It was a melancholy fact that Nuno da Cunha was unable to witness the success of his brother-in-law, Silveira. In spite of his great services he, like his relative Affonso de Albuquerque, whom he resembled in his wide views and his personal disinterestedness, was slandered at the Court of Lisbon. He had taken harsh measures against embezzling officials and insubordinate captains, and during his ten years of government he made numerous enemies. These men persuaded the King that Nuno da Cunha was making a large fortune, when really he was spending his private property for the public service; and, in spite of the arguments of old Tristao da Cunha, Dom Garcia de Noronha was ordered to send the greatest Portuguese Governor of India since Albuquerque home in custody. On his way home Nuno da Cunha died at sea on March 5, 1539, in the fifty-second year of his age, and his last words, when his chaplain asked what should be done with his body, were: 'Since the will of God is that I should die at sea, let the sea be my grave; for since the land will not have {183} me why should I leave my bones to it.' Nuno da Cunha's establishment of the Portuguese at Diu was the most important event since the conquest of Goa; in temper and in disposition he resembled his great relative; like Albuquerque, he was treated with ingratitude and died in disgrace.

Dom Garcia de Noronha did not rule long enough to affect the history of the Portuguese in India. He died at Goa on April 3, 1540, and was succeeded as Governor, not as Viceroy, by Dom Estevao da Gama, the second son of the famous navigator. The new governor was an experienced officer; he had been Captain of the Sea during his father's short viceroyalty in 1524; had made more than one voyage to India; and had acted for five years as Captain of Malacca.

The one remarkable event of his governorship was his expedition to the Red Sea. The repulse of Sulaiman Pasha had been followed by his death in Arabia, but Sulaiman the Magnificent did not intend to abandon his projects, and directed the equipment of a new fleet at Suez. In 1541 Dom Estevao da Gama entered the Red Sea. He was repulsed in an attack on Suez, but made a landing in the neighbourhood and a pilgrimage to the monastery of Mount Sinai, where he knighted some of his officers, including Dom Alvaro de Castro, the son of his most distinguished captain, Dom Joao de Castro. Before returning to India the Governor sent his brother, Dom Christovao da Gama, to escort a prelate, {184} whom the Pope had nominated as primate of Abyssinia. But the Christian dynasty in that country was at this time hotly beset by the Muhammadans, and Dom Christovao was killed with his companions.

In the year 1542 Dom Estevao da Gama was succeeded as Governor by Martim Affonso de Sousa, who had shown ability in the exploration and settlement of the colony of Brazil. De Sousa's government of India was not very successful. His most notable achievement was a treaty with Ibrahim Adil Shah, King of Bijapur, who promised to cede to the Portuguese the provinces of Bardes and Salsette adjoining the island of Goa in exchange for the surrender of a Muhammadan prince, Mir Ali Khan (Mealecan). But Martim Affonso de Sousa had neither the ability nor the authority to maintain his influence over his own captains, and King John III resolved to send to India a nobleman of military experience, who by his rank and his character should restore harmony in his Asiatic possessions.

The nobleman selected was Dom Joao de Castro, who was the intimate friend of the King's brother Dom Luis. With that prince he had served in the expedition against Tunis, where his conspicuous valour had won the admiration of the Emperor Charles V. He displayed courage, tact, and self-reliance, both in the relief of Diu and in the campaign of 1541 in the Red Sea. But it was for the purity of his personal character, the integrity of his life, and his absolute honesty that he was specially selected.

{185} Enormous fortunes were being made in the East, and the usual abuses accompanied the rapid acquisition of wealth. Bribery and corruption in public life, gambling and immorality in private life had reached an alarming height, and though the Portuguese still exhibited the same valour and constancy in war as in the days of Albuquerque, they were now too apt to prefer private advantage to the good of the State. Dom Joao de Castro took out with him a powerful fleet and 2000 soldiers, and he was accompanied by two young sons, Dom Alvaro and Dom Fernao, who rivalled in the East the glory of the youthful Dom Lourenco de Almeida and of Albuquerque's young nephew Dom Antonio de Noronha.

Dom Joao de Castro reached Goa on September 10, 1545, and at once took over the charge of the government. He found himself face to face with two serious dangers; Ibrahim Adil Shah of Bijapur was preparing to attack Goa, and Muhammad III of Gujarat was again besieging Diu. These were but symptoms of a general league which was in act of formation between all the sovereigns of the West of India against the Portuguese. In spite of the expostulation of the officials Joao de Castro refused to carry out the engagement made with the King of Bijapur by his predecessor. He declared that Mir Ali Khan had come to seek refuge at Goa, and that it would be a most dishonourable act to surrender him. The King of Bijapur at once sent an army to recover the {186} provinces of Bardes and Salsette, which he had handed over, but Dom Joao de Castro marched out and inflicted a severe defeat on the Bijapur forces.

The situation at Diu was more threatening. A renegade Albanian, called by the Portuguese Coge Cofar (Khoja Zufar), had attained supreme influence at the Court of Muhammad III of Gujarat. He persuaded the King that it was most disgraceful for him to fail in capturing Diu. He collected the whole force of the kingdom and commenced the siege of the Portuguese fortress, with the declaration that he would die sooner than return unsuccessful. The Captain of Diu, Dom Joao Mascarenhas, showed the same constancy and valour as Antonio da Silveira. The garrison consisted of nearly the same soldiers, and the women once more distinguished themselves in the defence. The Governor made every effort to relieve the fortress. He first sent his son, Dom Fernao, who was killed, then his other son, Dom Alvaro, and eventually brought up all the forces he could collect in person. Coge Cofar was slain by a cannon-ball, and his successor, Rumecao, did not press the siege with the same vigour.

After repulsing all assaults, Dom Joao de Castro marched out at the head of his army and utterly defeated the enemy in a pitched battle. The slaughter among the Muhammadans was immense, and the victory was one of the greatest ever won by a European army in India. He then proceeded to punish the Gujaratis. One of his captains, Antonio {187} Moniz Barreto, burnt Cambay, and his son, Dom Alvaro, sacked Surat. This great victory showed the native princes that they had a worthy successor of Albuquerque to deal with, and Dom Joao de Castro was on all sides entreated to make alliances with them. With the King of Bijapur alone the war continued, but the Portuguese everywhere got the best of it; Dabhol was taken, and the Muhammadans were again defeated on land.

The internal reforms were even more to the credit of Dom Joao de Castro than his victories. One point in his policy resembles that adopted by Cornwallis in Bengal; namely, the fixing of the salaries of the various officials, and his effort to put an end to the system of peculation which was rife. This peculation was chiefly caused by the officials engaging in trade; by which they made vast profits while the State suffered. The state of things had partly arisen through the custom of allowing Portuguese soldiers to trade after serving for nine years. It was this inducement which brought so many soldiers from Portugal; and in spite of the Governor's representations, the Portuguese authorities were afraid to put an end to it for fear of stopping the flow of recruits. The reforming measures of Dom Joao de Castro did not remain long in operation, but his example had a great effect. So great was the confidence felt in his probity, that an anecdote is told of his raising money in Goa for the relief of Diu, by pawning the hairs of his beard.

The news of Dom Joao de Castro's victory at Diu {188} was received with great enthusiasm by John III, who in 1548 sent him a commission as Viceroy. He only lived to hold this high office for fourteen days. He died at Goa on June 6, 1548, in the arms of his friend, the Apostle to the Indies, Saint Francis Xavier. The greatest of all the successors of Albuquerque was Dom Joao de Castro; he resembled the knights of the middle ages in his gallantry and his disinterestedness, while his victory at Diu is the last great achievement of the Portuguese arms in Asia.

{189}

CHAPTER VIII

THE SUCCESSORS OF ALBUQUERQUE (continued)

Dom Constantino de Braganza and Dom Luis de Athaide

The thirty-five years which followed from the death of Dom Joao de Castro to the extinction of the independence of Portugal are neither so interesting nor so important as those which saw the building up of the Portuguese power in the East. Commercially, the value of Vasco da Gama's voyage and of Albuquerque's victories became greater than ever. The largest fleets of merchant-ships ever sent to Portugal were despatched after Philip II of Spain had become also Philip I of Portugal. The Portuguese monopoly remained unbroken until 1595, and the nations of Europe, while they grew in civilisation and in love of luxury, continued until that time to buy from Lisbon the Asiatic commodities which had become necessary to them. As the commerce became systematised it grew larger and more profitable, both to the Royal Treasury which equipped the merchant fleets and sold their cargoes at Lisbon, and to the individual agents in India, who purchased the goods {190} which made up these cargoes. But politically the history of the Portuguese in India becomes less interesting. There were no more great discoveries; no more great conquests and great victories; no more grandiose conceptions of expelling the Muhammadans from the markets of Asia.

Gallant feats of arms were still accomplished, but they only proved how the Portuguese had degenerated since the days of Albuquerque. The defence of Goa by Dom Luis de Athaide was brilliant, but after all it was a defensive operation, and not a victory such as Dom Joao de Castro had won at Diu, or the storming of a strong city, like the captures of Goa and Malacca by Albuquerque. There were one or two high-minded and able men among the successors of the splendid Albuquerque, but they did not attempt to rival his deeds or carry out his ideas. The romance of Portuguese history in the East is no longer bound up with the growth of the power of the nation, but is to be found rather in the careers of daring adventurers such as Fernao Mendes Pinto and Sebastiao Gonzales. The complete attainment of commercial prosperity seems to have destroyed the dream of Empire.

But at the time when the political interest in the career of the Portuguese in Asia diminishes, the religious interest increases. The new heroes of Portugal are not her soldiers and her sailors, but her missionaries. These were the men who made their way into the interior of India, and who penetrated the {191} farthest East. Japan, China, and even Tibet, witnessed their presence and heard their preaching; the great Emperor Akbar gave them a not unkindly welcome at his Court at Agra; and they laboured among the savages of the Spice Islands as well as among the learned men of China and of India.

The greatest of all these missionaries, Saint Francis Xavier, was not a Portuguese subject. But the Company of Jesus, of which he was the pioneer missionary, contained many Portuguese, and he could not have attempted what he did but for the support of the Portuguese government at home and of the Portuguese authorities in India.

The idea of discouraging Christian missionaries, which formed a part of the policy of the Dutch and English East India Companies, never had an adherent among the Portuguese. They believed sincerely in their religion, and the principal use they made of their influence when they were firmly established in Asia was to spread it abroad. Again and again orders were sent from Portugal that the missionaries were to be assisted in every possible way.

The Franciscan friars who first came to India were engaged in looking after the souls of the Portuguese soldiers, but they were followed, and in increasing numbers after the successes of Saint Francis, by priests and friars and Jesuits, who left Europe for the express purpose of converting the heathen. The history of the Roman Catholic missions in India, for which there is plenty of material, {192} would need a volume in itself. It must suffice to point out that those missions did not begin to attain their full development until after the Portuguese had reached their highest political power during the governorship of Dom Joao de Castro, and were beginning to decline.

In 1538 the Pope nominated for the first time a Bishop of Goa in the person of Frei Joao de Albuquerque, a Franciscan friar, and a relative of the great Governor. This holy man, who won a great reputation for sanctity, died in 1553, and in 1557 the see of Goa was raised to an archbishopric and conferred upon Dom Gaspar de Leao Pereira. The archbishops soon rivalled the viceroys in wealth and dignity, and in at least one instance, at the beginning of the seventeenth century, an archbishop also acted as governor. Other sees were speedily established at Cochin, Malacca, and Macao, and many missionary bishops were appointed for other parts of India, China, and Japan. The first labourers in the mission field were the Franciscans. They were soon followed by other religious orders, and were exceeded in success and ability by the Jesuits.

In 1560, after the death of Dom Joao de Castro and of St. Francis Xavier, the Holy Inquisition was established in Goa. It was granted as its headquarters the magnificent palace of Yusaf Adil Shah, which had been the residence of the viceroys until 1554. Its first action was rather corrective than persecuting, and it was not until the seventeenth {193} century that the periodical burnings of relapsed converts and supposed witches, which are known as Autos da Fe, commenced their sanguinary work. The most notable event in the religious history of the Portuguese in India, the condemnation of the doctrines and ritual of the Nestorian Christians of the Malabar coast, did not occur till the Synod of Diamper (Udayampura) in 1599.

The educational work of the missionaries, their custom of dwelling among the people and imitating their mode of life, as well as their building of superb churches in the Portuguese cities, well deserve an extended notice, which cannot be adequately given in this volume. It is enough to say that Albuquerque, though zealous and desirous of spreading the faith, did not initiate the policy of persecution. It was his feeble successors who threw away the opportunity afforded for the propagation of the Christian faith, by the existence of a native Christian community in the very part of India where the Portuguese first landed.

When the sealed order of succession was opened, after the lamented death of Dom Joao de Castro, it was found that the two first nominees, Dom Joao Mascarenhas and Dom Jorge Tello de Menezes, had already left India for Portugal. The third packet opened contained the name of Garcia de Sa, an aged gentleman, who had spent nearly all his life in India. He hastened to make peace with Ibrahim Adil Shah of Bijapur, and with Muhammad III of Gujarat. To {194} the former he promised that the Portuguese would not allow Mir Ali Khan to leave Goa, and on that condition the cession of Bardes and Salsette was confirmed. In the treaty with the King of Gujarat it was agreed that the Portuguese should continue to hold the fortress of Diu, which they had twice so gallantly defended, while the city and the rest of the island remained subject to Muhammad III. Garcia de Sa died at Goa on July 13, 1549, and was succeeded as governor by Jorge Cabral, a descendant of the second Portuguese captain who visited India.

Cabral, who was Captain of Bassein, assumed the office and engaged in a war that was raging between the Raja of Cochin and the Zamorin. He had taken and sacked Tiracol and Ponani, and was just about to attack Calicut, when he received information of the arrival of Dom Affonso de Noronha as Viceroy. This nobleman was the second son of the Marquis de Villa Real, and had been selected for the office of Viceroy by John III, though no Viceroy had been sent out from Portugal with full powers since Dom Garcia de Noronha in 1538. The Viceroy, on taking over office from Cabral, declined to attack Calicut and ordered the fleet back to Goa. He ruled for four years, during which time he greatly extended the Portuguese power in the island of Ceylon.

Dom Affonso de Noronha was succeeded as Viceroy in 1554 by Dom Pedro Mascarenhas, an aged nobleman who had filled the office of ambassador to the Emperor Charles V and the Pope, and had since {195} acted as governor to the heir-apparent. He was over seventy years of age when he was sent to India, and held office but nine months. On his death the sealed orders were opened, and the first name found in them was that of Francisco Barreto, a most experienced officer. This governor is chiefly known from his persecution of the poet Camoens, whom he sent to the little island of Macao as a punishment for a satire he had written on the pride and immorality of the officials at Goa. But Barreto was a very vigorous governor. He did much to strengthen the various Portuguese fortresses throughout Asia, and showed himself a skilful and daring general.

During Barreto's government King John III of Portugal died, leaving the throne to his infant grandson, the ill-fated King Sebastian. One of the first acts of the widow of John III, Queen Catherine, who became Regent of the kingdom, was to appoint a prince of the blood royal, Dom Constantino de Braganza, to be Viceroy. This young prince was only thirty years of age, but he soon showed that he surpassed his predecessors in ability as well as in rank. He reached Goa in 1558, and one of his earliest measures was to capture Daman, where he erected a fortress. This place and Goa and Diu are at the present time the only relics of the Portuguese power in India. On his return from Daman he dispatched powerful fleets to Malacca, to Ormuz, and to Ceylon, and placed the position of affairs in all parts of Asia in a most favourable condition for the Portuguese.

{196} Dom Constantino de Braganza's internal reforms resembled those of Joao de Castro; he endeavoured to put down peculation, and insisted on the obedience of his officers. In 1560 he made an expedition with a powerful armament to Ceylon, where he took Jaffnapatam, which became the capital of the Portuguese power in that island. The high character of the young prince, no less than his courage and his enterprise, caused the Rajas of India to treat him with great respect, and he was begged by the Queen Regent to continue in office, and even to accept the post of Viceroy of India for life. He refused, and in 1561 was succeeded as Viceroy by Dom Francisco de Coutinho, Count of Redondo.

After the resignation of Dom Constantino de Braganza few events of importance happened for some years to the Portuguese in India. The Muhammadan King of Bijapur, Ali Adil Shah, who had succeeded his father Ibrahim in 1557, was at first more concerned with his scheme to break the power of the last great Hindu sovereign, the Raja of Vijayanagar, than to attack the Portuguese. Freed from danger on this side, the Portuguese governors were able to scatter their power over small but successful expeditions. The most notable of these was to Ceylon, which was gradually brought entirely under the control of the Portuguese. The Count of Redondo died in March, 1564, at Goa, and was succeeded as Viceroy, after a short administration as Governor by Joao de Mendonca, by Dom Antao de Noronha.

{197} The new Viceroy commenced his government by the capture of Mangalore, but the important events which occurred during his tenure of office took place without his active intervention. The first of these was the siege of Malacca by the King of Achin. The defence of Albuquerque's conquest ranks with that of Diu. It is true that the savage Achinese were not such formidable soldiers as the Turks or the Gujaratis; but, on the other hand, Malacca was further from Goa, and it was more difficult to obtain reinforcements. The Captain who maintained the defence was Dom Leonis Pereira, who held out for several months and eventually beat off his enemies after killing more than 4000 of them.

The other event was the defeat of the Raja of Vijayanagar in 1565, at Talikot, by the allied Muhammadan kings of the Deccan. It may fairly be conjectured that Albuquerque would have assisted the last powerful Hindu monarch against the Muhammadans, for it was a part of his policy to pose as the protector of the Hindus. But his successors did not appreciate his policy, and, disgusted by an attack which the Hindu prince had made some years previously on the Portuguese settlement of Saint Thome, they left the Raja of Vijayanagar to his fate.

In 1568 Dom Luis de Athaide, an officer who had had much experience in Indian warfare, and who had been knighted as a lad by Dom Estevao da Gama in the monastery of Mount Sinai, arrived in Goa as Viceroy. He quickly perceived that a first result {198} of the victory of Talikot must be that the King of Bijapur would attack Goa. The city of Goa had far outgrown the limits imposed by the wall which Albuquerque had built. Dom Antao de Noronha had, during his government, begun to build a new wall, which was to run from the north-eastern angle of the island of Goa and should terminate at the west of the city. Dom Luis de Athaide continued this wall, and was in the act of building other fortifications when Ali Adil Shah declared war and made his way into the island with an army estimated at 100,000 men, and accompanied by more than 2000 elephants. This attack was part of a general scheme formed by the Muhammadan rulers of India, with the Zamorin of Calicut and the King of Achin, to expel the Portuguese from Asia. Even sovereigns who had hitherto been allies of the Portuguese, such as the Raja of Honawar, joined in the league against them.

Never was the situation of the Portuguese more critical; never did they show more conspicuous valour. The garrison of Goa, when the siege commenced in 1570, only consisted of 700 Portuguese soldiers. Consequently the Viceroy placed under arms 300 friars and priests and about a thousand slaves. The defence was worthy of the best days of the Portuguese power. For ten months an obstinate resistance was offered, and at the end of that time Ali Adil Shah retreated, having lost by disease and by fighting the larger part of his army.

The defence of Goa, by the Viceroy, was rivalled {199} by the gallant resistance of Malacca, of Chaul, and of Chale near Calicut, where Dom Leonis Pereira, Dom Jorge de Menezes, and Dom Diogo de Menezes, all repulsed their assailants. On the retreat of Ali Adil Shah from before Goa, the Portuguese Viceroy swept the Malabar coast, punishing all opponents and relieving the other garrisons. His vengeance was particularly shown at Honawar, which he burnt. Just after the league was finally broken, on September 7, 1571, Dom Antonio de Noronha arrived to succeed Dom Luis de Athaide as Viceroy. The defender of Goa received a cordial welcome on his return to Lisbon from his friend, the young King Sebastian, who created him Count of Atouguia.

Dom Antonio de Noronha, who was only a distant relative of the predecessor of Dom Luis de Athaide, did not possess the powers of previous Viceroys. King Sebastian perceived the great inconvenience of leaving the whole of his possessions from the Cape of Good Hope to Japan under the superintendence of the Goa government. The difficulty of communication was so great that for months at a time the captains of the more distant settlements were practically independent. It was resolved, therefore, to divide the East into three independent governorships.

Dom Antonio de Noronha, with the title of Viceroy, was to be supreme from the coasts of Arabia to Ceylon, with his capital at Goa. This left him entire control of the Indian and Persian trade. Antonio Moniz Barreto was to govern from Bengal to the {200} furthest East, with his headquarters at Malacca, and was charged with the control of the spice trade. Francisco Barreto, the former Governor of India, was to rule all the Portuguese settlements on the South-East coast of Africa, with his capital at Mozambique.

Hitherto these African settlements had been regarded solely as stopping-places for the fleets to and from India. But King Sebastian wished to use them also as the basis for exploration and conquest in the interior of Africa. This is not a history of the Portuguese in Africa, but it may be remarked that much important and interesting work was done by the Portuguese in that continent during the sixteenth century which seems to be forgotten by writers on the opening up of Africa at the present time. Francisco Barreto, for instance, made his way far into the interior and conquered the kingdom and city of Monomotapa, where he died.

Dom Antonio de Noronha handed over the government of India in 1573 to Antonio Moniz Barreto. Ruy Lourenco de Tavora, who was nominated to succeed as Viceroy, died on his way out, and Dom Diogo de Menezes, the defender of Chale, administered the government from 1576 to 1578. He was superseded by Dom Luis de Athaide, who at the special request of King Sebastian consented once more to return to India. Athaide's second viceroyalty was not marked by any important event. He died at Goa on March 10, 1581; it is said from a broken heart caused by the news of the defeat of the King Sebastian {201} and of his melancholy death at Alcacer Quibir (El-Kasr Kebir) in Morocco.

With the death of Dom Luis de Athaide this rapid sketch of the successors of Albuquerque must end: he was the last great Portuguese ruler in the East, and none of the Viceroys who succeeded him deserve separate notice. The commercial monopoly of Portugal lasted some years longer, but the fabric of the Portuguese power in India was utterly rotten, and gave way with hardly a struggle before the first assaults of the Dutch merchant-adventurers.

The causes of the rapid fall of Portuguese influence in Asia are as interesting to examine as the causes of their rapid success, and, like the latter, they may be classed under external and internal headings. The chief external cause was the union of the Portuguese crown with that of Spain in 1580. Philip II kept the promise he made to the Cortes of Thomar, and appointed none but Portuguese to offices in Portuguese Asia. His accession to the throne was everywhere recognised in the East, and the Prior of Crato who opposed him found no adherents there. The first Viceroy whom Philip nominated, Dom Francisco Mascarenhas, bore a name famous in Portugal, and had no difficulty in persuading the various captains of fortresses to swear fealty to the Spanish king. It is curious to note among the Viceroys whom Philip II nominated to Goa two relations of the most famous Portuguese conquerors in the East, Mathias de Albuquerque and Dom Francisco da Gama, grandson of {202} the navigator. In spite of Philip's loyalty in this respect, the fact that he was King of Portugal involved that country in war with the Dutch and the English. The merchants of Amsterdam and London were forbidden to come to Lisbon for Asiatic commodities, and they consequently resolved to go to the East and get them for themselves. In 1595 the first Dutch fleet doubled the Cape of Good Hope, and in 1601 it was followed by the first English fleet, both being despatched by trading companies. The Portuguese endeavoured to expel the intruders, but they signally failed.

The reasons for this failure are to be found in the internal causes of the Portuguese decline. The union with Spain brought their rivals into the Eastern seas, but it was their own weakness which let those rivals triumph. The primary cause of that weakness was the complete exhaustion of the Portuguese nation. Year after year this little country, which never exceeded 3,000,000 in population, sent forth fleets to the East, carrying sometimes as many as 3000 and 4000 soldiers. Of these men few ever returned to Europe. Many perished in battle, in shipwreck, or from the climate, and those who survived were encouraged to settle down and marry native women. During the whole of the sixteenth century Portugal was being drained of men, and those the strongest and bravest of her sons. In return she got plenty of wealth, but money cannot take the place of brain and muscle. Besides becoming exhausted {203} in quantity, the Portuguese in the East rapidly degenerated in quality. It was not only that Albuquerque's successors in supreme command were his inferiors; some of them proved worthy of their office; but the soldiers and sailors and officials showed a lamentable falling off. Brilliant courage was shown up to the siege of Goa in 1570. After that time it is difficult to recognise the heroic Portuguese of Albuquerque's campaigns. Albuquerque's imperial notions were set aside as impracticable, and interest in commerce and in Christian missions took the place of vast schemes of conquest and of empire.

The later history of the Portuguese in Asia may be summed up in a rapid record of their disasters. In 1603 and 1639 the Dutch blockaded Goa. In 1656 they drove the Portuguese from Cannanore; in 1661 from Negapatam and Kayenkolam, the port of Quilon; in 1663 from Cranganore and Cochin. Nor were the Dutch victories confined to India; in 1619 they founded Batavia in the island of Java, and in 1640 they took Malacca and concentrated the whole trade of the Spice Islands at their new settlement. The Dutch were equally successful in Ceylon, which they completely controlled after the capture of Jaffnapatam in 1658. The English were but little later in the field: in 1611 Sir Henry Middleton defeated the Portuguese off Cambay, and in 1615 Captain Best won a great victory over the Portuguese fleet off Swally, the port of Surat. The Dutch and English agencies quickly covered the East, and soon after {204} the middle of the seventeenth century the Asiatic trade of Portugal had practically disappeared. What little commerce survived was in the hands of the Jesuits, and became finally extinct on the suppression of that body by the Marquis of Pombal in 1742.

It was not only by European competitors that the Portuguese power in the East was shattered. It was the Emperor Shah Jahan who took Hugli in 1629, after an obstinate resistance, and carried away 1000 Portuguese prisoners; and it was Abbas Shah of Persia, who, with the assistance of some Englishmen, captured Ormuz in 1622. In 1670 a small band of Arabs from Muscat plundered Diu, the fortress which, under Silveira and Mascarenhas, had resisted the utmost power of great Muhammadan fleets and armies.

The Maratha confederacy also found it easy and profitable to plunder Portuguese settlements in India. In 1739 these hardy Hindu soldiers sacked Bassein, and they extended their incursions to the very walls of Goa. In the eighteenth century a vigorous effort was made by the Portuguese to hold their own with the Marathas, which met with some success, and led to a considerable increase of the province of Goa. Lastly, it must not be forgotten that in 1661 the Portuguese ceded the island of Bombay to England as part of the dowry of Catherine of Braganza.

The present condition of the Portuguese in India affords a curious commentary on the high aims and great successes of Albuquerque. The remaining Portuguese possessions, Goa, Daman, and Diu could {205} make no pretence of defending themselves against the English Empire in India. They are maintained by Portugal, not for any benefits to be derived from them, but as relics of the past and witnesses to former glory. The condition of the Portuguese is indicated by the treaty which was signed in 1878 with the British Government, by which the right of making salt and the customs duties were ceded to the Government of India for a yearly payment of four lakhs of rupees. This sum was hypothecated for the construction of a railway to Marmagao, near Goa, which possesses a fine harbour, and will probably increase in wealth as the port of export for the cotton grown in Bellary and the neighbouring British districts.

One interesting relic of the former supremacy of the Portuguese was the right claimed by Portugal to nominate the Roman Catholic prelates throughout India. This right, natural enough in the sixteenth century, became absurd in the nineteenth. A long quarrel arising from this claim has recently been settled by a Concordat between the Pope and the King of Portugal.

The present volume may appropriately close with two descriptions of the Portuguese in India by a Muhammadan and a Hindu writer in the sixteenth century.

'The Franks beginning to oppress and commit hostilities against the Muhammadans' says Sheik Zin-ud-din, in his historical work the Tohfut-ul-mujahideen, 'their tyrannical and injurious usage proceeded to a length that was the occasion {206} of a general confusion and distraction amongst the population of the country. This continued for a long period, for nearly eighty years, when the affairs of the Moslems had arrived at the last stage of decay, ruin, poverty and wretchedness; since whilst they were too ill-practised in deceit to dissemble an obedience which was not sincere, they neither possessed the power to repel nor means to evade the evils that afflicted them. Nor did the Muhammadan princes and chieftains who were possessed of large armies, and who had at their command great military resources, come forward for their deliverance or bestow any of their wealth in so holy a cause as in the resistance to these tyrant infidels.' ...[1]

'Sorely did these Franks oppress the faithful, striving all of them, the great and powerful, the old and young, to eradicate the Muhammadan religion; and to bring over its followers to Christianity (may God ever defend us from such a calamity!). Notwithstanding all this, however, they preserved an outward show of peace towards the Muhammadans, in consequence of their being compelled to dwell amongst them; since the chief part of the population of the seaports consisted of Muhammadans ... Lastly it is worthy of remark that the Franks entertain antipathy and hatred only towards Muhammadans, and to their creed alone; evincing no dislike towards the Nairs and other Pagans of similar description.'[2]

[Footnote 1: Tohfut-ul-mujahideen, Rowlandson's translation, pp. 6, 7.]

[Footnote 2: Tohfut-ul-mujahideen, Rowlandson's translation, pp. 109, 110.]

In the following terms, according to Dr. Burnell, does Venkatacarya, a Brahman of Conjevaram, speak about the Portuguese:—

'This Brahman wrote about A.D. 1600 a Sanskrit poem called Vicvagunadarca, often printed and once rudely {207} translated (Calcutta, 1825, 4to.) In it he mentions the Portuguese, whom he calls Huna. In abuse of them he says they are very despicable, are devoid of tenderness, and do not value Brahmans a straw, that they have endless faults, and do not observe ceremonial purity. But he praises their self-restraint and truthfulness, their mechanical skill, and their respect for law.'[3]

[Footnote 3: A Tentative List of Books and some MSS. relating to the History of the Portuguese in India Proper, by A. C. Burnell, Mangalore, 1880, p. 131.]

Had the Brahman poet known Albuquerque, or the greatest of his successors, he would have praised also their valour, their tenacity, and their disinterested unselfishness. But striking is the contrast between Albuquerque and even the greatest of his successors. His contemporaries felt this, and his son, in the dedication of the second edition of the Commentaries to King Sebastian, in 1574, gives an anecdote which illustrates this general opinion.

'I shall say no more,' he says, 'than tell you what a soldier said who always accompanied him in war. This man being very old and staying in the city of Goa, when he reflected upon the disorder of Indian affairs, went with a stick in his hand to the chapel of Affonso de Albuquerque, and, striking the sepulchre wherein he was lying buried, cried out:—"Oh! great captain, thou hast done me all the harm thou couldst have done, but I cannot deny that thou hast been the greatest conqueror and sufferer of troubles that the world has known: arise thou, for what thou hast gained is like to be lost!"'

{208}

INDEX

Proper names preceded by 'da,' 'de,' 'do' are indexed under the succeeding initial letter.

ABBAS SHAH took Ormuz, 204.

ABD-EL-KHURI rocks, Sodre wrecked on, 30.

ABREU, Antonio de, explored the Spice Islands, 109.

ABYSSINIA, Covilhao in, 23: interest taken in, 127: Albuquerque's schemes about, 128: Christovao da Gama killed in, 184.

ACENHEIRO, reply of Affonso V to, 45.

ACHINESE repulsed from Malacca, 197, 199.

ADEN, Albuquerque ordered to take, 94: its importance, 126, 127: Albuquerque repulsed from, 127: Egyptians fail to take, 171: offered to Soares, 172: taken by the Turks, 181.

AFFONSO V, King of Portugal, expeditions of, to Morocco, 19: Albuquerque educated at his Court, 44: served under in Morocco, 45: character of, 45.

AFFONSO SANCHES, ancestor of Albuquerque, 42.

AFFONSO, Master, the physician, attends Albuquerque's deathbed, 141.

AFRICA, Portuguese discoveries on the coast of, 21-23: settlements on the south-east coast, 34: exploration in the interior, 200.

AHMAD, Rais, Minister of Ormuz, 136: killed by Albuquerque's orders, 137.

AHMADABAD, Kings of. See GUJARAT.

AKBAR kindly received Portuguese missionaries, 191.

ALBERGARIA. See SOARES.

ALBUQUERQUE, castle of, 42.

ALBUQUERQUE, Affonso de, first voyage to India, 30, 31, 47: not allowed to take up office, 38, 39, 60-62: ancestry, 41-43: family, 43, 44: birth and education, 44, 45: at Court of John II, 45, 46: in Morocco, 46: Asiatic policy, 48: sent again to Asia, 48: instructions to, 48, 49: campaign on African coast, 50: wounded at Socotra, 51: left in independent command, 52: quarrels with his captains, 52, 53, 55-57: at Ormuz, 54-57: deserted by his captains, 57, 58: attacks Calayate, 58: reply to Cogeatar, 59, 60: intrigues against, 60, 61: imprisoned at Cannanore, 61: recognised as Governor, 62: magnanimity, 63: attitude towards Hindus and instructions to Frei Luis, 66, 67: attack on Calicut, 67-69: wounded, 69: decides to attack Goa, 72: reasons, 72-74: first capture of Goa, 76: embassy to Shah Ismail, 77, 78: abandons Goa, 79: blockaded in the harbour, 79-82: receives reinforcements, 82-84: second capture of Goa, 85-88: builds fortress at, 88, 89: letter to Ismail Adil Shah, 90, 91: negotiations with Calicut and Gujarat, 91, 92: sails for the Malay Peninsula, 99: first capture of Malacca, 101: speech to his captains, 102-105: second capture of Malacca, 106: execution of Utemuta Raja, 107: opens relations with China, Siam, &c., 108-110: wrecked on way back to India, 110: receives reinforcements, 113: relieves Goa, 114: defeats Rasul Khan, 115: takes Benastarim, 116: despatch on Goa, 120-124: expedition to the Red Sea, 126-128: fails to take Aden, 127: establishes a factory at Diu, 129: builds a fortress at Calicut, 131: embassy to King of Gujarat, 132, 133: and to Shah Ismail, 134, 135: expedition to Ormuz, 136-138: receives news of his supersession, 139: last letter to the King, 139, 140: death, 141, 142: personal appearance and character, 143, 144: policy of empire, 147: its bases, 152: colonisation, 153-155: settlement of Goa, 155-159: use of natives, 159, 160: abolition of sati, 160: commercial reforms, 160-162: coinage at Goa, 162: at Malacca, 163: piety, 164, 165: causes of his success:—state of India, 165, 166: superiority of ships, artillery, and soldiers, 166-168: his own character, 168, 169: knighted Nuno da Cunha, 177: not a religious persecutor, 193: superiority to his successors, 207.

ALBUQUERQUE, Alvaro de, Prior of Villa Verde, brother of Affonso, 44.

ALBUQUERQUE, Braz de, son of Affonso, recognised at Court, 140: compiled the Commentaries, 141: removed body of Affonso to Portugal, 143: gives anecdote about Affonso, 207.

ALBUQUERQUE, Fernao de, elder brother of Affonso, 44.

ALBUQUERQUE, Fernao Affonso de, ancestor of Affonso, 43.

ALBUQUERQUE, Francisco de, cousin of Affonso, succours the Raja of Cochin, 30: quarrels with Affonso, 31, 47: lost at sea, 48.

ALBUQUERQUE, Goncalo de, Lord of Villa Verde, father of Affonso, 43.

ALBUQUERQUE, Joao de, first Bishop of Goa, 192.

ALBUQUERQUE, Jorge de, cousin of Affonso, Captain of Cochin, 126: of Malacca, 134.

ALBUQUERQUE, Martim de, brother of Affonso, 44: killed at Arzila, 46.

ALBUQUERQUE, Mathias de, Viceroy, 202.

ALBUQUERQUE, Pedro de, uncle of Affonso, Lord High Admiral of Portugal, 43.

ALBUQUERQUE, Pedro de, son of Jorge, commanded expedition to Ormuz and the Persian Gulf, 135, 136: Captain of Ormuz, 138.

ALGOA BAY reached by Dias, 23.

ALHANDRA, Albuquerque born at, 44.

ALI ADIL SHAH, King of Bijapur, accession and policy, 196: besieges Goa, 198.

ALMEIDA, Dom Francisco de, appointed first Viceroy, 34: policy in Africa, 34: viceroyalty, 34-39: victory off Diu, 38: death, 39: policy in Asia, 39, 40: letter to the King, 40: letter censuring Albuquerque, 58, 59: opposition to Albuquerque's ideas, 60: imprisons Albuquerque, 61: resigns office to him, 62: friendly to Timoja, 71: comparison of his policy and Albuquerque's, 73: supporters of his policy, 102, 118.

ALMEIDA, Dom Lourenco de, bombards Quilon, 35: visits Ceylon, 35: defeats the Calicut fleet, 35, 36: sacks Ponani, 36: defeated and killed at Chaul, 37.

ALPOEM, Pedro de, Ouvidor of India, condemns Ruy Dias to death, 81: and Utemuta Raja, 107: executor of Albuquerque, 142.

ANDRADE, Fernao Peres de, arrested by Albuquerque, 81: released, 83: at capture of Malacca, 101: visited Canton, 109: Captain of Malacca squadron, 110: quarrels with the Captain of Malacca, 133: his naval victory, 134.

ANDRADE, Simao de, commander of a galley, 76: arrested by Albuquerque, 81: released, 83.

ANGOJA burnt by Da Cunha and Albuquerque, 50.

ARABS plunder Diu, 204.

ARAUJO, Ruy de, Factor at Malacca, 97: imprisoned there, 98: communicates with Albuquerque, 98, 99: letter to Albuquerque, 100: released, 101: advises execution of Utemuta Raja, 107: Factor and Judge at Malacca, 110.

ARZILA, Albuquerque in garrison at, 45, 46.

ATHAIDE, Dona Leonor de, mother of Albuquerque, 43.

ATHAIDE, Dom Luis de, first viceroyalty, 197-199: defence of Goa, 198: second viceroyalty, 200: death, 201.

AYAZ, Malik, Nawab of Diu, helps to win victory at Chaul, 37: defeated off Diu, 38: allows a factory at Diu, 129: goes to Ahmadabad, 132.

AZORES discovered by Prince Henry's sailors, 21.

BAHADUR SHAH, King of Gujarat, grants Bassein to the Portuguese, 180: and Diu, 181: killed at Diu, 181.

BARDES ceded to the Portuguese, 184: cession confirmed, 194.

BARRETO, Antonio Moniz, burnt Cambay, 187: Governor of Malacca, 200: of India, 200.

BARRETO, Francisco, Governor of India, 195: of South-east Africa, 200: invasion of Monomotapa, 200.

BARRETO, Jorge, married Albuquerque's niece, 44.

BASSEIN granted to the Portuguese, 180: sacked by Marathas, 204.

BATAVIA founded by the Dutch, 203.

BATICALA [Bhatkal], port of Raja of Vijayanagar, 67: Portuguese propose to build a fort at, 126.

BEJA, Diogo Fernandes de, flag-captain of Albuquerque, commands a galley at taking of Panjim, 76: ambassador to Bijapur, 126: to Ahmadabad, 132, 133: friend of Albuquerque, 138.

BENASTARIM occupied by Fulad Khan, 111: by Rasul Khan, 112: blockaded by the Portuguese, 114: taken, 116: fortress built at, 125.

BENDARA, the, Prime Minister of Malacca, 97.

BENGAL, Portuguese relations with, 178, 179.

BENGALIS numerous at Malacca, 96.

BEST, Captain, defeats the Portuguese, 203, 204.

BHATKAL. See BATICALA.

BIJAPUR, Kings of. See ALI, IBRAHIM, ISMAIL, YUSAF ADIL SHAH.

BOMBAY ceded to England by the Portuguese, 204.

BRABOA or BRAVA, burnt by Da Cunha and Albuquerque, 50, 51.

BRAGANZA, Dom Constantino de, Viceroyalty of, 195, 196.

BRAZIL, discovery of, 26.

BRITO, Lourenco de, defends Cannanore, 38.

BROACH offered to Albuquerque as site for a fortress, 133.

BUKKUR, offered to Albuquerque as site for a fortress, 133.

BURMA, Albuquerque sends envoy to, 109.

BURMESE, a trading community at Malacca, 95: favoured by Albuquerque, 106.

BURNELL, A. C., Sanskrit account of the Portuguese quoted from, 207.

CABRAL, Jorge, Governor of India, 194.

CABRAL, Pedro Alvares, commands second fleet sent to India, 26, 27.

CALAYATE (K[a-macron]lh[a-macron]t) visited by Albuquerque, 54: sacked, 58.

CALICUT, Vasco da Gama at, 24, 25: Portuguese factor murdered, 27: ships burnt at, 27: bombarded, 29, 32: attacked by Albuquerque, 67-70: blockaded, 112, 125, 126: Mopla merchants ruined, 129: fortress built at, 131: Cabral prevented from attacking, 194: see also ZAMORIN.

CAM or CAO, Diogo, discovers the Congo, 23.

CAMBAY burnt by Portuguese, 187: Portuguese defeated at, 204.

CAMINHA, Joao Alvares de, settled Goa island, 158.

CAMOENS, Luis de, on Lourenco de Almeida, 37: on execution of Ruy Dias, 81: exiled by Barreto, 195.

CAMPO, Antonio do, one of Albuquerque's mutinous captains, 52: signs protest at Ormuz, 56: deserts Albuquerque, 57, 58.

CANNANORE visited by Vasco da Gama, 25: by Cabral, 27: factory established at, 30: Raja of, punished by Almeida, 35: fort at, defended by Brito, 38: Albuquerque imprisoned at, 61: Portuguese driven from by the Dutch, 203.

CAPE OF GOOD HOPE first doubled by the Portuguese, 23.

CASTELLO-BRANCO, Nuno Vaz de, joins Albuquerque, 98.

CASTRO, Dom Alvaro de, knighted at Mount Sinai, 183: his gallantry, 185: sent to relief of Diu, 186: sacked Surat, 187.

CASTRO, Dom Fernao de, his gallantry, 185: killed at Diu, 186.

CASTRO, Dom Joao de, Governor of India, 184-188: defeats King of Bijapur, 186: relieves Diu and defeats King of Gujarat, 186, 187: internal reforms, 187: death and character, 188.

CATHERINE, Queen-Regent of Portugal, allows Albuquerque's bones to be removed to Portugal, 143: appoints Constantino de Braganza Viceroy, 195.

CERNICHE, Dinis, arrested for attempting to leave Goa, 94, 95.

CEYLON, first visited by L. de Almeida, 35: Portuguese power established in, 172, 194, 196: taken by the Dutch, 203.

CHALE, defence of, 199.

CHANOCA, Gaspar, envoy to Vijayanagar, 126: secretary to the Tanadar, 157.

CHARLES V, Emperor, admires valour of Joao de Castro, 184.

CHAUL, defeat of Portuguese off, 37: fortress built at, 175: Portuguese headquarters in north-west India, 180: defence of, 199.

CHINESE, trading community at Malacca, 96: favoured by Albuquerque, 106: result of this policy, 108.

CHITTAGONG, visited by the Portuguese, 178, 179.

CHRISTIANS, a ruling caste on Malabar coast, 17, 25: Greek, at Socotra, 51: Nestorian, condemned at Synod of Diamper, 193. See MISSIONARIES.

CINNAMON obtained from Ceylon, 35, 161.

Cirne, the, Albuquerque's flagship in first Ormuz campaign, 52.

COCHIN visited by Cabral, 26: factory established at, 27, 29: Raja succoured by F. de Albuquerque, 30: fortress built at, 31, 47: defence of by Pacheco, 31: first headquarters of Portuguese government, 35: Albuquerque invests new Raja of, 84: Vasco da Gama dies and is buried at, 175: at war with Calicut, 194: taken by the Dutch, 203.

COCHIN CHINA, Albuquerque sends to explore, 109.

COELHO, Duarte, sent to Cochin China, 109.

COELHO, Joao, first Portuguese to visit Bengal, 178.

COELHO, Nicolas, commanded a ship under Vasco da Gama, 23.

COGEATAR (Khojah Atar), Prime Minister of Ormuz, Albuquerque's relations with, 54-57: refuses to surrender Portuguese deserters, 57: sends Almeida's letter to Albuquerque, 58: Albuquerque's reply, 59, 60: death, 134.

COGE COFAR (Khojah Zufar) besieges Diu, 186.

COINAGE, Albuquerque's, at Goa, 162: at Malacca, 163.

COLOMBO, Portuguese build fortress at, 172.

COLONISATION, Albuquerque's policy of, 152-155.

COMMERCE, trade routes of Asiatic, 19-21: establishment of, the first aim of the Portuguese, 28, 94, 118, 145-148: a royal monopoly, 148, 189: Albuquerque's commercial reforms, 160-162: palmiest days of Portuguese, 189, 190: ruin of Portuguese, 204.

CONCORDAT, the, 205.

COROMANDEL COAST, Portuguese settlements on, 178.

CORREA, Ayres, Factor, killed at Calicut, 27.

CORREA, Diogo, Captain of Cannanore, 113.

CORREA, Gaspar, his dates of Vasco da Gama's voyage, 24: quoted on Timoja, 71: referred to, 76n, 89n, 102.

CORREA, Pedro, Ferdinand's remarks on Albuquerque to, 143, 144.

CORVINEL, Francisco, first Factor at Goa, 93.

COSTA, Affonso Lopes da, one of Albuquerque's mutinous captains at Ormuz, 52: signs protest, 56: deserts, 57, 58.

COUTINHO, Dom Fernao de, Marshal of Portugal, places Albuquerque in power, 39, 62: insists on attacking Calicut, 68: killed, 69.

COUTINHO, Dom Francisco de. See REDONDO, Count of.

COUTINHO, Ruy Pereira, discovers Madagascar, 50.

COVILHAO, Joao Peres de, travels overland to India and Abyssinia, 22, 23, 127.

CRANGANORE, Almeida advises a fortress at, 40: taken by the Dutch, 203.

CRATO, Antonio, Prior of, gets no support in India, 201.

CUNHA, Manoel da, knighted on capture of Goa, 88: killed in battle, 111.

CUNHA, Nuno da, Governor of India, 177-183: ability and activity, 178: policy in Bengal, 179: obtains Bassein, 180: and Diu, 181: disgrace and death, 182, 183.

CUNHA, Ruy da, ambassador to Pegu, 109.

CUNHA, Tristao da, selected to be first Viceroy, 34: assisted in sack of Ponani, 36: related to Albuquerque, 43: sent to the East with him, 48: difference of temperament, 49: serves with him in Africa, 50: knighted by him, 51: goes to India after capture of Socotra, 51, 52: returns to Portugal, 52.

CURIATE sacked by Albuquerque, 54.

DABHOL, attacked by L. de Almeida, 36: sacked by F. de Almeida, 38: blockaded, 125, 129: taken by Joao de Castro, 187.

DAMAN taken by C. de Braganza, 195: still belongs to Portugal, 205.

DAVID, Emperor of Abyssinia, receives Portuguese envoys, 128.

DIAMPER (Udayampura), Synod of, 193.

DIAS, Bartholomeu, doubles the Cape of Good Hope, 23.

DIAS, Ruy, executed in Goa harbour, 81.

DINIZ, King of Portugal, ancestor of Albuquerque, 41, 42.

DIU, Almeida's victory off, 38: offered as site for a fortress, 92, 121: refused, 133: factory founded at, 129: fortress built at, 181: first siege, 181, 182: second siege, 186: finally ceded, 194: plundered by Arabs, 204: still belongs to Portugal, 205.

DIVARIM, fortress built at, 125.

DOMINGOS, Frei, Albuquerque's confessor, 141: present at his death, 142.

DUMBES, offered to Albuquerque as site for a fortress, 133.

DUTCH, the, their position in Asia compared and contrasted with that of the Portuguese, 28, 145-148: first go to India, 202: victories over the Portuguese, 203.

ECA, Dom Joao de, Captain of Goa, 136.

EGYPT derived wealth from passage of Asiatic trade, 20: sends a fleet to India, 36: at war with the Turks, 49, 150: Albuquerque's schemes against, 128: fails to conquer Aden, 171: conquered by the Turks, 177.

ELEPHANT, the first, sent from Ceylon, 35.

ELEPHANTS used in battle at Malacca, 101.

EMMANUEL, King of Portugal, said to have selected Vasco da Gama, 23: joy at discovery of direct sea route, 25: his original views, 27, 28: neglects Pacheco, 32, 33: modifies his policy and commences war on the Muhammadans, 33: looked coldly on Albuquerque, 46: desires to close the Red Sea to commerce, 48, 70, 94, 150, 171: orders war against Calicut, 68, 130: commercial greed, 84, 160: orders Socotra to be abandoned and Aden occupied, 94: directs arguments on the retention of Goa to be laid before a council, 118, 119: resolves to keep Goa, 124, 171: supersedes Albuquerque, 124, 139: but partially retracts, 141: would not let Albuquerque's bones be taken to Portugal, 143: his policy, 149, 150: death and character, 173, 174.

ENGLISH, the, early alliance with the Portuguese, 18: empire in India compared and contrasted with the Portuguese, 28, 67, 145-148: go to India, 202: defeat the Portuguese, 203, 204: treaty of 1878 with Portugal, 205.

EVANGELHO, Fernao Martins, Factor at Diu, 129.

FACTORIES founded at Calicut, 26: Cochin, 27: Cannanore, 30: Quilon, 31: Goa, 93: Malacca, 97, 110: Diu, 129.

FANATICISM, causes of Portuguese, against Muhammadans, 18, 19.

FERDINAND, King of Arragon, his praise of Albuquerque, 143, 144.

FERISHTA, referred to, 74, 90.

FERNANDES, Duarte, sent to Siam, 109.

FERNANDES, Frederico, knighted for leading assault on Goa, 88.

FERREIRA, Miguel, his embassy to Ismail Shah, 135.

Flor de la Mar, the, at Ormuz, 53: wrecked, 110.

Flor da Rosa, the, Albuquerque's last ship, 138: he died on board, 142.

FOGACA, Jorge, arrested for opposing execution of Ruy Dias, 81: not released, 83.

FORTRESSES or forts built at Cochin, 31: Quiloa, 34: Cannanore, 38: Socotra, 51: Ormuz commenced, 54; completed, 137: Goa, 76, 88: Malacca, 106, 110: Benastarim, Panjim, Divarim, 125: Calicut, 131: Colombo, 172: Chaul, 175: Bassein, 180: Diu, 181: Daman, 195.

FORTRESSES, Almeida's arguments against, in India, 40, 147: Albuquerque's views on, 102, 103, 122, 132, 147, 152.

FRANCISCAN friars the first Christian missionaries in India, 192.

FULAD KHAN invades the island of Goa, 111: defeats the Portuguese, 111: driven out of Benastarim, 112.

GA, Tristao de, envoy to Gujarat, 126: mint master at Goa, 162.

GAMA, Dom Christovao da, killed in Abyssinia, 184.

GAMA, Dom Estevao da, Governor of India, 183, 184: campaign in the Red Sea, 183.

GAMA, Dom Francisco da, Viceroy of India, 202.

GAMA, Paulo da, captain of a ship in first voyage to India, 23: died on way home, 25.

GAMA, Dom Vasco da, his first voyage to India, 23-25: honours conferred on, 26: his second voyage, 28-30: burnt the ships of Timoja, 71: sent ambassadors to Abyssinia, 128: his viceroyalty, 174, 175: death, 175.

GOA, city, Timoja suggests attack upon, 71, 72: situation, 72: reasons for attacking, 73, 74: history, 74, 75: first capture, 76: Portuguese retire from, 79: second capture, 85-89: effect of its conquest, 91, 92: besieged, 112: relieved by Albuquerque, 114-117: arguments for abandoning, 118, 119: Albuquerque's despatch on, 120-124: Albuquerque's love for, 138, 141: buried at, 142: bishopric of, 192: Inquisition established at, 192: defended by Athaide, 198: blockaded by the Dutch, 203.

GOA, harbour, its advantages, 72: Portuguese fleet blockaded in, 79-82.

GOA, island, its situation, 72: invaded by Yusaf Adil Shah, 79: by Fulad Khan, 111: fortified, 125, 126: administration of, 156-159: invaded by Ali Adil Shah, 198: by the Marathas, 204: still belongs to Portugal, 205.

GOMES, Ruy, ambassador to Shah Ismail, 77.

GOMIDE, Joao Goncalvez de, grandfather of Albuquerque, 43.

GONZALES, Sebastiao, typical Portuguese adventurer, 190.

GRACIOSA, fort at, defended by Albuquerque, 46.

GUJARAT, Kings of. See BAHADUR, MAHMUD, MUHAMMAD III, MUZAFFAR II.

GUJARATIS control Malacca trade, 96: oppose the Portuguese at, 100.

HENRY THE NAVIGATOR, Prince, schemes and discoveries, 21.

HIDALCAO, Portuguese version of Adil Khan, 75.

HINDUS favoured by the Portuguese against the Muhammadans, 65, 206: by Albuquerque, 66, 67, 169: grief at Albuquerque's death, 142, 143.

HONAWAR, Raja of punished by Almeida, 35: Albuquerque at, 82, 84: joins league against the Portuguese, 198: burnt by Athaide, 199.

HORSES, Persian trade in, 54, 67, 74, 90.

HUGLI, Portuguese headquarters in Bengal, 179: taken by Shah Jahan, 204.

HUMAYUN, Emperor, invasion of Gujarat by, assists Portuguese to obtain Diu, 180, 181.

HUSAIN, Emir, commands Egyptian fleet, 36: defeats L. de Almeida off Chaul, 37: defeated off Diu, 38: expelled from Gujarat, 92: builds fleet in the Red Sea, 171.

IBRAHIM ADIL SHAH, King of Bijapur, cedes Bardes and Salsette, 184: defeated by Joao de Castro, 186, 187: peace made with, 194.

INFANTE, Joao, doubles the Cape of Good Hope with Dias, 23.

INQUISITION, the, established in Portugal, 174: at Goa, 192.

ISMAIL ADIL SHAH, King of Bijapur, Albuquerque's letter to, 90, 91.

ISMAIL SHAH OF PERSIA, Albuquerque receives envoys from, 77: sends Ruy Gomes to, 77, 78: sends embassy to Ahmadabad, 132, 133: Ormuz acknowledges supremacy and religion of, 134: Albuquerque sends Ferreira to, 135: at war with Egypt and Turkey, 150: favoured the Portuguese, 165.

JAFFNAPATAM, capital of the Portuguese in Ceylon, 196: taken by the Dutch, 203.

JAVA, Albuquerque sends envoys to, 109: conquered by the Dutch, 203.

JAVANESE, ruling community at Malacca, 96: assist Albuquerque, 106: attack Malacca, 133: defeated, 134.

JESUITS, their missions in India, 191, 192: suppression of, 204.

JOAO AFFONSO, ancestor of Albuquerque, 42.

JOHN I, King of Portugal, 18.

JOHN II, King of Portugal, encourages exploration, 22, 23: friend of Albuquerque, 44-46: trained the future conquerors of India, 23, 173.

JOHN III, King of Portugal, would not let Albuquerque's bones be removed to Portugal, 143: policy and bigotry, 174: death, 195.

JUSARTE, Martim Affonso de Mello, sent to aid the King of Bengal, 179.

K[A-macron]LH[A-macron]T. See CALAYATE.

KAMAL KHAN, Minister of Bijapur, arrangement with Albuquerque as to Goa, 90: murdered, 126.

KILWA. See QUILOA.

LACERDA, Manoel de, gallantry at capture of Goa, 87: Captain of the Indian Sea, 95: abandons blockade of Calicut, 112: Captain of Goa, 112: commanded cavalry in action with Rasul Khan, 115.

LEMOS, Duarte de, Captain of the Arabian Sea, demands help for Socotra, 70: joins Albuquerque, 83: demands leave to return to Portugal, 84: advises abandonment of Goa, 119.

LIMA, Dom Jeronymo de, anecdote of, 86, 87.

LIMA, Dom Joao de, at capture of Goa, 86, 87: of Malacca, 101.

LOPES, Fernao, a renegade, his punishment, 116.

LOUREIRO, Frei Francisco, noble conduct of, 164.

LUIS, Dom, friend of Joao de Castro, 184.

LUIS, Frei, envoy to Vijayanagar, Albuquerque's instructions to, 66, 67.

MADAGASCAR, discovery of, 50.

MADEIRA, discovery of, 21: Albuquerque asks for miners from, 128.

MAGALHAES, Fernao de [Magellan], sent to the Spice Islands, 110.

MAHIM, offered to Albuquerque as site for a fortress, 133.

MAHMUD SHAH BEGARA, King of Gujarat, gives up Portuguese prisoners, 39: sends envoys to Albuquerque, 83, 91: offers him Diu, 92, 121: death, 129.

MALABAR COAST, condition of, at the arrival of the Portuguese, 17, 18, 64, 65.

MALACCA, reasons for attacking, 95, 96: history and trade, 96: Sequeira at, 96-98: Albuquerque reaches, 99: first capture, 101: Albuquerque's speech on, 102-105: second capture, 106: Albuquerque's policy at, 106-110: settlement of, 110: reinforcements sent to, 125: troubles at, 133: Jorge de Albuquerque Captain of, 134: new coinage at, 163: besieged by Achinese, 197, 199: made seat of independent government, 200: taken by the Dutch, 203.

MALHAR RAO, Governor of Goa island, 93, 156: defeated by Fulad Khan, 111: becomes Raja of Honawar, 111.

MAMELUKE dynasty in Egypt, overthrown by the Turks, 177.

MANGALORE, taken by the Portuguese, 197.

MARATHAS, their wars with the Portuguese, 204.

MARMAGAO, railway made to, 205.

MASCARENHAS, Dom Francisco, first viceroy appointed by Spain, 201.

MASCARENHAS, Dom Joao, defended Diu, 186: named Governor of India, 193.

MASCARENHAS, Pedro, commanded a division in the battle with Rasul Khan, 115: gallantry at Benastarim, 115: Captain of Goa, 136: named Governor of India, but not allowed to succeed, 176.

MASCARENRAS, Dom Pedro, Viceroy of India, 194, 195.

MEDINA, place of pilgrimage, 127: Albuquerque's scheme to seize Muhammad's body from, 128.

MELINDA, pilots obtained at by Da Gama, 24: by Cabral, 26: visited a second time by Da Gama, 29: by Da Cunha and Albuquerque, 50.

MENDONCA, Joao de, Governor of India, 196.

MENEZES, Dom Diogo de, defended Chale, 199: Governor of India, 200.

MENEZES, Dom Duarte de, Governor of India, 173: forced to resign, 175.

MENEZES, Dom Henrique de, Governor of India, 176.

MENEZES, Dom Jorge de, defended Chaul, 199.

MIDDLETON, Sir H., defeats Portuguese off Cambay, 203.

MIR ALI KHAN, Bardes and Salsette ceded for the surrender of, 184: Joao de Castro refuses to surrender, 185: final arrangement about, 194.

MIRANDA, Antonio de, ambassador to Siam, 109.

MISSIONARIES, Christian, in India, 190-193.

MOLUCCA ISLANDS, Albuquerque's expedition to explore, 109.

MOMBASSA, made tributary by Almeida, 34: conquered by Nuno da Cunha, 178.

MONOMOTAPA, Barreto's expedition to, 200.

MOORS, Portuguese wars with, in Europe, 18: in Morocco, 18, 19, 45, 46, 201.

MOPLAS, Arab merchants on Malabar Coast, intrigue against Portuguese at Calicut, 25: murder Correa, 27: at Quilon, 32, 35: at Ponani, 36: at Cannanore, 38: not favoured by Hindu rulers, 65: of Calicut ruined, 129: their position in India, 149.

MORADIAS, Albuquerque's power to grant, 64.

MORENO, Lourenco, Factor at Cochin, advises abandonment of Goa, 113.

MOROCCO, Portuguese expeditions to, 18, 19: Albuquerque's service in, 45, 46: Sebastian's death in, 201.

MOZAMBIQUE, Da Gama at, 24: Albuquerque sails direct to, 47: capital of a Portuguese government, 200.

MUGHAL Emperors not in power when Portuguese reached India, 17, 165.

MUHAMMAD, Albuquerque's plan to carry off the body of, 128.

MUHAMMAD SHAH II, King of the Deccan, conquers Goa, 74.

MUHAMMAD SHAH III, King of Gujarat, besieges Diu, 181, 182, 186: defeated by Joao de Castro, 186: makes peace with the Portuguese, 194.

MUHAMMADANS, Portuguese in Asia a check on their advance in Europe, 15, 16: not concentrated in India, when Portuguese arrived, 17: controlled the early trade routes, 20: war with, the keynote of Emmanuel's and Albuquerque's policy, 33, 48, 66, 67, 74, 95, 103, 104, 125, 149-152: Da Gama's cruelty towards, 29: Albuquerque's cruelty towards, 54, 58, 79, 88: Albuquerque willing to be tolerant to, 151, 169: their divisions in Asia a cause of Portuguese success, 78, 150, 165, 166, 206.

MUSCAT, taken by Albuquerque, 54: Arabs from, plunder Diu, 204.

MUZAFFAR SHAH II, submission of Malik Ayaz to, 129: Albuquerque sends envoys to, 132, 133.

NAIRS, a military class on Malabar coast, 25: repulse Portuguese attack on Calicut, 68, 69: Portuguese did not persecute, 206.

NARSINGHA. See VIJAYANAGAR.

NEGAPATAM, taken by the Dutch, 203.

NESTORIAN CHRISTIANS, a military class on Malabar Coast, 17, 24, 65, 165: condemned by Synod of Diamper, 193.

NILE, Albuquerque's scheme for altering the course of the, 128.

NINACHATU, his kindness to Portuguese prisoners, 99: made chief of the Hindu community at Malacca, 106, 110.

NOGUEIRA, Francisco, Captain of Calicut, 130.

NORONHA, Dom Affonso de, Albuquerque's nephew, Captain of Socotra, 51: wrecked off coast of Gujarat, 83, 84, 121, 164.

NORONHA, Dom Affonso de, Viceroy, 194.

NORONHA, Dom Antao de, Viceroy, 196: builds new wall at Goa, 198.

NORONHA, Dom Antonio de, Albuquerque's nephew, his support of Albuquerque, 52: gallantry at Calayate, 58: commands reserve at Calicut, 68: saves the Portuguese army, 69: storms Panjim, 76: Captain of Goa, 76: death and character, 80, 81.

NORONHA, Dom Antonio de, Viceroy with reduced powers, 199, 200.

NORONHA, Dona Constance de, Albuquerque's sister, 44.

NORONHA, Dom Garcia de, Albuquerque's nephew, joins him with reinforcements, 113: commands a division in battle with Rasul Khan, 115: brings despatch on Goa, 118: blockades Calicut, 125: leaves Albuquerque at Ormuz, 137: Viceroy, 181: relieves Diu, 181: death, 183.

NOVA, Joao de, leads opposition to Albuquerque at Ormuz, 53: signs protest, 56: arrested, 57: deserts him, 58: excites Almeida against him, 61: buried by him, 63.

ONOR. See HONAWAR.

ORMUZ, its wealth and importance, 53: Albuquerque commences a fortress at, 54: his difficulties at, 55-57: second visit to, 58-60: Ruy Gomes poisoned at, 77: Pedro de Albuquerque at, 136: fortress completed, 137: tribute exacted from by Nuno da Cunha, 178: taken by Shah Abbas, 204.

PACEM, King of, in Sumatra, aided by Portuguese, 134.

PACHECO, Duarte, defeats Zamorin's army and fleet, 31, 32: relieves Quilon, 32: return to Portugal and death, 32, 33.

PAIVA, Affonso de, sent overland to India, 22.

PAIVA, Gaspar de, at capture of Malacca, 101.

PANJIM, first capture of, 76: second capture, 80: Portuguese fortress built at, 125.

PANTOJA, Francisco, Constable of Goa, 93: passed over for captaincy, 111.

PATALIM, Ruy de Brito, Captain of Malacca, 110: quarrels with Andrade, 133: returns to India, 134.

PEDIR in Sumatra, Albuquerque reaches, 99.

PEPPER, Quilon chief port for Malabar, 29: also sent from Malacca, 104.

PEREIRA, Diogo Fernandes, discovered Socotra, 51.

PEREIRA, Gaspar, his remark on the Nairs of Calicut, 68.

PEREIRA, Dom Gaspar de Leao, first Archbishop of Goa, 192.

PEREIRA, Dom Leonis, defends Malacca against Achinese, 197, 199.

PERSIA. See ISMAIL SHAH.

PERSIA, trade of, concentrated at Ormuz, 53, 54.

PERSIAN GULF, ancient trade route, 20: Albuquerque proposes to close, 48: Albuquerque sails for, 53: explored by Pedro de Albuquerque, 136.

PESTANA, Francisco Pereira, Captain of Goa, dismissed by Vasco da Gama, 175.

PHILIP II, of Spain, prosperity of Portuguese trade under, 189: kept promises made at his accession to throne of Portugal, 201: yet his accession a cause of the ruin of Portugal in Asia, 202.

PILOTS, the first got at Melinda, 24, 26: service of, established, 34.

PINTO, Fernao Mendes, typical Portuguese adventurer, 190.

POLO, Marco, describes Greek Christians of Socotra, 51.

PONANI, sacked by Portuguese, 36, 194.

PORTUGUESE, importance of their establishment in Asia, 15, 16: fitness for this task, 18, 19: comparison and contrast of their empire in India to that of the Dutch and English, 28, 67, 145-148: causes of their success, 165-168: their missionary efforts, 190-192: causes of their decline, 201-203: present condition in India, 205: description of contemporaries, 206, 207.

QUILOA (Kilwa), Vasco da Gama at, 24: fortress built at, 34.

QUILON, Da Gama asked to trade with, 29: factory established at, 31, 47: relieved by Pacheco, 32: bombarded, 35: taken by the Dutch, 203.

RASUL KHAN (Rocalcao), left in command at Goa, 85: takes Benastarim, 112: defeated by Albuquerque, 115: surrenders Benastarim, 116: interview with Albuquerque, 126.

REBELLO, Rodrigo, Captain of Goa, 93: killed in action, 111.

REDONDO, Dom Francisco Coutinho, Count of, his viceroyalty, 196.

RED SEA, chief trade route, 20: Emmanuel and Albuquerque desire to close to commerce, 48, 70, 94, 125: campaign of Albuquerque in, 128: of Lopo Soares, 171, 172: of Estevao da Gama, 183.

SA, Antonio de, Factor at Quilon, killed by Moplas, 35.

SA, Francisco de, tried to stop execution of Ruy Dias, 81.

SA, Garcia de, Governor of India, 193, 194.

SABAIO, the, Portuguese name for Yusaf Adil Shah, 75.

SAINT THOME, first Portuguese settlement on the Coromandel Coast, 178: attacked by the Raja of Vijayanagar, 197.

SALDANHA, Antonio de, explores south-east coast of Africa, 30: visits Socotra, 51.

SALDANHA BAY, Almeida killed at, 39.

SALSETTE, ceded to the Portuguese, 184: cession confirmed, 194.

SAM PAIO, Lopo Vaz de, blockades Dabhol, 129: Governor of India, 176: sent home in chains, 178.

Sati, abolished by Albuquerque at Goa, 160.

SEBASTIAN, King of Portugal, accession of, 195: divides the viceroyalty, 199: desires exploration of interior of Africa, 200: death, 201: Commentaries of Albuquerque dedicated to, 207.

SELIM I, of Constantinople, at war with Egypt, 49, 150: with Ismail Shah, 78, 134: conquers Egypt, 177.

SEQUEIRA, Diogo Lopes de, offered governorship of India, 62: at Malacca, 97, 98: Governor of India, 173: builds fortress at Chaul, 175.

SEQUEIRA, Goncalo de, refuses to assist Albuquerque against Goa, 84: advises abandonment of Goa, 119.

SERRAO, Francisco, takes Magellan to the Spice Islands, 109.

SERRAO, Joao, joins Albuquerque with reinforcements, 84.

SHAH JAHAN takes Hugli, 204.

SHER SHAH, Portuguese assist the King of Bengal against, 179.

SIAM, Albuquerque's relations with, 109.

SILVA, Ayres da, blockades Benastarim, 114.

SILVA, Duarte da, at capture of Malacca, 101.

SILVEIRA, Antonio da, defends Diu, 181, 182.

SILVEIRA, Joao da, visits Chittagong, 178, 179.

SILVEIRA, Jorge da, killed at Aden, 129.

SINAI, Mount, Estevao da Gama at, 183.

SLAVE TRADE, negro, started by the Portuguese, 21.

SOARES DE ALBERGARIA, Lopo, bombards Calicut, 32: succeeds Albuquerque, 138, 139: his governorship, 170-173: campaign in the Red Sea, 171, 172: builds fort at Colombo, 173.

SOCOTRA, island, taken by Da Cunha and Albuquerque, 51: settlement of, 52: garrison half starved, 58: help demanded for, 70: abandoned, 94.

SODRE, Vicente, left in command of a squadron, 29: wrecked, 30.

SOUSA, Dona Aldonsa de, mistress of King Diniz, ancestress of Albuquerque, 41.

SOUSA, Garcia de, blockades Dabhol, 125: killed at Aden, 127.

SOUSA, Martim Affonso de, Governor of India, 184.

SPICE ISLANDS, Albuquerque sends to explore, 109: taken by the Dutch, 203.

SUEZ, Estevao da Gama fails in attack on, 183.

SULAIMAN, the Magnificent, his opinion of Albuquerque, 144: prepares attacks on the Portuguese in India, 177, 183.

SULAIMAN PASHA commands Muhammadan fleet sent to India, 177: besieges Diu, 181, 182: death, 183.

SULAIMAN, Rais, fails to take Aden, 171.

SUMATRA, visited by Sequeira, 97: Albuquerque reaches, 99: enters into relations with, 109: wrecked off, 110: Portuguese victory in, 134.

SURAT, offered to Albuquerque as site for a fortress, 133: sacked by Alvaro de Castro, 187.

SWALLY, English defeat the Portuguese off, 204.

TALIKOT, battle of, 65, 197.

Tanadars appointed in island of Goa, 157.

TANGIER, Albuquerque at capture of, 45.

TAVORA, Francisco de, one of Albuquerque's mutinous captains, 52: suspended, 55: signs protest at Ormuz, 56: disgraced, 58: accompanies Lopo Soares to India, 139.

TAVORA, Ruy Lourenco de, dies on way to India as Viceroy, 200.

TEIXEIRA, Jayme, stops Mendes' ship from leaving Goa, 95: ambassador to Ahmadabad, 132.

TELLES, Manoel, one of Albuquerque's mutinous captains, 52: signs protest at Ormuz, 56: deserts, 58.

TIMOJA, advises attack on Goa, 71: a Hindu corsair, 71, 72: surrender of demanded, 79: leaves Goa harbour, 82: advises second attack on Goa, 82, 85: governor of Goa island, 93, 156-158: defeat and death of, 111: asks Albuquerque to strike money, 162.

TIRACOL, sacked by the Portuguese, 194.

Tohfut-ul-mujahideen quoted, on attack on Calicut, 69, 70: on capture of Goa, 89, 90: on the Portuguese in India, 206.

TRADE routes of Asiatic commerce, 20.

TURKS still progressive in the 16th century, 16: made overland trade routes unsafe, 20: see SELIM, SULAIMAN.

UTEMUTA RAJA, assists Albuquerque, 106: executed, 107.

VASCONCELLOS, Diogo Mendes de, joins Albuquerque, 82: accompanies him to Goa, 84: opposition to Albuquerque, 94: Captain of Goa, 111: stupid policy and courage, 112: accompanies Lopo Soares to India, 139: discourages mixed marriages, 154.

VAZ. See CASTELLO-BRANCO, SAM PAIO.

VENICE, its wealth as distributor of Asiatic trade, 20: damage done to by Portuguese successes in India, 104: press Turks to attack the Portuguese, 177.

VENKATACARYA, Brahman poet, his opinion of the Portuguese, 207.

VICEROY, Almeida takes title of, 34: Albuquerque not a, 64: Vasco da Gama appointed second, 174: Joao de Castro made, 188.

VIEIRA, Braz, appointed a Tanadar, 157.

VIJAYANAGAR or Narsingha, powerful Hindu kingdom, 17, 65: Frei Luis sent as envoy to, 66, 67: at one time ruled over Goa, 74: expected to have Goa returned to, 76: Chanoca ambassador to, 126: disgust of Raja at Albuquerque's fortress at Calicut, 131: destroyed by battle of Talikot, 197.

VYPIN, island, Raja of Cochin besieged in, 30.

XAVIER, Saint Francis, Joao de Castro died in arms of, 188: his missionary activity, 191.

YUSAF ADIL SHAH, King of Bijapur, his history, 74, 75: fondness for Goa, 75: retakes Goa, 79: chivalry, 81, 82: leaves Goa on Albuquerque's departure from the harbour, 82, 85: death, 90.

YUSAF GURGI, Malik, Muhammadan governor of Goa, his cruelty, 75: his flight from Goa, 76.

ZAMORIN of Calicut, receives Vasco da Gama, 24: meaning of the word, 24n: intrigues of Moplas with, against the Portuguese, 25: attacked by Cabral, 27, and Da Gama, 29: besieges Cochin and is repulsed, 30: defeated on land and sea by Pacheco, 31, 32: fleet defeated by L. de Almeida, 35, 36: palace burnt, 69: sues for peace, 91: poisoned, 131.

THE END.



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