There are other considerations which support such a theory. It will be readily admitted that the commonest and most widely distributed form of the megalithic monument is the dolmen. Both this and its obvious derivatives, the Giant's Grave, the allee couverte, and others, are known to have been tombs, while other types of structure, such as the Maltese temple, the menhir, and the cromlech, almost certainly had a religious purpose. It is difficult to believe that these types of building, so closely connected with religion and burial, were introduced into all these regions simply by the influence of trade relations. Religious customs and the burial rites connected with them are perhaps the most precious possession of a primitive people, and they are those in which they most oppose and resent change of any kind, even when it only involves detail and not principle. Thus it is almost incredible that the people, for instance, of Spain, because they were told by traders that the people of North Africa buried in dolmens, gave up, even in isolated instances, their habit of interment in trench graves in favour of burial in dolmens. It is still more impossible to believe that this unnatural event happened in one country after another. It is true that the use of metal was spread by means of commerce, but here there was something to be gained by adopting the new discovery, and there was no sacrifice of religious custom or principle. An exchange of products between one country and another is not unnatural, but a traffic in burial customs is unthinkable.

Perhaps, however, it was not the form of the dolmen which was brought by commerce, but simply the art of architecture in general, and this was adapted to burial purposes. To this there are serious objections. In the first place it does not explain why exactly the same types of building (e.g. the dolmen), showing so many similarities of peculiar detail, occur in countries so far apart; and in the second place, if what was carried by trade was the art of building alone, why should the learners go out of their way to use huge stones when smaller ones would have suited their purpose equally well? That the megalithic builders knew how to employ smaller stones we know from their work; that they preferred to use large ones for certain purposes was not due to ignorance or chance, it was because the large stone as such had some particular meaning and association for them. We cannot definitely say that large stones were themselves actually worshipped, but there can be no possible doubt that for some reason or other they were regarded as peculiarly fit to be used in sanctified places such as the tombs of the dead. It is impossible that the men who possessed the skill to lay the horizontal upper courses of the Hagiar Kim temple should have taken the trouble to haul to the spot and use vast blocks over 20 feet in length where far smaller ones would have been more convenient, unless they had some deep-seated prejudice in favour of great stones.

Such are the main difficulties involved by the influence theory. On the other hand, objections have been urged against the idea that the monuments were all built by one and the same race. Thus Dr. Montelius in his excellent Orient und Europa says, "In Europe at this time dwelt Aryans, but the Syrians and Sudanese cannot be Aryans," the inference being, of course, that the European dolmens were built by a different race from that which built those of Syria and the Sudan. Unfortunately, however, the major premise is not completely true, for though it is true that Aryans did live in Europe at this time, there were also people in Europe who were not Aryans, and it is precisely among them that megalithic buildings occur.

The French archaeologist Dechelette also condemns the idea of a single race. "Anthropological observations," he says, "have long since ruined this adventurous hypothesis." He does not tell us what these observations are, but we presume that he refers to the occurrence of varying skull types among the people buried in the megalithic tombs. Nothing is more natural than that some variation should occur. We are dealing with a race which made enormous journeys, and thus became contaminated by the various other races with which it came in contact. It may even have been a mixed race to start with. Thus even if we found skulls of very different types in the dolmens this would not in the least disprove the idea that dolmen building was introduced into various countries by one and the same race. It would be simply a case of the common anthropological fact that a race immigrating into an already inhabited country becomes to some extent modified by intermarriage with the earlier inhabitants. The measurements given in the last chapter would seem to show that despite local variation there is an underlying homogeneity in the skulls of the megalithic people.

It thus seems that the most probable theory of the origin of the megalithic monuments is that this style of building was brought to the various countries in which we find it by a single race in an immense migration or series of migrations. It is significant that this theory has been accepted by Dr. Duncan Mackenzie, who is perhaps the first authority on the megalithic structures of the Mediterranean basin.

One question still remains to be discussed. From what direction did megalithic architecture come, and what was its original home? This is clearly a point which is not altogether dependent on the means by which this architecture was diffused. Montelius speaks in favour of an Asiatic origin. He considers that caves, and tombs accessible from above, i.e. simple pits dug in the earth, were native in Europe, while tombs reached from the side, such as dolmens and corridor-tombs, were introduced into Europe from the east. Salomon Reinach, arguing mainly from the early appearance of the objects found in the tombs of Scandinavia and the rarity of the simpler types of monument, such as the dolmen, in Germany and South Europe, suggests that megalithic monuments first appeared in North Europe and spread southwards. Mackenzie is more inclined to believe in an African origin. If he is right it may be that some climatic change, possibly the decrease of rainfall in what is now the Sahara desert, caused a migration from Africa to Europe very similar to that which many believe to have given to Europe its early neolithic population. The megalithic people may even have been a branch of the same vast race as the neolithic: this would explain the fact that both inhumed their dead in the contracted position.

It is probable that the problem will never be solved. The only way to attempt a solution would be to show that in some part of the megalithic area the structures were definitely earlier than in any other, and that as we move away from that part in any direction they become later and later. Such a means of solution is not hopeful, for the earliest form of structure, the dolmen, occurs in all parts of the area, and if we attempt to date by objects we are met by the difficulty that a dolmen in one place which contained copper might be earlier than one in another place which contained none, copper having been known in the former place earlier than in the latter.

It still remains to consider the question of the origin of the rock-hewn sepulchre and its relation to the megalithic monument. The rock-tomb occurs in Egypt, Phoenicia, Rhodes, Cyprus, Crete, South Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, Malta, Pianosa, the Iberian Peninsula, the Balearic Isles, and France. In all these places there are examples which are certainly early, i.e. belong to the neolithic or early metal age, with the exception of Malta and perhaps Rhodes and Phoenicia. Two types are common, the chamber cut in the vertical face of rock and thus entered from the side, sometimes by a horizontal passage, and the chamber cut underground and entered from a vertical or sloping shaft placed not directly over the chamber, but immediately to one side of it. It is unlikely that these two types have a separate origin, for they are clearly determined by geological reasons. A piece of country where vertical cliffs or faces of rock abounded was suited to the first type, while the other alone was possible when the ground consisted of a flat horizontal surface of rock. We frequently find the two side by side and containing identically the same type of remains. In South-East Sicily we have the horizontal entrance in the tombs of the rocky gorge of Pantalica, while the vertical shaft is the rule in the tombs of the Plemmirio, only a few miles distant.

Two curious facts are noticeable with regard to the distribution of the rock-hewn tombs. In the first place they are all in the vicinity of the Mediterranean, and in the second some occur in the megalithic area, while others do not. The examples of Egypt, Cyprus, and Crete show that this type of tomb flourished in the Eastern Mediterranean. Was it from here that the type was introduced into the megalithic area, or did the megalithic people bring with them a tradition of building rock-tombs totally distinct from that which is represented by the tombs of Egypt, Cyprus, and Crete?

The question is difficult to answer. One thing alone is clear, that in certain places, such as Malta and Sardinia, the megalithic people were not averse to reproducing in the solid rock the forms which they more usually erected with large stones above ground. The finest instance of this is the Halsaflieni hypogeum in Malta, where the solid rock is hewn out with infinite care to imitate the form and even the details of surface building.

Similarly we have seen that both in Sardinia and in France the same forms of tomb were rendered in great stones or in solid rock almost indifferently.

There can therefore be no doubt that the hewing out of rock was practised by the megalithic people, and that they were no mean exponents of the art. We have no proof that they brought this art along with them from their original centre of dispersion, though if they did it is curious that they did not carry it into other countries where they penetrated besides those of the Mediterranean. It may be that early rock-tombs will yet be found in North Africa, but it seems improbable that, had they existed in the British Isles, in North Germany, or in Scandinavia, not a single example should have been found.

On the other hand, if the megalithic people did not bring the idea of the rock-tomb with them we must suppose either that it evolved among them after their migration, or that they adopted it from the Eastern Mediterranean. The last supposition is particularly unlikely, as it would involve the modification of a burial custom by foreign influence.

We have, in fact, no evidence on which to judge the question. Perhaps it is least unreasonable to suppose that the idea of the rock-tomb was brought into the megalithic area by the same people who introduced the megalithic monuments, and did not result from contact with the Eastern Mediterranean. Similarly we ought perhaps to disclaim any direct connection between the corridor-tombs of the megalithic area and the great tholoi of Crete and the Greek mainland. At first sight there is a considerable similarity between them. The Treasury of Atreus at Mycenae with its corbelled circular chamber and long rectangular corridor seems very little removed, except in size and finish, from the tombs of Gavr' Inis and Lough Crew. Yet there are vital points of difference. The two last are tombs built partly with upright slabs on the surface of the ground, entered by horizontal corridors, and covered with mounds. The Treasury of Atreus is simply an elaborated rock-tomb cut underground with a sloping shaft; as the ground consisted only of loose soil a coating of stone was a necessity, and hence the resemblance to a megalithic monument.



BIBLIOGRAPHY

OF THE MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS

GENERAL

Fergusson, Rude Stone Monuments in all Countries (London 1872). Bonstetten, Essai sur les dolmens (Geneva 1865). Mortillet, Compte rendu du congres d'archeologie prehistorique, Stockholm, 1874, pp. 267 ff. Reinach, Le mirage oriental, in L'Anthropologie, 1893, pp. 557 ff. Montelius, Orient und Europa. Borlase, The Dolmens of Ireland, Vols. II and III. Reinach, Terminologie des monuments megalithiques in Revue archeologique, 3^{e} ser., XXII, 1893. Westropp, Prehistoric Phases (London 1872).

ENGLAND AND WALES

Fergusson, op. cit. Recent Excavations at Stonehenge, Archaeologia, LVIII, pp. 37 ff. Flinders Petrie, Stonehenge: Plans, Descriptions, and Theories (London 1880). Windle, Remains of the Prehistoric Age in England. James, Sir Henry, Plans and Photos of Stonehenge and of Turnsuchan in the Island of Lewis (Southampton 1867). Evans, Sir A., Archaeological Review, II, 1889, pp. 313 ff. Lockyer, Sir N., Nature, November 21st, 1901. Hinks, XIXth Century, June, 1903, pp. 1002 ff. Lockyer, Sir N., Nature, LXXI, 1904-5, pp. 297 ff., 345 ff., 367 ff., 391 ff., 535 ff. Lewis, A. A., Stone Circles in Britain, Archaeological Journal, XLIX, pp. 136 ff. Thurnam, Ancient British Barrows, Archaeologia, XLII, pp. 161 ff., XLIII, pp. 285 ff. Lewis, A. A., Prehistoric Remains in Cornwall, Journal of the Anthrop. Inst., XXV, 1895, and XXXV, 1905. Kermode and Herdman, Illustrated Notes on Manks Antiquities (Liverpool 1904).

SCOTLAND

Wilson, The Archaeological and Prehistoric Annals of Scotland. Forbes Leslie, Early Races of Scotland. Spence, Magnus, Standing Stones and Maeshowe of Stenness.

IRELAND

Borlase, Dolmens of Ireland. Lewis, A. A., Some Stone Circles in Ireland, in Journal Anthrop. Inst., XXXIX, pp. 517 ff.

SWEDEN

Montelius, Orient und Europa. Montelius, Kulturgeschichte Schwedens. Montelius, Dolmens en France et en Suede (Le Mans 1907). Montelius, Graf fran stenaldern, upptaeckt vid Oeringe i Ekeby socken, 1907. Nilsson, Das Steinalter, oder die Ureinwohner des Scandinavischen Nordens (Hamburg 1865).

DENMARK

Montelius, Orient und Europa. Sophus Mueller, L'Europe prehistorique. Sophus Mueller, Nordische Alterthumskunde.

HOLLAND

Archaeological Journal, 1870, pp. 53 ff. Journal Anthrop. Inst., VI, 1876, p. 158. Compte rendu du congres d'arch. prehist., Stockholm, 1874.

BELGIUM

Engelhardt, Om stendysser og deres geografiske udbredelse, in Aarboeger f. nord. Oldkynd., 1870, pp. 177 ff.

GERMANY

Krause und Schoetensack in Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie, 1893 (Altmark only). Morlot, L'archeologie du Meclenbourg (Zurich 1868). von Estorff, Heidnische Altertuemer der Gegend von Aelzen (Hanover 1846).

SWITZERLAND

Keller, Pfahlbauten, 3 Bericht (Zurich, 1860), p. 101; Pl. XI, Figs. 8 and 9.

FRANCE

Cartailhac, La France prehistorique. Bertrand in Revue archeologique, 1864 (List of monuments). Bertrand, Archeologie celtique et gauloise, 2nd edit., 1889. Dechelette, Manuel d'archeologie prehistorique celtique et gallo-romaine, Vol. I. Lewis, Alignements at Autun in Journal Anthrop. Inst., XXXVIII, 1908, pp. 380 ff. Lewis, On some dolmens of peculiar form, op. cit., XL, 1910, pp. 336 ff. de Baye, L'archeologie prehistorique (Petit-Morin tombs). Reinach, S., La Sculpture en Europe (Angers 1896. Figures of the 'dolmen deity').

SPAIN

Cartailhac, Ages prehistorique de l'Espagne. Cartailhac, Monuments primitifs des iles baleares. Bezzenberger in Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie, XXXIX, 1907, pp. 567 ff.

ITALY

Bullettino di Paletnologia Italiana, XXV, pp. 178 ff. Nicolucci, Brevi note sui monumenti megalitici di Terra d'Otranto, 1893. Bull. Paletn. Ital., XXXVII, pp. 6 ff. Mosso and Samarelli, Il dolmen di Bisceglie, in Bull. Paletn. Ital., XXXVI, pp. 26 ff. and 86 ff.

SICILY

Orsi in Bull. Paletn. Ital., XXIV, pp. 202-3 (Monteracello). Orsi in Ausonia, 1907, pp. 1 ff. (Cava Lazzaro). Orsi in Notizie degli Scavi, 1905, p. 432, Fig. 18 (Cava Lavinaro).

SARDINIA

La Marmora, Voyage en Sardaigne. Pinza in Monumenti Antichi, Vol. VIII. Nissardi in Atti del Congresso Internazionale, Roma, 1903, sezione preistorica. Nissardi and Taramelli in Mon. Ant., Vol. XVII. Taramelli in Memnon, Band II, Mai, 1908, pp. 1-35. Prechac in Melanges d'archeologie et d'histoire, XXVIII. Mackenzie in Ausonia, III, 1908, pp. 18 ff. Mackenzie in Memnon, Vol. II, fasc. 3. Mackenzie in Papers of the British School of Rome, V, pp. 89 ff. Taramelli, Notizie degli Scavi, 1904, pp. 301 ff. (Anghelu Ruju). Colini in Bullettino di Paletnologia Italiana, XXIV, pp. 252 ff.

CORSICA

Nouvelles archives des missions scientifiques, Vol. III, 1892, pp. 49 ff.

PIANOSA Bullettino di Paletn. Ital., XXIV, pp. 281 ff.

MALTA

Mayr, A., Die vorgeschichtlichen Denkmaeler von Malta. Mayr, A., Die Insel Malta. Zammit, First Report on the Halsaflieni Hypogeum. Tagliaferro, The Prehistoric Pottery found in the Hypogeum at Halsaflieni, in Annals of Archaeology and Anthropology, Vol. III, pp. 1 ff. Zammit and Peet, Report on the small objects found at Halsaflieni (Valletta, in the Press). Magri, Ruins of a Megalithic Temple at Xeuchia, Gozo. Ashby, T., and others, Report on Excavations at Corradino, Mnaidra, and Hagiar Kim, appearing in Vol. VI of Papers of the British School of Rome. Peet, Contributions to the Study of the Prehistoric Period in Malta, Papers of the British School of Rome, V, pp. 141 ff. Tagliaferro, Prehistoric Burials in a Cave at Burmeghez, in Man, 1911, pp. 147 ff.

NORTH AFRICA

Faidherbe in Compte rendu du congres d'archeologie prehistorique, Bruxelles, 1872, pp. 406 ff. Flower in Transactions of the International Congress of Prehistoric Archaeology, Norwich, 1868, pp. 194 ff. MacIver and Wilkin, Libyan Notes.

MOROCCO

Materiaux pour l'histoire de l'homme, V, p. 342; VIII, p. 57; XX, p. 112.

TUNIS

Cartailhac in L'Anthropologie, 1903, pp. 620 ff. Carton in L'Anthropologie, 1891, pp. 1 ff. Materiaux pour l'histoire de l'homme, XXI, Pl. VI; XXII, pp. 373 and 416.

EGYPT AND THE SUDAN

Wilson and Felkin, Uganda and the Egyptian Sudan, Vol. II, p. 123. de Morgan, Recherches sur l'origine de l'Egypte, p. 239, Fig. 398.

PANTELLERIA

Orsi in Monumenti Antichi, IX, pp. 449 ff.

LAMPEDUSA

Ashby in Annals of Archaeology and Anthropology, Vol. IV.

BULGARIA

Mittheilungen der anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien, 1888, pp. 285 ff. L'Anthropologie, 1890, p. 110.

CRIMEA

Borlase, Dolmens of Ireland, III, p. 722.

CAUCASUS AND CRIMEA

Chantre, Recherches anthropologiques dans le Caucase, Vol. I, pp. 50 ff. Chantre in Verhandlungen der Berliner Anthropologischen Gesellschaft, 1882, p. 344. Materiaux pour l'histoire de l'homme, 1885, pp. 545 ff. Borlase, Dolmens of Ireland, III, p. 722.

SYRIA AND PALESTINE

Palestine Exploration Fund, Quarterly Reports for 1882; Annual, 1911, pp. 1 ff. Conder, Heth and Moab, pp. 190, 293. Perrot and Chipiez, IV, pp. 341, 378-9.

PERSIA

de Morgan in Revue mensuelle de l'Ecole d'anthropologie de Paris, 1902, p. 187. de Morgan, La delegation en Perse, 1902. de Morgan, L'histoire d'Elam, Paris, 1902.

INDIA

Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy, XXIV, 1865. Westropp, Prehistoric Phases.

COREA

Journal Anthrop. Inst., XXIV, p. 330.

JAPAN

Gowland in Archaeologia, LV, pp. 439 ff. Gowland in Journal Anthrop. Inst., 1907, pp. 10 ff.



INDEX

Abbameiga, 85 Aberdeen, circles near, 38 Adrianople, 114 Africa, 90-6 Aiga, 85 Ain Dakkar, 117 Ainu, the, 122 Ala Safat, 116 Alemtejo, 71 Algeria, 91-5 Alignements, 3, 59-60, 89, 119-20, 124, 154-7 Allees couvertes, 3, 61, 64 Altar Stone at Stonehenge, 18 Altmark, 57 Amman, 117 Ammon, 115 Anghelu Ruju, 88 Anglesey, 27, 29 Annaclochmullin, 145 Antequera, 70 Arbor Low, 25 Arcturus, 50, 51 Arles, 64 Arles, Council of, 12 Arran, circles on, 35-6 Arthur, King, 11, 25 Arthur's Quoit, 29 Asia, 114-22 Atreus, Treasury of, 157 Aurelius Ambrosius, 15 Avebury, 23-4, 27-8 Avening, 33, 127 Axe, cult of, 137-8 Axe-shaped pendants, 80, 112 Axevalla Heath, 54

Baetyls, 104, 105-6, 137 Balearic Isles, 71-5 Barnstone, the, 36-7 Barrows, long, 30-3 Barth, 90 Belgium, 58 Bellary, 118 Bell-shaped cup, 64, 81, 136 Beltane festival, 37 Benigaus Nou, 74 Bertrand, 64, 143 Birori, 82, 133 Bisceglie, 76 Bonstetten, 143 Borreby, 54-5 Boscawen-un, 26 Bou Merzoug, 92 Bou Nouara, 91 Boyle Somerville, Captain, 50 Brittany, 59-60 Brogar, Ring of, 36-7 Broholm, 54 Bulgaria, 114 Button, conical, 42, 71, 111, 135

Caesar, 27 Cairns, horned, 38-9 Caithness, cairns of, 38-9 Callais, 63, 64, 66, 67, 71, 132 Callernish Circle, 34 Calvados, 64 Camster, 39 Can de Ceyrac, 60 Caouria, 89 Capella, 50, 51 Carnac, 13, 59-60 Carrick-a-Dhirra, 43 Carrickard, 45 Carrickglass, 41 Carrigalla, 49 Carrowmore, 41-2 Cashtal-yn-Ard, 145 Cassibile, 80 Castelluccio, 80, 81 Castor, 50 Caucasus, 114 Cava Lavinaro, 78 Cava Lazzaro, 78 Cave burial, 81, 88 Chagford, 29 Champ Dolent, menhir of, 13 Channel Isles, 67 Charlemagne, 12 Charlton's Abbott, 33 China, 122 Chittore, 119 Chun Quoit, 29 Circles, stone, 15-28, 34-8, 48-51, 60, 96, 115 Cirta, 92 Clava, 37 Clynnog Fawr, 128 Collorgues, 137 Constantine, 91 Contracted burials, 33, 54, 62, 77, 80, 81, 93, 97, 111, 140-1, 153 Coolback, 43 Corbelled roofs, 6, 32, 45, 48, 69, 73, 84, 86, 87, 102-3 Cordin, 105, 108 Corea, 122 Cornwall, dolmens in, 29 monuments of, 26 Corridor-tombs, 3, 43-8, 52-5, 56-8, 62-4, 67-71, 76-7, 96, 118, 120-2 Corse, Cape, 89 Corsica, 88-9 Coursed masonry, use of, 5, 73, 82 Cove, the, 25 Cremation, 35, 42, 66, 140 Crete, 113, 132, 142, 155, 157 Crickstone, the, 30 Crimea, 114 Cromlechs, 3 Cumberland, monuments of, 25 Cup-markings, 117, 127-8 Cyprus, 155 Cyrenaica, 91

Dance Maen Circle, 26 Date of megaliths, 123 Dax, 64 Deccan, 118-9 Dechelette, 139, 151 de Morgan, 90 Denmark, 53-5 Dennis, 76 Der Ghuzaleh, 116 Dolmens, 2, 29, 40-1, 52-3, 56, 58, 61, 67-8, 82, 89, 90, 91-6, 108, 114-9 Drawings on stones, 46, 48, 55, 62, 110 Drewsteignton, 29 Druids, 11, 27-8

Edfu, 90 Eguilaz, 68 Egypt, 155 Ellez, 96 England, monuments of, 15-33 Erdeven, 60 Er-Lanic, 60 Eskimos, 126 Es Tudons, nau of, 73-4 Evans, Sir Arthur, 20, 105

Facades, curved, 78, 145-6 Faidherbe, General, 143 Faustina, medal of, 95 Feraud, M., 92-3 Fergusson, 28, 143 Fibrolite, 63 Finistere, dolmens of, 13 Fontanaccia, 89 Fonte Coberta, 68 Forbes Leslie, Colonel, 119 France, 59-67 Friar's Heel, 18, 21

Galilee, 115 Gargantua, 11 Gaulstown, 41 Gavr'inis, 62, 137 Gebel Mousa, 116 Geoffrey of Monmouth, 26 Ger, 64 Germany, 56-7 Get, 39 Gezer, 124 Giant's Bed, 56 Giant's Tombs, 87-8 Gigantia, 104

Giraldus Cambrensis, 15 Goehlitzsch, 137 Gozo, Is., 104 Greenland, 125 Grewismuehlen, 56 Grotte des Fees, 64, 74 Grotte du Castellet, 64

Hagiar Kim, 6, 103-4 Hakpen Hill, 24, 27 Halsaflieni, 108-13, 130 Hauptville's Quoit, 25 Hengist, 15 Herrestrup, 53 Highwood, 45 Hinks, Mr., 22 Hirdmane Stone, 13 Holed tombs, 77, 114, 116, 117, 126-7 Holland, 57-8 Horned cairns, 146 Huenenbetter, 45, 56-8 Hurlers, the, 26

Idanha a Nova, 139 India, 118-20 Inigo Jones, 27 Inverness, circles in, 37-8 Ireland, monuments of, 40-51 Iron, 39, 46, 93, 119 Italy, 76-7

Jadeite, 63 James I, 27 Japan, 120-2 Jaulan, 117 Jimmu, 121 Judaea, 115

Karleby, 54 Karnak (Egypt), 22 Keamcorravooly, 44 Keller, 56 Kennet Avenue, 24 Kerlescan, 60 Kermario, 60 Keswick Circle, 25 Khasi Hills, 119 Kingarth, circle at, 36 Kirkabrost, circle at, 36 Kit's Coty House, 29 Knyttkaerr, 55 Komei, 121 Kosseir, 118

Labbamologa, 43 Lado, 90 Lampedusa, Isle of, 96 Lanyon Quoit, 29, 127 La Perotte, 7 Leaba Callighe, 43 Lecce, 76 Lewis, Isle of, 34 Linosa, Isle of, 96, 132 Lockyer, Sir Norman, 21-2, 51 Long Meg and her daughters, 25 Losa, 85 Los Millares, 70, 137, 145 Lough Crew, 45, 48, 62 Lough Gur, 48-51 Lozere, 130 Lundhoej, 55 Luettich, 58

MacIver, D.R., 93-4 Mackenzie, Duncan, 85, 152, 153 Maeshowe, 36-7 Malta, 98-113 Man, Isle of, 30 Mane-er-Hroeck, 62-3 Marcella, 68 Matera, 77 Maughold, 30 Mayborough Circle, 25 Mayr, Albert, 105 Meayll Hill, 30 Melilli, 80 Men-an-tol, 30 Menec, 59 Menhirs, 2, 29, 59, 115-6, 123-4 cult of, 12, 123-4 Merivale, circle at, 26 Merlin, 15 Merry Maidens, the, 26 Messa, 90 Minieh, 116 Mnaidra, 100-3 Moab, 115-7 Molafa, 88 Monte Abrahao, 71 Montelius, O., 126, 151, 153 Monteracello, 78 Morocco, 96 Mortillet, de, 59, 144 Mourzouk, 90 Msila, 93 Munster, tombs of, 44 Mursia, 97 Musta, 108 Mycenean vases, 81

Naas, 15 Nantes, Council of, 12 Nara, 121 Naus, 73-4, 145 Navetas, see Naus Neermul jungle, 118 Newbliss, 145 New Grange, 46, 62 Nile valley, 90 Nilgiri Hills, 118 Nine Maidens, the, 26 Nissardi, 84 Norway, 53 Nossiu, 85, 87 Nuraghi, 82-7

Obsidian, 77, 134 Odin's Stone, 11, 36 Orkney Isles, cairns of, 38-9 Orry's Grave, 30, 127 Orsi, Paolo, 78, 79 Orthostatic slabs, use of, 4, 69, 74, 80, 96, 100

Palmella, 71 Pantalica, 80, 155 Pantelleria, Isle of, 96-8 Papa-Westra, 39 Pehada, 114 Penrith Circle, 11 Pentre Ifan, 29 Pera, 115 Perigord, 13 Persia, 114 Petit Morin, 66-7, 130 Pfaeffikon, Lake, 56 Phoenicia, 154 Pianosa, 89 Picardt, John, 57 Pierre du Diable, La, 58 Pierres Plates, Les, 61 Piper, the, 26 Plas Newydd, 29, 127 Plemmirio, 155 Pliny, 27 Portico-dolmens, 40-1, 52, 119 Portugal, 67 Pottery, 135-6

Reinach, Salomon, 144 Religion, megalithic, 105-6, 137-9 Rhodes, 154 Rinaiou, 89 Rock-tombs, 3, 66-7, 71, 74, 79-81, 88 Rockbarton, 48 Rodmarton, 33, 127 Roknia, 94 Rollright Circle, 25, 29, 50

Saint George, 88 Saint-Germain-sur-Vienne, 12 Saint Michel, Mont, 63 Saint Pantaleon, 60 Saint Sermin, 139 Saint Vincent, 74 Sant' Elia, Cape, 88 Sardinia, 82-8 S'Aspru, 85 Scandinavia, 52-5 Scotland, monuments of, 34-9 Sculptures, 67, 138 Secondary burial, 79, 141-2 Senam, the, 93-4 Seriphos, 139 Serucci, 85 Sesi, the, 97-8 Shap, circle at, 23 Sicily, 77-82 Sidbury Hill, 21 Sidon, 115 Siggewi, 108 Silbury Hill, 24, 28 Siret, Messieurs, 68 Sjoebol, 53 Skulls, 77, 112, 129-31 Sorapoor, 118 Spain, 67-71 Spence, Magnus, 37 Stanton Drew, 25, 49 Star-worship, 23, 50-1, 128 Steatopygous figures, 107, 112 Stenness, Ring of, 36 Stonehenge, 15-23 Stoney-Littleton, 32 Stripple Stones, the, 26 Stromness, circle at, 36 Stukeley, Dr., 27 Su Cadalanu, 84 Sudan, 90 Suetonius, 27 Sun-worship, 21-3, 28-9, 37, 51 Sweden, 52-5 Switzerland, 56 Syria, 115-8

Table des Marchands, La, 16, 137 Tagliaferro, Professor, 108, 111 Tahutihotep, tomb of, 8 Talayots, 71-3 Tamuli, 139 Tangier, 96 Tarentum, 76 Tattooing, 139 "Three Brothers of Grugith," the, 128 Tiberias, 115 Tinaarloo, 57 Toledo, Council of, 12 Torebo, 53 Tours, Council of, 12 Trade relations, 131-3 Tregeseal, circles near, 26 Trepanned skulls, 62 Trilithons, 2, 17, 90, 100-1, 103-4, 117 Tripoli, 90-1 Truddhi, 86 Tsil, 117-8 Tunis, 95-6 Tyfta, 54 Tyre, 115 Tzarskaya, 114

Unebi, Mt., 121

Vail Gorguina, 67 Vellore, 118 Villafrati, 81 Villages, megalithic, 74, 85-6, 97

Wales, monuments of, 29 Watchstone, the, 36-7 Wayland the Smith's Cave, 11, 14, 30, 32 Wedge-shaped tomb, 44-5, 55, 70-1, 117 Westgothland, 54 West Tump, 146

Yarhouse, 39

Zammit, Dr. T., 112



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HARPER'S LIBRARY OF LIVING THOUGHT Foolscap 8vo, gilt tops, decorative covers, richly gilt backs Per Volume: Cloth 2s. 6d. net, Leather 3s. 6d. net. - By Prof. ARTHUR KEITH, M.D. (Hunterian Professor Royal College of Surgeons) ANCIENT TYPES OF MAN Illustrated From discoveries of ancient human remains made within the last half-century, anthropologists are now able to place in order changes that have taken place in the posture, gait, height, and to some extent the habits of man during a period of at least a half-million years. Prof. Keith, who is one of the foremost investigators in this field, tells the story of the various forms which the body of the man has assumed, in a lucid and attractive way. "The kind of book that only a master of his subject could write. It must interest every thinking person." British Medical Journal. -



- Harper's Library of Living Thought - By Prof W.M. FLINDERS PETRIE PERSONAL RELIGION IN EGYPT BEFORE CHRISTIANITY "The author gauges what ideas were already part of the religious thought in the first century, and what were the terms and ideas in Christianity which were new to mankind. The current literature of the time was as naturally taken for granted by Christians as were the books of the Old Testament which were familiar to them. The separation of the new ideas in the teaching of Christ and of the Apostles from the general terms of religion at the time, is the only road to understanding what Christianity meant to those who actually heard the teaching." Notts Guardian. "A suggestive and thought-provoking book, a real contribution to the study of comparative religion." Methodist Recorder. -



- Harper's Library of Living Thought - By Prof. ERNEST A. GARDNER RELIGION AND ART IN ANCIENT GREECE "Anything from such an authority on Greek art is welcome. This subject in the hands of Professor Gardner becomes a profoundly interesting study in the philosophy of religion. He has dealt with the religion of Greece as it affected the art of sculpture, and with the reaction of that art upon the ideals and aspirations of the people and its influence upon the popular and the educated conceptions of the gods. It is well worth the trouble to study the religious art of such a people, and this is an epitome of the subject such as readers can get nowhere else." Scotsman. -



- Harper's Library of Living Thought - By Prof. W.M. FLINDERS PETRIE THE REVOLUTIONS OF CIVILISATION Illustrated In the light of history so enormously extended in recent years the author surveys the waxing and waning of civilisation as evidenced in sculpture, painting, literature, mechanics, and wealth. In tracing the various forces at work in this fluctuation he arrives at most significant conclusions, notably in connection with race mixture and forms of government. "We know nothing that exhibits in so brief a compass the extraordinary vicissitudes of human progress and retrogression since the dawn of history." Birmingham Post. -



Harper's Library of Living Thought - By CHARLES H. HAWES, M.A., and HARRIET B. HAWES, M.A., L.H.D. CRETE, THE FORERUNNER OF GREECE Map, Plans, etc. "The wondrous story of a great civilisation which flourished before Abraham was born, and left behind a memory of itself in the Arts of Ancient Greece and in the traditions of a golden age and a 'Lost Atlantis.'" Evening Standard. "We have now the material for forming a very fair conception of the fruitful contribution made by Crete to Grecian and European civilisation. What was long accounted fable statements of Herodotus and Thucydides have been turned into established fact. The book supplies material for forming judgments on some of the most interesting and still highly debated problems of early Greek history." Glasgow Herald. -



- Harper's Library of Living Thought - By Prof. G. ELLIOT SMITH THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS Illustrated An account of the Egyptians of the unrecorded past as revealed by the investigations of the anthropologist. The author traces to their source the various streams of alien immigrants which made their way into the Nile valley, and correlates his facts with the great racial movements in the neighbouring continents. He shows how the Egyptians inaugurated a higher civilisation particularly in bringing the Stone Age to a close and introducing the use of metals. "This is a brilliant little book, illuminating the whole subject of the history of the human race since man assumed his proper shape." Manchester Guardian. -



- Harper's Library of Living Thought - Algernon Charles Swinburne THREE PLAYS OF SHAKESPEARE Leo Tolstoy THE TEACHING OF JESUS Prof. W.M. Flinders Petrie PERSONAL RELIGION IN EGYPT BEFORE CHRISTIANITY Sir Oliver Lodge, F.R.S. THE ETHER OF SPACE. Illustrated Prof. William Wrede (University of Breslau) THE ORIGIN OF THE NEW TESTAMENT Prof. C.H. Becker (Colonial Institute, Hamburg) CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM Prof. Svante Arrhenius (Nobel Institute, Stockholm) THE LIFE OF THE UNIVERSE. 2 vols. Illustrated Prof. Arnold Meyer (University of Zurich) JESUS OR PAUL? Prof. D.A. Bertholet (University of Basle) THE TRANSMIGRATION OF SOULS Prof. Reinhold Seeberg (University of Berlin) REVELATION AND INSPIRATION Prof. Johannes Weiss (University of Heidelberg) PAUL AND JESUS Prof. Rudolph Eucken (University of Jena) CHRISTIANITY AND THE NEW IDEALISM Prof. P. Vinogradoff (Oxford University) ROMAN LAW IN MEDIAEVAL EUROPE Sir William Crookes, O.M., F.R.S., LL.D. DIAMONDS. Illustrated PLEASE WRITE FOR PROSPECTUS AND ANNOUNCEMENTS -



- Harper's Library of Living Thought - C.H. Hawes, M.A., and Harriet Boyd Hawes, M.A. CRETE THE FORERUNNER OF GREECE. Maps, etc. Sir William A. Tilden, F.R.S. THE ELEMENTS: Speculations as to their Nature and Origin. Illustrated Prof. Ernest A. Gardner (University of London) RELIGION AND ART IN ANCIENT GREECE Prof. F.W. Mott, F.R.S., M.D. THE BRAIN AND THE VOICE IN SPEECH AND SONG. Illustrated Prof. G. Elliott Smith (University of Manchester) THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS, and their Influence upon the Civilisation of Europe. Illustrated Prof. Frederick Czapek (University of Prague) CHEMICAL PHENOMENA IN LIFE Prof. W.M. Flinders Petrie THE REVOLUTIONS OF CIVILISATION. Copiously Illustrated The Very Rev. the Hon. W.H. Fremantle, D.D. (Dean of Ripon) NATURAL CHRISTIANITY Prof. A.W. Bickerton THE BIRTH OF WORLDS AND SYSTEMS. Illustrated. Preface by Prof. E. RUTHERFORD, F.R.S. Prof. Arthur Keith, M.D. ANCIENT TYPES OF MAN. Illustrated Sir William Ramsay, F.R.S. ELEMENTS AND ELECTRONS. Diagrams Arthur Holmes, B.Sc. THE AGE OF THE EARTH. Illustrated T. Eric Peet, M.A. ROUGH STONE MONUMENTS AND THEIR BUILDERS. Illustrated - :: HARPER AND BROTHERS :: 45 Albemarle St: London, W. Franklin Sq. New York -

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