masticated cracker contain? Explain the change that has taken place in the cracker by mastication.

TOAST.—Bread is properly toasted when it is dried out thoroughly and then browned on the outside. Both the crumb and the crust of the toast are thus made crisp. Crisp toast crumbles during mastication.

Fresh bread contains much moisture. When it is toasted quickly, the moisture is inclosed in the interior of the slice and the resulting toast is very soft. This kind of toast is almost as difficult to digest as fresh bread. Instead of toast breaking into bits during digestion, it remains in a solid mass and is digested with difficulty.

Give at least two practical methods of toasting bread to produce the desired kind of toast.

CREAM TOAST

1 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute 1/2 teaspoonful salt 2 tablespoonfuls flour 2 cupfuls milk or cream 6 to 8 slices of toast

Heat the fat; when it bubbles, add the flour and salt, mixing thoroughly. Add a small portion of the milk. Heat and stir continually until it thickens. Add another portion of the milk and proceed as before. Continue until all the milk has been added. The sauce is sufficiently cooked when it reaches the boiling point after the last quantity of milk has been added. Pour this sauce over dry or moist toast.

Moist toast is prepared by dipping dry toast quickly into hot, salted water or hot milk. If the crust has not been cut from bread for toasting, only the outer edges of the toast may be moistened.

The flavor of butter in Cream Toast is pleasing. To secure some butter flavor and at the same time economize, a combination of butter and a mild flavored fat or oil may be used.

QUESTIONS

Give the reason for mixing flour and fat as directed in White Sauce (see Experiment 25).

What is the proportion of fat and flour? What is the proportion of flour and liquid? Using this proportion, how much flour should be used for one cupful of liquid?

What is the use of flour in White Sauce?

Note the consistency of the sauce, and keep it in mind as a standard of comparison for the thickness of other sauces.

What should be the condition of the crumb of toast to be most quickly digested? Give reasons for your answer.



LESSON XXVI

ROOT VEGETABLES (A)

Plant Roots.—Plants used for food have their stored-up food largely in the form of starch and to some extent in the form of sugar. The parts of the plant underneath the ground as well as the seeds serve as a storehouse for the plant. All roots and tubers contain carbohydrates, although not in so large a proportion as cereals. Those most commonly used as foods are potatoes, tapioca, parsnips, carrots, beets, and turnips. Potatoes and tapioca contain the most starch in this group. Parsnips, carrots, and beets contain a little starch and much sugar. Turnips contain much cellulose. Carrots, parsnips, and beets are also rich in cellulose.

All root vegetables as well as leaf and stem vegetables contain ash.

Comparison of Vegetables Cooked with or without the Skins, and in Water or in Steam [Footnote 29: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.—This lesson can be conducted most expeditiously by dividing the class into groups of six and having each group clean, prepare, and cook in water and in steam, potatoes and carrots as directed above.]—Clean, prepare, and cook in water pared and unpared potatoes, scraped and unscraped carrots, and cook in steam pared potatoes and scraped carrots.