The header is used by placing the gauge or guide end within the flue, and with your light hammer the flue can be calked or beaded down against the flue sheet. Be careful to use your hammer lightly, so as not to bruise the flues or sheet. When you have gone over all the expanded flues in this way, you, (if you have been careful) will not only have a good job, but will conclude that you are somewhat of an expert at it. I never saw a man go into a firebox and stop the leak but that he came out well pleased with himself. The fact that a firebox is no pleasant workshop may have had something to do with it. If your flues have been leaking badly, and you have expanded them, it would be well to test your boiler with cold water pressure to make sure that you have a good job.

How are you going to test your boiler? If you can attach to a hydrant, do so, and when you have given your boiler all the pressure you want, you can then examine your flues carefully, and should you find any seeping of water, you can use your beader lightly untill such leaks are stopped. If the waterworks will not afford you sufficient pressure, you can bring it up to the required pressure, by attaching a hydraulic pump or a good force pump.

In testing for the purpose of ascertaining if you have a good job on your flues, it is not necessary to put on any greater cold water pressure than you are in the habit of carrying. For instance, if your safety valve is set at one hundred and ten pounds, this pressure of cold water will be sufficient to test the flues.

Now, suppose you are out in the field and want to test your flues. Of course you have no hydrant to attach to, and you happen not to have a force pump, it would seem you were in bad shape to test your boiler with cold water. Well, you can do it by proceeding in this way: When you have expanded and beaded all the flues that were leaking, you will then close the throttle tight, take off the safety valve (as this is generally attached at the highest point) and fill the boiler full, as it is absolutely necessary that all the space in the boiler should be filled with cold water. Then screw the safety valve back in its place. You will then get back in the firebox with your tools and have someone place a small sheaf of wheat or oat straw under the firebox or under waist of boiler if open firebox, and set fire to it. The expansive force of the water caused by the heat from the burning straw will produce pressure desired. You should know, however, that your safety is in perfect order. When the water begins to escape at the safety valve, you can readily see if you have expanded your flues sufficiently to keep them from leaking.

This makes a very nice and steady pressure, and although the pressure is caused by heat, it is a cold water pressure, as the water is not heated beyond one or two degrees. This mode of testing, however, cannot be applied in very cold weather, as water has no expansive force five degrees above or five degrees below the freezing point.

These tests, however, are only for the purpose of trying your flues and are not intended to ascertain the efficiency or strength of your boiler. When this is required, I would advise you to get an expert to do it, as the best test for this is the hammer test, and only an expert should attempt it.



PART SIX

Any young engineer who will make use of what he has read will never get his engine into much trouble. Manufacturers of farm engines to-day make a specialty of this class of goods, as they endeavor to build them as simple and of as few parts as possible. They do this well knowing that, as a rule, they must be run by men who cannot take a course in practical engineering. If each one of the many thousands of engines that are turned out every year had to have a practical engineer to run it, it would be better to be an engineer than to own the engine; and manufacturers knowing this, they therefore make their engines as simple and with as little liability to get out of order as possible. The simplest form of an engine, however, requires of the operator a certain amount of brains and a willingness to do that which he knows should be done; and if you will follow the instructions you have already received, you can run your engine as successfully as any one can wish as long as your engine is in order, and, as I have just stated, it is not liable to get out of order, except from constant wear, and this wear will appear in the boxes, journals and valve. The brasses on wrist pin and cross-head will probably require your first and most careful attention, and of these two the wrist or crank box will require the most; and what is true of one is true of both boxes. It is, therefore, not necessary to take up both boxes in instructing you how to handle them. We will take up the box most likely to require your attention. This is the wrist box. You will find this box in two parts or halves. In a new engine you will find that these two halves do not meet on the wrist pin by at least one-eighth of an inch. They are brought up to the pin by means of a wedge-shaped key. (I am speaking now of the most common form of wrist boxes. If your engine should not have this key, it will have something which serves the same purpose.) As the brasses wear you can take up this wear by forcing the key down, which brings the two halves nearer together. You can continue to gradually take up this wear until you have brought them together. You will then see that it is necessary to do something, in order to take up any more wear, and this "something" is to take out the brasses and file about one-sixteenth of an inch off of each brass. This will allow you another eighth of an inch to take up in wear.

Now here is a nice little problem for you to solve and I want you to solve it to your own satisfaction, and when you do, you will thoroughly understand it, and to understand it is to never allow it to get you into trouble. We started out by saying that in a new engine you would most likely find about one-eighth of an inch between the brasses, and we said you would finally get these brasses, or halves together, and would have to take them out and file them. Now we have taken up one-eighth of an inch and the result is, we have lengthened our pitman just one-sixteenth of an inch; or in other words, the center of wrist pin and the center of cross-head are just one-sixteenth of an inch further apart than they were before any wear had taken place, and the piston head has one-sixteenth of an inch more clearance at one end, and one-sixteenth of an inch less at the other end than it had before. Now if we take out the boxes and file them so we have, another eighth of an inch, by the time we have taken up this wear, we will then have this distance doubled, and we will soon have the piston head striking the end of the cylinder, and besides, the engine will not run as smooth as it did. Half of the wear comes off of each half, and the half next to the key is brought up to the wrist pin because of the tapering key, while the outside half remains in one place. You must therefore place back of this half a thin piece of sheet copper, or a piece of tin will do. Now suppose our boxes had one-eighth of an inch for wear. When we have taken up this much we must put in one-sixteenth of an inch backing (as it is called), for we have reduced the outside half by just that amount. We have also reduced the front half the same, but as we have said, the tapering key brings this half up to its place.

Now we think we have made this clear enough and we will leave this and go back to the key again. You must remember that we stated that the key was tapering or a wedged shape, and as a wedge, is equally as powerful as a screw, and you must bear in mind that a slight tap will bring these two boxes up tight against the wrist pin. Young engineers experience more trouble with this box than with any other part of the engine, and all because they do not know how to manage it. You should be very careful not to get your box too tight, and don't imagine that every time there is a little knock about your engine that you can stop it by driving the key down a little more. This is a great mistake that many, and even old engineers make. I at one time seen a wrist pin and boxes ruined by the engineer trying to stop a knock that came from a loose fly-wheel. It is a fact, and one that has never been satisfactorily explained, that a knock coming from almost any part of an engine will appear to be in the wrist. So bear this in mind and don't allow yourself to be deceived in this way, and never try to stop a knock until you have first located the trouble beyond a doubt.

When it becomes necessary to key up your brasses, you will find it a good safe way to loosen up the set screw which holds the key, then drive it down till you are satisfied you have it tight. Then drive it back again and then with your fist drive the key down as far as you can. You may consider this a peculiar kind of a hammer, but your boxes will rarely ever heat after being keyed in this manner.

KNOCK IN ENGINES

What makes an engine knock or pound? A loose pillow block box is a good "knocker." The pillow block is a box next crank or disc wheel. This box is usually fitted with set bolts and jam nuts. You must also be careful not to set this up too tight, remembering always that a box when too tight begins to heat and this expands the journal, causing greater friction. A slight turn of a set bolt one way or the other may be sufficient to cool a box that may be running hot, or to heat one that may be running cool. A hot box from neglect of oiling can be cooled by supplying oil, provided it has not already commenced to cut. If it shows any sign of cutting, the only safe way is to remove the box and clean it thoroughly.

Loose eccentric yokes will make a knock in an engine, and it may appear to be in the wrist. You will find packing between the two halves of the yoke. Take out a thin sheet of this packing, but don't take out too much, as you are liable then to get them too tight and they may stick and cause your eccentrics to slip. We will have more to say about the slipping of the eccentrics.

The piston rod loose in cross-head will make a knock, which also appears in the wrist, but it is not there. Tighten the piston and you will stop it. The piston rod may be keyed in cross head, or it may be held in place by a nut. The key is less liable to get loose, but should it work loose a few times it may be necessary to replace it with a new one. And this is one of the things that cause a bad break when it works out or gets loose. If it gets loose it may not come out, but it will not stand the strain very long in this condition, and will break, allowing the piston to come out of cross head, and you are certain to knock out one cylinder head and possibly both of them. The nut will do the same thing if allowed to come off. So this is one of the connections that will claim your attention once in a while, but if you train your ear to detect any unusual noise you will discover it as soon as it gives the least in either key or nut.

The cross-head loose in the guides will make it knock. If the cross-head is not provided for taking up this wear, you can take off the guides and file them enough to allow them to come up to the cross-head, but it is much better to have them planed off, which insures the guides coming up square against the cross-head and thus prevent any heating or cutting.

A loose fly-wheel will most likely puzzle you more than anything else to find the knock. So remember this. The wheel may apparently be tight, but should the key be the least bit narrow for the groove in shaft, it will make your engine bump very similar to that caused by too much or too little "lead."

LEAD

What is lead? Lead is space or opening of port on steam end of cylinder, when engine is on dead center. (Dead center is the two points of disc or crank wheel at which the crank pin is in direct line with piston and at which no amount of steam will start the engine.) Different makes of engines differ to such an extent that it is impossible to give any rule or any definite amount of lead for an engine. For instance, an engine with a port six inches long and one-half inch wide would require much less lead than one with a port four inches long and one inch wide. Suppose I should say one-sixteenth of an inch was the proper lead. In one engine you would have an opening one-sixteenth of an inch wide and six inches long and in the other you would have one-sixteenth of an inch wide and four inches long; so you can readily see that it is impossible to give the amount of lead for an engine without knowing the piston area, length of port, speed, etc. Lead allows live steam to enter the cylinder just ahead of the piston at the point of finishing the stroke, and forms a "cushion," and enables the engine to pass the center without a jar. Too much lead is a source of weakness to an engine, as it allows the steam to enter the cylinder too soon and forms a back pressure and tends to prevent the engine from passing the center. It will, therefore, make your engine bump, and make it very difficult to hold the packing in stuffing box.

Insufficient lead will not allow enough steam to enter the cylinder ahead of piston to afford cushion enough to stop the inertia, and the result will be that your engine will pound on the wrist pin. You most likely have concluded by this time that "lead" is no small factor in the smooth running of an engine, and you, as a matter of course, will want to know how you are to obtain the proper lead. Well don't worry yourself. Your engine is not going to have too much lead today and not enough tomorrow. If your engine was properly set up in the first place the lead will be all right, and continue to afford the proper lead as long as the valve has not been disturbed from its original position; and this brings us to the most important duty of an engineer as far as the engine is concerned, viz: Setting the Valve.

SETTING A VALVE.

The proper and accurate setting of a valve on a steam engine is one of the most important duties that you will have to perform, as it requires a nicety of calculation and a mechanical accuracy. And when we remember also, that this is another one of the things for which no uniform rule can be adopted, owing to the many circumstances which go to make an engine so different under different conditions, we find it very difficult to give you the light on this part of your duty which we would wish to. We, however, hope to make it so clear to you that by the aid of the engine before you, you can readily understand the conditions and principles which control the valve in the particular engine which you may have under your management.

The power and economy of an engine depends largely on the accurate operation of its valve. It is, therefore, necessary that you know how to reset it, should it become necessary to do so.

An authority says, "Bring your engine to a dead center and then adjust your valve to the proper lead." This is all right as far as it goes, but how are you to find the dead center. I know that it is a common custom in the field to bring the engine to a center by the use of the eye. You may have a good eye, but it is not good enough to depend on for the accurate setting of a valve.

HOW TO FIND THE DEAD CENTER

First, provide yourself with a "tram." This you can do by taking a 1/4 inch iron rod, about 18 inches long, and bend about two inches of one end to a sharp angle. Then sharpen both ends to a nice sharp point. Now, fasten securely a block of hard wood somewhere near the face of the fly wheel, so that when the straight end of your tram is placed at a definite point in the block the other, or hook end, will reach the crown of fly wheel.

Be certain that the block cannot move from its place, and be careful to place the tram at exactly the same point on the block at each time you bring the tram into use. You are now ready to proceed to find the dead center, and in doing this remember to turn the fly wheel always in the same direction. Now, turn your engine over till it nears one of the centers, but not quite to it. You will then, by the aid of a straight-edge make a clear and distinct mark across the guides and cross head. Now, go around to the fly wheel and place the straight end of the tram at same point on the block, and with the hook end make a mark across the crown or center of face of fly wheel; now turn your engine past the center and on to the point at which the line on cross head is exactly in line with the lines on guides. Now, place your tram in the same place as before, and make another mark across the crown of fly wheel. By the use of dividers find the exact center between the two marks made on fly wheel; mark this point with a center punch. Now, bring the fly wheel to the point at which the tram, when placed at its proper place on block, the hook end, or point, will touch this punch mark, and you will have one of the exact dead centers.

Now, turn the engine over till it nears the other center, and proceed exactly as before, remembering always to place the straight end of tram exactly in same place in block, and you will find both dead centers as accurately as if you had all the fine tools of an engine builder.

You are now ready to proceed with the setting of your valve, and as you have both dead centers to work from you ought to be able to do it, as you do not have to depend on your eye to find them, and by the use of the tram You turn your engine to exactly the same point every time you wish to get a center.

Now remove the cap on steam chest, bring your engine to a dead center and give your valve the necessary amount of lead on the steam end. Now, we have already stated that we could not give you the proper amount of lead for an engine. It is presumed that the maker of your engine knew the amount best adapted to this engine, and you can ascertain his idea of this by first allowing, we will say, about 1/16 of an inch. Now bring your engine to the other center, and if the lead at the other end is less than 1/16, then you must conclude that he intended to allow less than 1/16, but should it show more than this, then it is evident that he intended more than I/I16 lead; but in either case you must adjust your valve so as to divide the space, in order to secure the same lead when on either center. In the absence of any better tool to ascertain if the lead is the same, make a tapering wooden wedge of soft wood, turn the engine to a center and force the wedge in the opening made by the valve hard enough to mark the wood; then turn to the next center, and if the wedge enters the same distance, you are correct; if not, adjust till it does, and when you have it set at the proper place you had best mark it by taking a sharp cold chisel and place it so that it will cut into the hub of eccentric and in the shaft; then hit it a smart blow with a hammer. This should be done after you have set the set screws in eccentric down solid on the shaft. Then, at any time should your eccentric slip, you have only to bring it back to the chisel mark and fasten it, and you are ready to go ahead again.

This is for a plain or single eccentric engine. A double or reversible engine, however, is somewhat more difficult to handle in setting the valve. Not that the valve itself is any different from a plain engine, but from the fact that the link may confuse you, and while the link may be in position to run the engine one way you may be endeavoring to set the valve to run it the other way.

The proper way to proceed with this kind of an engine is to bring the reverse lever to a position to run the engine forward, then proceed to set your valve the same as on a plain engine. When you have it at the proper place, tighten just enough to keep from slipping, then bring your reverse lever to the reverse position and bring your engine to the center. If it shows the same lead for the reverse motion you are then ready to tighten your eccentrics securely, and they should be marked as before.

You may imagine that you will have this to do often. Well don't be scared about it. You may run an engine a long time, and never have to set a valve. I have heard these windy engineers (you have seen them), say that they had to go and set Mr. A's or Mr. B's valve, when the facts were, if they did anything, it was simply to bring the eccentrics back to their original position. They happened to know that most all engines are plainly marked at the factory, and all there was to do was to bring the eccentrics back to these marks and fasten them, and the valve was set. The slipping of the eccentrics is about the only cause for a valve working badly. You should therefore keep all grease and dirt away from these marks; keep the set screws well tightened, and notice them frequently to see that they do not slip. Should they slip a I/I6 part of an inch, a well educated ear can detect it in the exhaust. Should they slip a part of a turn as they will some times, the engine may stop instantly, or it may cut a few peculiar circles for a minute or two, but don't get excited, look to the eccentrics at once for the trouble.

Your engine may however act very queer some time, and you may find the eccentrics in their proper place. Then you must go into the steam chest for the trouble. The valves in different engines are fastened on valve rod in different ways. Some are held in place by jam nuts; a nut may have worked loose, causing lost motion on the valve. This will make your engine work badly. Other engines hold their valve by a clamp and pin. This pin may work out, and when it does, your engine will stop, very quickly to.

If you thoroughly understand the working of the steam, you can readily detect any defect in your cylinder or steam chest, by the use of your cylinder cocks. Suppose we try them once. Turn your engine on the forward center, now open the cocks and give the engine the steam pressure. If the steam blows out at the forward cock we know that we have sufficient lead. Now turn back to the back center, and give it steam again; if it blows out the same at this cock, we can conclude that our valve is in its proper position. Now reverse the engine and do the same thing; if the cocks act the same, we know we are right. Suppose the steam blows out of one cock all right, and when we bring the engine to the other center no steam escapes from this cock, then we know that something is wrong with the valve, and if the eccentrics are in their proper position the trouble must be in the steam chest, and if we open it up we will find the valve has become loosened on the rod. Again suppose we put the engine on a center, and on giving it steam, we find the steam blowing out at both cocks.

Now what is the trouble, for no engine in perfect shape will allow the steam to blow out of both cocks at the same time. It is one of two things, and it is difficult to tell. Either the cylinder rings leak and allow the steam to blow through, or else the valve is cut on the seat, and allows the steam to blow over. Either of these two causes is bad, as it not only weakens your engine, but is a great waste of fuel and water. The way to determine which of the two causes this, is to take off the cylinder head, turn engine on forward center and open throttle slightly. If the steam is seen to blow out of the port at open end of cylinder, then the trouble is in the valve, but if not, you will see it blowing through from forward end of cylinder, and the trouble is in the cylinder rings.

What is the remedy? Well, if the "rings" are the trouble, a new set will most likely remedy it should they be of the automatic or self-setting pattern, but should they be of the spring or adjusting pattern, you can take out the head and set the rings out to stop this blowing. As most all engines now are using the self-setting rings, you will most likely require a new set.

If the trouble is in the valve or steam chest, you had best take it off and have the valve seat planed down, and the valve seated to it. This is the safest and best way. Never attempt to dress a valve down, you are most certain to make a bad job of it.

And yet I don't like the idea of advising you not to do a thing that can be done, for I do like an engineer who does not run to the shop for every little trouble. However, unless you have the proper tools you had best not attempt it. The only safe way is to scrape them down, for if your valve is cut, you will find the valve seat is cut equally as bad, and they must both be scraped to a perfect fit. Provide yourself with a piece of flat steel, very hard, 3x4 inches by about I/8 inch, with a perfect straight edge. With this scrape the valve and seat to a perfect flat surface, It will be a slower process than scraping wood with a piece of glass, but you can do it. Never use a chisel or a file on a valve.

LUBRICATING OIL

What is oil?

Oil is a coating for a journal, or in other words is a lining between bearings.

Did you ever stop long enough to ask yourself the question? I doubt it. A great many people buy something to use on their engine, because it is called oil. Now if the object in using oil is to keep a lining between the bearings, is it not reasonable that you use something that will adhere to that which it is to line or cover?

Gasoline will cover a journal for a minute or two, and oil a grade better would last a few minutes longer. Still another grade would do some better. Now if you are running your own engine, buy the best oil you can buy. You will find it very poor economy to buy cheap oil, and if you are not posted, you may pay price enough, but get a very poor article.

If you are running an engine for some one else, make it part of your contract that you are furnished with a good oil. You can not keep an engine in good shape with a cheap oil. You say "you are going to keep your engine clean and bright." Not if you must use a poor oil.

Poor oil is largely responsible for the fast going out of use of the link reverse among the makers of traction engines. While I think it very doubtful if this "reverse motion" can be equalled by any of the late devices. Its construction is such as to require the best grade of cylinder oil, and without this it is very unsatisfactory, (not because the valves of other valve-motions will do with a poorer grade of oil) but because its construction is such that as soon as the valve becomes dry it causes the link to jump and pound, and very soon requires repairing. While the construction of various other devices are such, that while the valve may be equally as dry it does not show the want of oil so clearly as the old style link. Yet as a fact I care not what the valve motion may be, it requires a good grade of oil.

You may ask "how am I to know when I am getting a good grade of oil." The best way is to ascertain a good brand of oil then use that and nothing else.

We are not selling oil, or advertising oil. However before I get through I propose to give you the name of a good brand of cylinder oil, a good engine oil as well as good articles of various attachments, which cut no small figure in the success you may have in running an engine.

It is not an uncommon thing for an engineer (I don't like to call him an engineer either) to fill his sight feed lubricator with ordinary engine oil, and then wonder why his cylinder squeaks. The reason is that this grade of oil cannot stand the heat in the cylinder or steam chest.

If you are carrying 90 pounds of steam you have about 320 degrees of heat in your cylinder, with I20 to I25 pounds you will have about 350 degrees of heat, and in order to lubricate your valve and valve-seat, and also the cylinder surface, you must use an oil, that will not only stand this heat but considerable more so that it will have some staying qualities.

Then if you are using a good quality of oil and your link or reverse begins to knock, it is because some part of it wants attention, and you must look after it. And here is where I want to insist that you teach your ear to be your guide. You ought to be able to detect the slightest sound that is unnatural to your engine. Your eyes may be deceived, but a well trained ear can not be fooled.

I was once invited by an engineer to come out and see how nice his engine was running. I went, and found that the engine itself was running very smooth, in fact almost noiseless, but he looked very much disappointed when I asked him why he was doing all his work with one end of cylinder. He asked me what I meant, and I had some difficulty in getting him to detect the difference in the exhaust of the two ends, in fact the engine was only making one exhaust to a revolution. He was one of those engineers who never discovered anything wrong until he could see it. Did you know that there are people in the world whose mental capacity can only grasp one idea at a time. That is when their minds are on any one object or principle they can not see or observe anything else. That was the case with this engineer, his mind had been thoroughly occupied in getting all the reciprocating (moving) parts perfectly adjusted, and if the exhaust had made all sorts of peculiar noises, he would not have discovered it.

The one idead man will not make a successful engineer. The good engineer can stand by and at a glance take in the entire engine, from tank to top of smoke stack. He has the faculty of noting mentally, what he sees, and what he hears, and by combining the results of the two, he is enabled to size up the condition of the engine at a glance. This, however, only come with experience, and verges on expertness. And if you wish to be an expert, learn to be observing.

It is getting very common among engineers to use "hard grease" on the crank pin and main journals, and it will very soon be used exclusively. With a good grade of grease your crank will not heat near so quickly as with oil and your engine will be much easier to keep clean; and if you are going to be an engineer be a neat one, keep your engine clean and keep yourself clean. You say you can't do that; but you can at least keep yourself respectable. You will most certainly keep your engine looking as though it had an engineer. Keep a good bunch of waste handy, and when it is necessary to wipe your hands use the waste and not your overalls, and when you go in to a nice dinner the cook will not say after you go out, "Look here where that dirty engineer sat." Now boys, these are things worth heeding. I have actually known threshing crews to lose good customers simply because of their dirty clothes. The women kicked and they had a right to kick. But to return to hard grease and suitable cups for same.

In attaching these grease cups on boxes not previously arranged for them, it would be well for you to know how to do it properly. You will remove the journal, take a gouge and cut a clean groove across the box, starting in at one corner, about I/8 of an inch from the point of box and cut diagonally across coming out at the opposite corner on the other end of box. Then start at the opposite corner and run through as before, crossing the first groove in the center of box. Groove both halves of box the same, being careful not to cut out at either end, as this will allow the grease to escape from box and cause unnecessary waste. The chimming or packing in box should be cut so as to touch the journal at both ends of box, but not in the center or between these two points. So, when the top box is brought down tight, this will form another reservoir for the grease. If the box is not tapped directly in the center for cup, it will be necessary to cut other grooves from where it is tapped into the grooves already made. A box prepared in his way will require but little attention if you use good grease.



A HOT BOX

You will sometimes get a hot box. What is the best remedy? Well, I might name you a dozen, and if I did you would most likely never have one on hand when it was wanted. So will only give you one, and that is white lead and oil, and I want you to provide yourself with a can of this useful article. And should a journal or box get hot on your hands and refuse to cool with the usual methods, remove the cup, and after mixing a portion of the lead with oil, put a heavy coat of it on the journal, put back the cup and your journal will cool off very quickly. Be careful to keep all grit or dust out of your can of lead. Look after this part of it yourself. It is your business.

PART SEVEN

Before taking up the handling of a Traction Engine, we want to tell you of a number of things you are likely to do which you ought not to do.

Don't open the throttle too quickly, or you may throw the drive belt off, and are also more apt to raise the water and start priming.

Don't attempt to start the engine with the cylinder cocks closed, but make it a habit to open them when you stop; this will always insure your cylinder being free from water on starting.

Don't talk too much while on duty.

Don't pull the ashes out of ash pan unless you have a bucket of water handy.

Don't start the pump when you know you have low water.

Don't let it get low.

Don't let your engine get dirty.

Don't say you can't keep it clean.

Don't leave your engine at night till you have covered it up.

Don't let the exhaust nozzle lime up, and don't allow lime to collect where the water enters the boiler, or you may split a heater pipe or knock the top off of a check valve.

Don't leave your engine in cold weather without first draining all pipes.

Don't disconnect your engine with a leaky throttle.

Don't allow the steam to vary more than I0 or I5 pounds while at work.

Don't allow anyone to fool with your engine.

Don't try any foolish experiments on your engine.

Don't run an old boiler without first having it thoroughly tested.

Don't stop when descending a steep grade.

Don't pull through a stockyard without first closing the damper tight.

Don't pull onto a strange bridge without first examining it.

Don't run any risk on a bad bridge.

A TRACTION ENGINE ON THE ROAD

You may know all about an engine. You may be able to build one, and yet run a traction in the ditch the first jump.

It is a fact that some men never can become good operators of a traction engine, and I can't give you the reason why any more than you can tell why one man can handle a pair of horses better than another man who has had the same advantages. And yet if you do ditch your engine a few times, don't conclude that you can never handle a traction.

If you are going to run a traction engine I would advise you to use your best efforts to become an expert at it. For the expert will hook up to his load and get out of the neighborhood while the awkward fellow is getting his engine around ready to hook up.

The expert will line up to the separator the first time, while the other fellow will back and twist around for half an hour, and then not have a good job.

Now don't make the fatal mistake of thinking that the fellow is an expert who jumps up on his engine and jerks the throttle open and yanks it around backward and forward, reversing with a snap, and makes it stand-up on its hind wheels.

If you want to be an expert you must begin with the throttle, therein lies the secret of the real expert. He feels the power of his engine through the throttle. He opens it just enough to do what he wants it to do. He therefore has complete control of his engine. The fellow who backs his engine up to the separator with an open throttle and must reverse it to keep from running into and breaking something, is running his engine on his muscle and is entitled to small pay.

The expert brings his engine back under full control, and stops it exactly where he wants it. He handles his engine with his head and should be paid accordingly. He never makes a false move, loses no time, breaks nothing, makes no unnecessary noise, does not get the water all stirred up in the boiler, hooks up and moves out in the same quiet manner, and the onlookers think he could pull two such loads, and say he has a great engine, while the engineer of muscle would back up and jerk his engine around a half dozen times before he could make the coupling, then with a jerk and a snort he yanks the separator out of the holes, and the onlookers think he has about all he can pull.

Now these are facts, and they cannot be put too strong, and if you are going to depend on your muscle to run your engine, don't ask any more money than you would get at any other day labor.

You are not expected to become an expert all at once. Three things are essential to be able to handle a traction engine as it should be handled.

First, a thorough knowledge of the throttle. I don't mean that you should simply know how to pull it open and shut it. Any boy can do that. But I mean that you should be a good judge of the amount of power it will require to do what you may wish to do, and then give it the amount of throttle that it will require and no more. To illustrate this I will give an instance.

An expert was called a long distance to see an engine that the operator said would not pull its load over the hills he had to travel.

The first pull he had to make after the expert arrived was up the worst hill he had. When he approached the grade he threw off the governor belt, opened the throttle as wide as he could get it, and made a run for the hill. The result was, that he lifted the water and choked the engine down before he was half way up. He stepped off with the remark, "That is the way the thing does." The expert then locked the hind wheels of the separator with a timber, and without raising the pressure a pound, pulled it over the hill. He gave it just throttle enough to pull the load, and made no effort to hurry ii, and still had power to spare.

A locomotive engineer makes a run for a hill in order that the momentum of his train will help carry him over. It is not so with a traction and its load; the momentum that you get don't push very hard.

The engineer who don't know how to throttle his engine never knows what it will do, and therefore has but little confidence in it; while the engineer who has a thorough knowledge of the throttle and uses it, always has power to spare and has perfect confidence in his engine. He knows exactly what he can do and what he cannot do.

The second thing for you to know is to get onto the tricks of the steer wheel. This will come to you naturally, and it is not necessary for me to spend much time on it. All new beginners make the mistakes of turning the wheel too often. Remember this-that every extra turn to the right requires two turns to the left, and every extra turn to the left requires two more to the right; especially is this the care if your engine is fast on the road.

The third thing for you to learn, is to keep your eyes on the front wheels of your engine, and not be looking back to see if your load in coming.

In making a difficult turn you will find it very much to your advantage to go slow, as it gives you much better control of your front wheels, and it is not a bad plan for a beginner to continue to go slow till he has perfect confidence in his ability to handle the steer wheel as it may keep you out of some bad scrapes.

How about getting into a hole? Well, you are not interested half as much in knowing how to get into a hole as You are in knowing how to get out. An engineer never shows the stuff he is made of to such good advantage as when he gets into a hole; and he is sure to get there, for one of the traits of a traction engine is its natural ability to find a soft place in the ground.

Head work will get you out of a bad place quicker than all the steam you can get in your boiler. Never allow the drivers to turn without doing some good. If you are in a hole, and you are able to turn your wheels, you are not stuck; but don't allow your wheels to slip, it only lets you in deeper. If your wheels can't get a footing, you want to give them something to hold to. Most smart engineers will tell you that the best thing is a heavy chain. That is true. So are gold dollars the best things to buy bread with, but you have not always got the gold dollars, neither have you always got the chain. Old hay or straw is a good thing; old rails or timber of any kind. The engineer with a head spends more time trying to give his wheels a hold than he does trying to pull out, while the one without a head spends more time trying to pull out than he does trying to secure a footing, and the result is, that the first fellow generally gets out the first attempt, while the other fellow is lucky if he gets out the first half day.

If you have one wheel perfectly secure, don't spoil it by starting your engine till you have the other just as secure.

If you get into a place where your engine is unable to turn its wheels, then your are stuck, and the only thing for you to do is to lighten your load or dig out. But under all circumstances your engine should be given the benefit of your judgment.

All traction engines to be practical must of a necessity, be reversible. To accomplish this, the link with the double eccentric is the one most generally used, although various other devices are used with more or less success. As they all accomplish the same purpose it is not necessary for us to discuss the merits or demerits of either.

The main object is to enable the operator to run his engine either backward or forward at will, but the link is also a great cause of economy, as it enables the engineer to use the steam more or less expansively, as he may use more or less power, and, especially is this true, while the engine is on the road, as the power required may vary in going a short distance, anywhere from nothing in going down hill, to the full power of your engine in going up.

By using steam expansively, we mean the cutting off of the steam from the cylinder, when the piston has traveled a certain part of its stroke. The earlier in the stroke this is accomplished the more benefit you get of the expansive force of the steam.

The reverse on traction engines is usually arranged to cut off at I/4, I/2 or 3/4. To illustrate what is meant by "cutting off" at I/4, I/2 or 3/4, we will suppose the engine has a I2 inch stroke. The piston begins its stroke at the end of cylinder, and is driven by live steam through an open port, 3 inches or one quarter of the stroke, when the port is closed by the valve shutting the steam from the cylinder, and the piston is driven the remaining 9 inches of its stroke by the expansive force of the steam. By cutting off at I/2 we mean that the piston is driven half its stroke or 6 inches by live steam, and by the expansion of the steam the remaining 6 inches; by 3/4 we mean that live steam is used 9 inches before cutting off, and expansively the remaining 3 inches of stroke.

Here is something for you to remember: "The earlier in the stroke you cut off the greater the economy, but less the power; the later you cut off the less the economy and greater the power."

Suppose we go into this a little farther. If you are carrying I00 pounds pressure and cut off at I/4, you can readily see the economy of fuel and water, for the steam is only allowed to enter the cylinder during I/4 of its stroke; but by reason of this, you only get an average pressure on the piston head of 59 pounds throughout the stroke. But if this is sufficient to do the work, why not take advantage of it and thereby save your fuel and water? Now, with the same pressure as before, and cutting off at I/2, you have an average pressure on piston head of 84 pounds, a loss of 50 per cent in economy and a gain of 42 per cent in power. Cutting of at 3/4 gives you an average pressure of 96 pounds throughout the stroke. A loss on cutting off at I/4 of 75 per cent in economy, and a gain of nearly 63 per cent in power. This shows that the most available point at which to work steam expansively is at I/4, as the percentage of increase of power does not equal the percentage of loss in economy. The nearer you bring the reverse lever to center of quadrant, the earlier will the valve cut the steam and the less will be the average pressure, while the farther away from the center the later in the stroke will the valve cut the steam, and the greater the average pressure, and, consequently, the greater the power. We have seen engineers drop the reverse back in the last notch in order to make a hard pull, and were unable to tell why they did so.

Now, as far as doing the work is concerned, it is not absolutely necessary that you know this; but if you do know it, you are more likely to profit by it and thereby get the best results out of your engine. And as this is our object, we want you to know it, and be benefitted by the knowledge. Suppose you are on the road with your engine and load, and you have a stretch of nice road. You are carrying a good head of steam and running with lever back in the corner or lower notch. Now your engine will travel along its regular speed, and say you run a mile this way and fire twice in making it. You now ought to be able to turn around and go back on the same road with one fire by simply hooking the lever up as short as it will allow to do the work. Your engine will make the same time with half the fuel and water, simply because you utilize the expansive force of the steam instead of using the live steam from boiler. A great many good engines are condemned and said to use too much fuel, and all because the engineer takes no pains to utilize the steam to the best advantage.

I have already advised you to carry a "high pressure;" by a high pressure I mean any where from I00 to I25 lbs. I have done this expecting you to use the steam expansively whenever possible, and the expansive force of steam increases very rapidly after you have reached 70 lbs. Steam at 80 lbs. used expansively will do nine times the work of steam at 25 lbs. Note the difference. Pressure 3 I-5 times greater. Work performed, 9 times greater. I give you these facts trusting that you will take advantage of them, and if your engine at I00 or I00 lbs. will do your work cutting off at I/4, don't allow it to cut off at I/2. If cutting off at I/2 will do the work, don't allow it to cut off at 3/4, and the result will be that you will do the work with the least possible amount of fuel, and no one will have any reason to find fault with you or your engine.

Now we have given you the three points which are absolutely necessary to the successful handling of a traction engine, We went through it with you when running as a stationary; then we gave you the pointers-to be observed when running as a traction or road engine. We have also given you hints on economy, and if you do not already know too much to follow our advice, you can go into the field with an engine and have no fears as to the results.



How about bad bridges?

Well, a bad bridge is a bad thing, and you cannot be too careful. When you have questionable bridges to cross over, you should provide yourself with good hard-wood planks. If you can have them sawed to order have them 3 inches in the center and tapering to 2 inches at the ends. You should have two of these about 16 feet long, and two 2x12 planks about 8 feet long. The short ones for culverts, and for helping with the longer ones in crossing longer bridges.

An engine should never be allowed to drop from a set of planks down onto the floor of bridge. This is why I advocate four planks. Don't hesitate to use the plank. You had better plank a dozen bridges that don't need it than to attempt to cross one that does need it. You will also find it very convenient to carry at least 50 feet of good heavy rope. Don't attempt to pull across a doubtful bridge with the separator or tank hooked directly to the engine. It is dangerous. Here is where you want the rope. An engine should be run across a bad bridge very slowly and carefully, and not allowed to jerk. In extreme cases it is better to run across by hand; don't do this but once; get after the road supervisors.

SAND.

An engineer wants a sufficient amount of "sand," but he don't want it in the road. However, you will find it there and it is the meanest road you will have to travel. A bad sand road requires considerable sleight of hand on the part of the engineer if he wishes to pull much of a load through it. You will find it to your advantage to keep your engine as straight as possible, as you are not so liable to start one wheel to slipping any sooner than the other. Never attempt to "wiggle" through a sand bar, and don't try to hurry through; be satisfied with going slow, just so you are going. An engine will stand a certain speed through sand, and the moment you attempt to increase that speed, you break its footing, and then you are gone. In a case of this kind, a few bundles of hay is about the best thing you can use under your drivers in order to get started again. But don't loose your temper; it won't help the sand any.

Now no doubt the reader wonders why I have said nothing about compound engines. Well in the first place, it is not necessary to assist you in your work, and if you can handle the single cylinder engine, you can handle the compound.

The question as to the advantage of a compound engine is, or would be an interesting one if we cared to discuss it.

The compound traction engine has come into use within the past few years, and I am inclined to think more for sort of a novelty or talking point rather than to produce a better engine. There is no question but that there is a great advantage in the compound engine, for stationary and marine engines.

In a compound engine the steam first enters the small or high pressure cylinder and is then exhausted into the large or low pressure cylinder, where the expansive force is all obtained.

Two cylinders are used because we can get better results from high pressure in the use of two cylinders of different areas than by using but one cylinder, or simple engine.

That there is a gain in a high pressure, can be shown very easily:

For instance, 100 pounds of coal will raise a certain amount of water from 60 degrees, to 5 pounds steam pressure, and 102.9 pounds would raise the same water to 80 pounds, and 104.4 would raise it to 160 pounds, and this 160 pounds would produce a large increase of power over the 80 pounds at a very slight increase of fuel. The compound engine will furnish the same number of horse power, with less fuel than the simple engine, but only when they are run at the full load all the time.

If, however, the load fluctuates and should the load be light for any considerable part of the day, they will waste the fuel instead of saving it over the simple engine.

No engine can be subjected to more variation of loads than the traction engine, and as the above are facts the reader can draw his own conclusions.

FRICTION CLUTCH

The friction clutch is now used almost exclusively for engaging the engine with the propelling gearing of the traction drivers, and it will most likely give you more trouble than any one thing on your engine, from the fact that to be satisfactory they require a nicety of adjustment, that is very difficult to attain, a half turn of the expansion bolt one way or the other may make your clutch work very nicely, or very unsatisfactory, and you can only learn this by carefully adjusting of friction shoes, until you learn just how much clearance they will stand when lever is out, in order to hold sufficient when lever is thrown in. If your clutch fails to hold, or sticks, it is not the fault of the clutch, it is not adjusted properly. And you may have it correct today and tomorrow it will need readjustment, caused by the wear in the shoes; you will have to learn the clutch by patience and experience.

But I want to say to you that the friction clutch is a source of abuse to many a good engineer, because the engineer uses no judgment in its use.

A certain writer on engineering makes use of the following, and gives me credit: "Sometimes you may come to an obstacle in the road, over which your engine refuses to go, you may perhaps get over it in this way, throw the clutch-lever so as to disconnect the road wheels, let the engine get up to full speed and then throw the clutch level back so as to connect the road wheels." Now I don't thank any one for giving me credit for saying any such thing. That kind of thing is the hight of abuse of an engine.

I am aware that when the friction clutch first came into use, their representatives made a great talk on that sort of thing to the green buyer. But the good engineer knows better than to treat his engine that way.

Never attempt to pull your loads over a steep hill without being certain that your clutch is in good shape, and if you have any doubts about it put in the tight gear pin. Most all engines have both the friction and the tight gear pin. The pin is much the safer in a hilly country, and if you have learned the secret of the throttle you can handle just as big load with the pin as with the clutch, and will never tear your gearing off or lose the stud bolts in boiler.

The following may assist you in determining or arriving at some idea of the amount of power you are supplying with your engine:

For instance, a I inch belt of the standard grade with the proper tention, neither too tight or too loose, running at a. maximum spead of 800 ft. a minute will transmit one horse power, running 1600 ft. 2 horse power and 2400 ft. 3 horse power. A 2 inch belt, at the same speed, twice the power.

Now if you know the circumference of your fly wheel, the number of revolutions your engine is making and the width of belt, you can figure very nearly the amount of power you can supply without slipping your belt. For instance, we will say your fly wheel is 40 inches in diameter or 10.5 feet nearly in circumference and your engine was running 225 revolutions a minute, your belt would be traveling 225 x 10.5 feet = 2362.5 feet or very nearly 2400 ft. and if I inch of belt would transmit 3 H. P. running this speed, a 6 inch belt would transmit 18 H.P., a 7 inch belt, 21 H.P., an 8 inch belt 24 H.P., and so on. With the above as a basis for figuring you can satisfy yourself as to the power you are furnishing. To get the best results a belt wants to sag slightly as it hugs the pulley closer, and will last much longer.

SOMETHING ABOUT SIGHT-FEED LUBRICATORS

All such lubricators feed oil through the drop-nipple by hydrostatic pressure; that is, the water of condensation in the condenser and its pipe being elevated above the oil magazine forces the oil out of the latter by just so much pressure as the column of water is higher than the exit or outlet of oil-nipple. The higher the column of water the more positive will the oil feeds. As soon as the oil drop leaves the nipple it ceases to be actuated by the hydrostatic pressure, and rises through the water in the sight-glass merely by the difference of its specific gravity, as compared with water and then passes off through the ducts provided to the parts to be lubricated.

For stationary engines the double connection is preferable, and should always be connected to the live steam pipe above the throttle. The discharge arm should always be long enough (4 to 6 inches) to insure the oil magazine and condenser from getting too hot, otherwise it will not condense fast enough to give continuous feed of oil. For traction or road engines the single connection is used. These can be connected to live steam pipe or directly to steam chest.

In a general way it may be stated that certain precaution must be taken to insure the satisfactory operation of all sight-feed lubricators. Use only the best of oil, one gallon of which is worth five gallons of cheap stuff and do far better service, as inferior grades not only clog the lubricator but chokes the ducts and blurs the sight-glass, etc., and the refuse of such oil will accumulate in the cylinder sufficiently to cause damage and loss of power, far exceeding the difference in cost of good oil over the cheap grades.

After attaching a lubricator, all valves should be opened wide and live steam blown through the outer vents for a few minutes to insure the openings clean and free. Then follow the usual directions given with all lubricators. Be particular in getting your lubricator attached so it will stand perfectly plum, in order that the drop can pass up through the glass without touching the sides, and keep the drop-nipple clean, be particular to drain in cold weather.

Now, I am about to leave you alone with your engine, just as I have left any number of young engineers after spending a day with them in the field and on the road. And I never left one, that I had not already made up my mind fully, as to what kind of an engineer he would make.



TWO WAYS OF READING

Now there are two ways to read this book, and if I know just how you had read it I could tell you in a minute whether to take hold of an engine or leave it alone. If you have read it one way, you are most likely to say "it is no trick to run an engine." If you have read it the other way you will say, "It is no trouble to learn how to run an engine." Now this fellow will make an engineer, and will be a good one. He has read it carefully, noting the drift of my advice. Has discovered that the engineer is not expected to build an engine, or to improve it after it has been built. Has recognized the fact that the principle thing is to attend to his own business and let other people attend to theirs. That a monkey wrench is a tool to be left in the tool box till he knows he needs it. That muscle is a good thing to have but not necessary to the successful engineer. That an engineer with a bunch of waste in his hand is a better recommendation than an "engineer license." That good common sense, and a cool head is the very best tools he can have. Has learned that carelessness will get him into trouble, and that to "forget" costs money.

Now the fellow who said "It is no trick to run an engine," read this book another way. He did not see the little points. He was hunting for big theories, scientific theories, something he could not understand, and didn't find them. He expected to find some bright scheme to prevent a boiler from exploding, didn't notice the simple little statement, "keep water in it," that was too commonplace to notice. He was looking for cuts, diagrams, geometrical figures, theories for constructing engines and boilers and all that sort of thing and didn't find them. Hence "It is no trick to run an engine."

If this has been your idea of "Rough and Tumble Engineering" forget all about your theory, and go back and read it over and remember the little suggestions and don't expect this book to teach you how to build an engine. We didn't start out to teach you anything of the kind. That is a business of itself. A good engineer gets better money than the man who builds them. Read it as if you wanted to know how to run an engine and not how to build one.

Study the following questions and answers carefully. Don't learn them like you would a piece of poetry, but study them, see if they are practical; make yourself thoroughly acquainted with the rule for measuring the horse-power of an engine; make yourself so familiar with it that you could figure any engine without referring to the book. Don't stop at this, learn to figure the heating surface in any boiler. It will enable you to satisfy yourself whether you are working your boiler or engine too hard or what it ought to be capable of doing.

SOME THINGS TO KNOW

Q. What is fire? A. Fire is the rapid combustion or consuming of organic matter.

Q. What is water? A. Water is a compound of oxygen and hydrogen. In weight 88 9-I0 parts oxygen to II I-I0 hydrogen. It has its maximum density at 39 degrees Fahr., changes to steam at 2I2 degrees, and to ice at 32 degrees.

Q. What is smoke? A. It is unconsumed carbon finely divided escaping into open air.

Q. Is excessive smoke a waste of fuel? A. Yes.

Q. How will you prevent it A. Keep a thin fire, and admit cold air sufficient to insure perfect combustion.

Q. What is low water as applied to a boiler? A. It is when the water is insufficient to cover all parts exposed to the flames.

Q. What is the first thing to do on discovering that you have low water? A. Pull out the fire.

Q. Would it be safe to open the safety valve at such time? A. No.

Q. Why not? A. It would relieve the pressure on the water which being allowed to flow over the excessive hot iron would flash into steam, and might cause an explosion.

Q. Why do boilers sometimes explode just on the point of starting the engine? A. Because starting the engine has the same effect as opening the safety valve.

Q. Are there any circumstances under which an engineer is justified in allowing the water to get low? A. No.

Q. Why do they sometimes do it? A. From carelessness or ignorance.

Q. May not an engineer be deceived in the gauge of water? A. Yes.

Q. Is he to be blamed under such circumstances? A. Yes.

Q. Why? A. Because if he is deceived by it it shows he has neglected something.

Q. What is meant by "Priming." A. It is the passing of water in visible quantities into the cylinder with the steam.

Q. What would you consider the first duty of an engineer on discovering that the water was foaming or priming A. Open the cylinder cocks at once, and throttle the steam.

Q. Why would you do this? A. Open the cocks to enable the water to escape, and throttle the steam so that the water would settle.

Q. Is foaming the same as priming? A. Yes and no.

Q. How do you make that out? A. A boiler may foam without priming, but it can't prime without first foaming..

Q. Where will you first discover that the water is foaming? A. It will appear in the glass gauge, the glass will have a milky appearance and the water will seem to be running down from the top, There will be a snapping or cracking in the cylinder as quick as priming begins.

Q. What causes a boiler to foam? A. There are a number of causes. It may come from faulty construction of boiler; it may have insufficient steam room. It may be, and usually is, from the use of bad water, muddy or stagnant water, or water containing any soapy substance.

Q. What would you do after being bothered in this way? A. Clean out the-boiler and get better water if possible.

Q. How would you manage your pumps while the water was foaming. A. Keep them running full.

Q. Why? A. In order to make up for the extra amount of water going out with the steam.

Q. What is "cushion?" A. Cushion is steam retained or admitted in front of the piston head at the finish of stroke, or when the engine is on "center."

Q. What is it for? A. It helps to overcome the "inertia" and momentum of the reciprocating parts of the engine, and enables the engine to pass the center without a jar.

Q. How would you increase the cushion in an engine? A. By increasing the lead.

Q. What is lead? A. It is the amount of opening the port shows on steam end of cylinder when the engine is on dead center.

Q. Is there any rule for giving an engine the proper lead? A. No.

Q. Why not? A. Owing to their variation in construction, speed, etc.

Q. What would you consider the proper amount of lead, generally. A. From I/32 to I/I6.

Q. What is "lap?" A. It is the distance the valve overlaps the steam ports when in mid position.

Q. What is lap for? A. In order that the steam may be worked expansively.

Q. When does expansion occur in a cylinder? A. During the time between which the port closes and the point at which the exhaust opens.

Q. What would be the effect on an engine if the exhaust opened too soon? A. It would greatly lessen the power of the engine.

Q. What effect would too much lead have. A. It would also weaken the engine, as the steam would enter before the piston had reached the end of the stroke, and would tend to prevent it passing the center.

Q. What is the stroke of an engine? A. It is the distance the piston travels in the cylinder.

Q. How do you find the speed of a piston per minute? A. Double the stroke and multiply it by the number of revolutions a minuet. Thus an engine with a 12 inch stroke would travel 24 inches, or 2 feet, at a revolution. If it made 200 revolutions a minute, the travel of piston would be 400 feet a minute.

Q. What is considered a horse power as applied to an engine? A. It is power sufficient to lift 33,000 pounds one foot high in one minute.

Q. What is the indicated horse power of an engine? A. It is the actual work done by the steam in the cylinder as shown by an indicator.

Q. What is the actual horse power? A. It is the power actually given off by the driving belt and pulley.

Q. How would you find the horse power of an engine? A. Multiply the area of the piston by the average pressure, less 5; multiply this product by the number of feet the piston travels per minute; divide the product by 33,000; the result will be horse power of the engine.

Q. How will you find the area of piston? A. Square the diameter of piston and multiply it by .7854.

Q. What do you mean by squaring the diameter? A. Multiplying it by itself. If a cylinder is 6 inches in diameter, 36 multiplied by .7854, gives the area in square inches.

Q. What do you mean by average pressure? A. If the pressure on boiler is 60 pounds, and the engine is cutting off at 1/2 stroke, the pressure for the full stroke would be 50 pounds.

Q. Why do you say less 5 pounds? A. To allow for friction and condensation.

Q. What is the power of a 7 x 10 engine, running 200 revolutions, cutting off at 1/2 stroke with 60 pounds steam? A. 7 x 7 = 49 x .7854 = 38.4846. The average pressure of 60 pounds would be 50 pounds less 5 = 45 pounds; 38-4846 x 45 = 1731.8070 x .333 1/3, (the number of feet the piston travels per minute) 577,269.0000 by 33,000=17 1/2 horse power.

Q. What is a high pressure engine? A. It is an engine using steam at a high pressure and exhausting into the open air.

Q. What is a low pressure engine? A. It is one using steam at a low pressure and exhausting into a condenser, producing a vacuum, the piston being under steam pressure on one side and vacuum on the other.

Q. What class of engines are farm engines? A. They are high pressure.

Q. Why? A. They are less complicated and less expensive.

Q. What is the most economical pressure to carry on high pressure engine? A. From 90 to 110 pounds.

Q. Why is high pressure more economical than low pressure? A. Because the loss is greater in low pressure owing to the atmospheric pressure. With 45 pounds steam the pressure from the atmosphere is 15 pounds, or 1/3, leaving only 30 pounds of effective power; while with 90 pounds the atmospheric pressure is only 1-6 of the boiler pressure.

Q. Does it require any more fuel to carry I00 pounds than it does to carry 60 pounds? A. It don't require quite as much.

Q. If that is the case why not increase the pressure beyond this and save more fuel? A. Because we would soon pass the point of safety in a boiler, and the result would be the loss of life and property.

Q. What do you consider a safe working pressure on a boiler? A. That depends entirely on its diameter. While a boiler of 30 inches in diameter 3/8 inch iron would carry I40 pounds, a boiler of the same thickness 80 inches in diameter would have a safe working pressure of only 50 pounds, which shows that the safe working pressure decreases very rapidly as we increase the diameter of boiler. This is the safe working pressure for single riveted boilers of this diameter. To find the safe working pressure of a double riveted boiler of same diameter multiply the safe pressure of the single riveted by 70, and divide by 56, will give a safe pressure of a double riveted boiler.

Q. Why is a steel boiler superior to an iron boiler? A. Because it is much lighter and stronger.

Q. Does boiler plate become stronger or weaker as it becomes heated? A. It becomes tougher or stronger as it is heated, till it reaches a temperature Of 550 degrees when it rapidly decreases its power of resistance as it is heated beyond this temperature.

Q. How do you account for this? A. Because after you pass the maximum temperature of 550 degrees, the more you raise the temperature the nearer you approach its fusing point when its tenacity or resisting power is nothing.

Q. What is the degree of heat necessary to fuse iron? A. 2912 degrees.

Q. Steel? A. 2532 degrees.

Q. What class of boilers are generally used in a threshing engine? A. The flue boiler and the tubular boiler.

Q. About what amount of heating and grate surface is required per horse power in a flue boiler. A. About 15 square feet of heating surface and 3/4 square feet of grate surface.

Q. What would you consider a fair evaporation in a flue boiler? A. Six pounds of water to I pound of coal.

Q. How do these dimensions compare in a tubular boiler. A. A tubular boiler will require I/4 less grate surface, and will evaporate about 8 pounds of water to I pound of coal.

Q. Which do you consider the most available? A. The tubular boiler.

Q. Why? A. It is more economical and is less liable to "collapse?"

Q. What do you mean by "collapse?" A. It is a crushing in of a flue by external pressure.

Q. Is a tube of a large diameter more liable to collapse than one of small diameter? A. Yes.

Q. Why? A. Because its power of resistance is much less than a tube of small diameter.

Q. Is the pressure on the shell of a boiler the same as on the tubes? A. No.

Q. What is the difference? A. The shell of boiler has a tearing or internal pressure while the tubes have a crushing or external pressure.

Q. What causes an explosion? A. An explosion occurs generally from low water, allowing the iron to become overheated and thereby weakened and unable to withstand the pressure.

Q. What is a "burst?" A. It is that which occurs when through any defect the water and steam are allowed to escape freely without further injury to boiler.

Q. What is the best way to prevent an explosion or burst? A. (I) Never go beyond a safe working pressure. (2) Keep the boiler clean and in good repair. (3) Keep the safety valves in good shape and the water at its proper height.

Q. What is the first thing to do on going to your engine in the morning? A. See that the water is at its proper level.

Q. What is the proper level? A. Up to the second gauge.

Q. When should you test or try the pop valve? A. As soon as there is a sufficient pressure.

Q. How would you start your engine after it had been standing over night? A. Slowly.

Q. Why? A. In order to allow the cylinder to become hot, and that the water or condensed steam may escape without injury to the cylinder.

Q. What is the last thing to do at night? A. See that there is plenty of water in boiler, and if the weather is cold drain all pipes.

Q. What care should be taken of the fusable plug? A. Keep it scraped clean, and not allow it to become corroded on top.

Q. What is a fusible plug? A. It is a hollow cast plug screwed into the crown sheet or top of fire box, and having the hollow or center filled with lead or babbit.

Q. Is such a plug a protection to a boiler? A. It is if kept in proper condition.

Q. Can you explain the principle of the fusible or soft plug as it is sometimes called? A. It is placed directly over the fire, and should the water fall below the crown sheet the lead fuses or melts and allows the steam to flow down on top of the fire, destroys the heat and prevents the burning of crown sheet.

Q. Why don't the lead fuse with water over it? A. Because the water absorbs the heat and prevents it reaching the fusing point.

Q. What is the fusing point of lead? A. 618 degrees.

Q. Is there any objection to the soft plug? A. There is, in the hands of some engineers.

Q. Why? A. It relieves him of the fear of a dry crown sheet, and gives him an apparent excuse for low water.

Q. Is this a real or legitimate objection? A. It is not.

Q. What are the two distinct classes of boilers? A. The externally and internally fired boilers.

Q. Which is the most economical? A. The internally fired boiler.

Q. Why? A. Because the fuel is all consumed in close contact with the sides of furnace and the loss from radiation is less than in the externally fired.

Q. To what class does the farm or traction engine belong? A. To the internally fired.

Q. How would you find the H.P. of such a boiler? A. Multiply in inches the circumference or square of furnace, by its length, then multiply, the circumference of one tube by its total length, and this product by the number of tubes also taking into account the surface in tube sheet, add these products together and divide by I44, this will give you the number of square feet of heating surface in boiler. Divide this by 14 or 15 which will give the H.P. of boiler.

Q. Why do you say 14 or 15? A. Because some claim that it requires 14 feet of heating surface to the H.P. and others 15. To give you my personal opinion I believe that any of the standard engines today with good coal and properly handled, will and are producing 1 H.P. for as low as every 10 feet of surface. But to be on the safe side it is well to divide by 15 to get the H.P. of your boiler, when good and bad fuel is considered.

Q. How would you find the approximate weight of a boiler by measurement? A. Find the number of square feet in surface of boiler and fire box, and as a sheet of boiler iron or steel 1/16 of an inch thick, and one foot square, weighs 2.52 pounds, would multiply the number of square feet by 2.52 and this product by the number of 16ths or thickness of boiler sheet, which would give the approximate, or very near the weight of the boiler.

Q. What would you recognize as points in a good engineer. A. A good engineer keeps his engine clean, washes the boiler whenever he thinks it needs it. Never meddles with his engine, and allows no one else to do so. Goes about his work quietly, and is always in his place, only talks when necessary, never hammers or bruises any part of his engine, allows no packing to become baked or burnt in the stuffing box or glands, renews them as quick as they show that they require it. Never neglects to oil, and then uses no more than is necessary. He carries a good gauge of water and a uniform pressure of steam. He allows no unusual noise about his engine to escape his notice he has taught his ear to be his guide. When a job is about finished you will see him cleaning his ash pan, getting his tools together, a good fire in fire box, in fact all ready to go, and he looses no time after the belt is thrown off. He hooks up to his load quietly, and is the first man ready to go.

*Q. When the piston head is in the exact center of cylinder, is the engine on the quarter? *A. It is supposed to be, but is not.

*Q. Why not? A. The angularity of the rod prevents it reaching the quarter.

*Q. Then when the engine is on the exact quarter what position does the piston head occupy? A. It is nearest the end next to crank.

Q. If this is the case, which end of cylinder is supposed to be the stronger? A. The opposite end, or end furtherest from crank.

Q. Why? A. Because this end gets the benefit of the most travel, and as it makes it in the same time, it must travel faster.

*Q. At what part of the cylinder does the piston head reach the greatest speed? A. At and near the center.

*Q. Why? Figure this out for yourself. *Note. The above few questions are given for the purpose of getting you to notice the little peculiarities of the crank engine, and are not to be taken into consideration in the operation of the same.

Q. If you were on the road and should discover that you had low water, what would you do? A. I would drop my load and hunt a high place for the front end of my engine, and would do it quickly to.

Q. If by some accident the front end of your engine should drop down allowing the water to expose the crown sheet, what would you do? A. If I had a heavy and hot fire, would shovel dirt into the fire and smother it out.

Q. Why would you prefer this to drawing the fire? A. Because it would reduce the heat at once, instead of increasing it for a few minutes while drawing out the hot bed of coals, which is a very unpleasant job.

Q. Would you ever throw water in the fire box? A. No. It might crack the side sheets, and would most certainly start the flues.

Q. You say, in finding low water while on the road, you would run your engine with the front end on high ground. Why would you do this? A. In order that the water would raise over the crown sheet, and thus make it safe to pump up the water.

Q. While your engine was in this shape would you not expose the front end of flues'? A. Yes, but as the engine would not be working this would do no damage.

Q. If you were running in a hilly country how would you manage the boiler as regards water? A. Would carry as high as the engine would allow, without priming.

Q. Suppose you had a heavy load or about all you could handle, and should approach a long steep hill, what condition should the water and fire be to give you the most advantage? A. A moderately low gauge of water and a very hot fire.

Q. Why a moderately low gauge of water? A. Because the engine would not be so liable to draw the water or prime in making the hard pull.

Q. Why a very hot fire? A. So I could start the pumps full without impairing or cutting the pressure.

Q. When would you start your pump? A. As soon as fairly started up the hill.

Q. Why? A. As most hills have two sides, I would start them full in order to have a safe gauge to go down, without stoping to pump up.

Q. What would a careful engineer do before starting to pull a load over a steep hill? A. He would examine his clutch, or gear pin.

Q. How would you proceed to figure the road speed of traction. A. Would first determine the circumference of driver, then ascertain how many revolutions the engine made to one of the drivers. Multiply the number of revolutions the engine makes per minute by 60, this will give the number of revolutions of engine per hour. Divide this by the number of revolutions the engine makes to the drivers once, and this will give you the number of revolutions the drivers will make in one hour, and multiplying this by the circumference of driver in feet, and it will tell you how many feet your engine is traveling per hour, and this divided by 5280, the number of feet in a mile, would tell you just what speed your engine would make on the road.



THINGS HANDY FOR THE ENGINEER

The first edition of this work brought me a great many letters asking where certain articles could be procured, what I would recommend, etc. These questions required attention and as the writers had bought and paid for their book it was due them that they get the benefit of my experience, as nothing is so discouraging to the young engineer as to be continually annoyed by unreliable and inferior fittings used more or less on all engines. I have gone over my letter file and every article asked for will be taken up in the order, showing the relative importance of each article in the minds of engineers. For instance, more letters reached me asking for a good brand of oil than any other one article. Then comes injectors, lubricators have third place, and so on down the list. Now without any intention of advertising anybody's goods I will give you the benefit of my years of experience and will be very careful not to mention or recommend anything which is not strictly first class, at least so in my opinion, and as good as can be had in its class, yet in saying that these articles are good does not say that others are not equally as good. I am simply anticipating the numerous letters I otherwise would receive and am answering them in a lump bunch. If you have no occasion to procure any of these articles, the naming of them will do no harm, but should you want one or more you will make no mistake in any one of them.

OIL

As I have stated, more engineers asked for a good brand of oil than for any other one article and I will answer this with less satisfaction to myself than any other for this reason: You may know what you want, but you do not always get what you call for. Oil is one of those things that cannot be branded, the barrel can, but then it can be filled with the cheapest stuff on the market. If you can get Capital Cylinder Oil your valve will give you no trouble. If you call for this particular brand and it does not give you satisfaction don't blame me or the oil, go after the dealer; he did not give you what you called for. The same can be said of Renown Engine Oil. If you can always have this oil you will have no fault to find with its wearing qualities, and it will not gum on your engine, but as I have said, you may call for it and get something else. If your valve or cylinder is giving you any trouble and you have not perfect confidence in the dealer from whom you usually get your cylinder oil send direct to The Standard Oil Company for some Capital Cylinder Oil and you will get an oil that will go through your cylinder and come out the exhaust and still have some staying qualities to it. The trouble with so much of the so called cylinder oil is that it is so light that the moment it strikes the extreme heat in the steam chest it vaporizes and goes through the cylinder in the form of vapor and the valve and cylinder are getting no oil, although you are going through all the necessary means to oil them.

It is somewhat difficult to get a young engineer to understand why the cylinder requires one grade of oil and the engine another. This is only necessary as a matter of economy, cylinder or valve oil will do very well on the engine, but engine oil will not do for the cylinder. And as a less expensive oil will do for the engine we therefore use two grades of oil.