There are few voyages from which more important accessions to geographical knowledge have been derived, than from this voyage of Captain Flinders, especially when we reflect on the great probability that New Holland will soon rank high in population and wealth. Before his voyage, it was doubtful, whether New Holland was not divided into two great islands, by a strait passing between Bass' Straits and the Gulf of Carpentaria. Captain Flinders has put an end to all doubts on this point: he examined the coast in the closest and most accurate manner: he found indeed two great openings; these he sailed up to their termination; and, consequently, as there were no other openings, and these were mere inlets, New Holland can no longer be supposed to be divided into two great islands, but must be regarded as forming one very large one; or, rather, from its immense size, a species of continent. He made another important and singular discovery, viz. that there are either no rivers of any magnitude in New Holland, or that if there be such, they do not find their way to the sea coast. This country seems also very deficient in good and safe ports: in his survey of the south coast, he found only one. He completed the survey of the whole eastern coast; of Bass's Straits and Van Dieman's Land, observing very carefully every thing relative to the rocks, shoals, tides, winds, currents, &c. Coral reefs, which are so common in most parts of the Pacific, and which, owing their origin entirely to worms of the minutest size, gradually become extensive islands, stretch along the eastern coast of New Holland. These were examined with great care by Captain Flinders: he found that they had nearly blocked up the passage through Torres' Straits, so that it required great care and caution to pass it with safety. But one of the most important results of this voyage respects the survey of the Gulf of Carpentaria; previously the extent and bearings of this gulf were not known; but from Captain Flinders's geography we have received an accurate and full survey of it. Its extent was ascertained to be 5 1/2 degrees of longitude, and 7 degrees of latitude; and its circuit nearly 400 leagues. On the coast of this gulf he found a singular trade carried on. Sixty proas, each about the burden of 25 tons, and carrying as many men, were fitted out by the Rajah of Boni, and sent to catch a small animal which lives at the bottom of the sea, called the sea slug, or biche de mer. When caught, they are split, boiled, and dried in the sun, and then carried to Timorlaot, when the Chinese purchase them: 100,000 of these animals is the usual cargo of each proa, and they bring from 2000 to 4000 Spanish dollars.

Notwithstanding the English had had settlements in New Holland for upwards of 26 years, little progress had been made in exploring the interior of the country even in the immediate vicinity of Botany Bay. It was supposed that a passage across the Blue Mountains, which are within sight of that settlement, opposed insurmountable obstacles. At length, about the end of the year 1813, the Blue Mountains were crossed for the first time, by Mr. Evans, the deputy surveyor of the colony. He found a fertile and pleasant district, and the streams which took their rise in the Blue Mountains, running to the westward; to one of the most considerable of these he gave the name of Macquarrie river; the course of this river he pursued for ten days. On his return to the colony, the governor, Mr. Macquarrie ordered that a road should be made across the mountains; this extended 100 miles, and was completed in 1815. Mr. Evans soon afterwards discovered another river, which he called the Lachlan.

As it was of great consequence to trace these rivers, and likewise to examine the country to the west of the Blue Mountains more accurately, and to a greater distance than it had been done, the governor ordered two expeditions to be undertaken. Lieutenant Oxley, the surveyor-general of the colony had the command of both. It does not fall within our plan or limits to follow him in these journeys; we shall therefore confine ourselves to an outline of the result of his discoveries. He ascertained that the country in general is very unfertile: the Lachlan he traced, till it seemed to loose itself in a multitude of branches among marshy flats. "Perhaps," observes Lieutenant Oxley, "there is no river, the history of which is known, that presents so remarkable a termination as the present: its course, in a strait line from its source to its termination, exceeds 500 miles, and including its windings, it may fairly be calculated to run at least 1200 miles; during all which passage, through such a vast extent of country, it does not receive a single stream in addition to what it derives from its sources in the Eastern mountains."—"One tree, one soil, one water, and one description of bird, fish, or animal, prevails alike for ten miles, and for 100." There were, however, tracks, especially where the limestone formation prevailed, of great beauty and fertility; but these were comparatively rare and of small extent. Level, bare, sandy wastes, destitute of water, or morasses and swamps, which would not support them, formed by far the greatest part of the country through which they travelled.

The second object Lieutenant Oxley had in view was the survey of the course of the Macquarrie river; this he knew to be to the north-west of the Lachlan. In crossing from the banks of the latter in search of the former, they reached a beautiful valley; in the centre of which flowed a clear and strong rivulet. This they traced till it joined a large river, which they ascertained to be the Macquarrie. From this point to Bathurst Plains, the country was rich and beautiful.

As from the size of the Macquarrie where they fell in with it, it seemed probable that it either communicated with the sea itself or flowed into a river which did, the governor sent Lieutenant Oxley on another expedition to trace its course, and thus settle this point. For twelve days the country was rich and beautiful: the river was wide, deep, and navigable. The country then changed its character: no hill was to be seen; on all sides it was as level and uninteresting as that through which thay had traced the Lachlan in their former journey. Soon afterwards it overflowed its banks; and as the country was very flat, it spread over a vast extent. Under these circumstances, Lieutenant Oxley proceeded down it in a boat for thirty miles, till he lost sight of land and trees. About four miles farther it lost all appearance of a river; but he was not able to continue his route, and was obliged to return, without having ascertained whether this great inland lake, into which the Macquarrie fell, was a salt or fresh water lake.

On his return he crossed the highest point of the mountains which divides the waters running west from those which run into the east; the most elevated peak he calculates to be from 6000 to 7000 feet. Here he found a river rising, which flowed to the east; and following it, he arrived at the place where it fell into the ocean.

It is pretty certain from these expeditions, that no river of any size empties itself into the sea, on the northern, western, or southern coasts of New Holland. Captain Flinders and the French navigators had examined all the line of coast on the western side, except from latitude 22 deg. to 11 deg. south; it might therefore be supposed that the Macquarrie, after freeing itself from the inland lake to which Lieutenant Oxley had traced it, might fall into the sea, within these limits. This, however, is now proved not to be the case. In the year 1818, Lieutenant King was sent by the Board of Admiralty, to survey the unexplored coast, from the southern extremity of Terre de Witt. He began his examination at the north-west cape, in latitude 21 deg. 45', from this to latitude 20 deg. 30', and from longitude 114 deg. to 118 deg., he found an archipelago, which he named after Dampier, as it was originally discovered by this navigator. Dampier had inferred, from a remarkable current running from the coast beyond these islands, that a great strait, or river, opened out behind them. Lieutenant King found the tide running strong in all the passages of the archipelago, but there was no appearance of a river; the coast was in general low, and beyond it he descried an extensive tract of inundated marshy country, similar to that described by Lieutenant Oxley. Cape Van Diemen, Lieutenant King ascertained to be the northern extremity of an island, near which was a deep gulf. Although we have not learnt that Lieutenant King has completed his survey, 8 or 9 degrees of latitude on the north-west coast still remaining to be explored, yet we think it may safely be inferred that no great river has its exit into the ocean from the interior of New Holland. This circumstance, added to the singular nature of the country through which Lieutenant Oxley journeyed, and the peculiar and unique character of many of its animals, seems to stamp on this portion of the globe marks which strongly and widely separate it from every other portion.

It is remarked in the Quarterly Review, that, before Captain Flinder's voyage, "the great Gulf of Carpentaria had as yet no definite outline on our nautical charts. It was the imaginary tracing of an undulating line, intended to denote the limits between land and water, without a promontory, or an island, a bay, harbour, or inlet, that was defined by shape or designated by name. This blank line was drawn and copied by one chart maker from another, without the least authority, and without the least reason to believe that any European had ever visited this wide and deeply-indented gulf; and yet, when visited, this imaginary line was found to approximate so nearly to its true form, as ascertained by survey, as to leave little doubt that some European navigator must at one time or other have examined it, though his labours have been buried, as the labours of many thousands have been before and since his time, in the mouldy archives of a jealous and selfish government."

This remark may be extended and applied to other parts of the globe beside Australasia; but it is particularly applicable to this portion of it. There can be no doubt that many islands and points of land were discovered, which were never traced in maps, even in the vague and indistinct manner in which the Gulf of Carpentaria was traced; that many discoveries were claimed to which no credit was given; and that owing to the imperfect mode formerly used to determine the longitude, some, from being laid down wrong, were afterwards claimed as entirely new discoveries.

We have stated that this remark is particularly applicable to Australasia: to the progress of geography in this division of the globe (including under that appellation, besides New Holland, Papua or New Guinea, New Britain, New Ireland, Solomon's Isles, New Caledonia, New Zealand, &c.) we are now to direct our attention; and the truth of the remark will soon appear to be confirmed in more than one instance.

One of the objects of Rogewein, a Dutch navigator, who, sailed from Amsterdam in 1721, was to re-discover Solomon's Islands, and the lands described by Quitos. In this voyage he visited New Britain, of which he has enlarged our information; and be discovered Aurora Island, and a very numerous archipelago, to which he gave the name of the Thousand Islands. Captain Carteret, who sailed from England in 1767, along with Captain Wallis, but who was separated from him in the Straits of Magellan, discovered several isles in the South Pacific, the largest of which there is little doubt is that which was visited by Mandana in 1595, and called by him Santa Cruz. In prosecuting his voyage in the track pursued by Dampier, Captain Carteret arrived on the east coast of the land named New Britain, by that celebrated navigator. This he found to consist of two islands, separated by a wide channel; to the northern island he gave the name of New Ireland.

At this period the French were prosecuting voyages of discovery in the same portion of the globe. An expedition sailed from France in 1766, commanded by M. Bougainville: he arrived within the limits of Australasia in May, 1768. Besides visiting a group of islands, named by him Navigators' Islands, but which are supposed to have been discovered by Rogewein, and a large cluster, which is also supposed to be the archipelago of the same navigator, M. Bougainville discovered a beautiful country, to which he gave the name of Louisiade: he was not able to examine this country, and as it has not been visited by subsequent navigators, it is generally believed to be an extension of the coast of Papua. After discovering some islands not far from this land, M. Bougainville directed his course to the coast of New Ireland; he afterwards examined the north coast of New Guinea.

About the same time, M. Surville, another Frenchman, in a voyage from the East Indies into the Pacific, landed on the north coast of a country east of New Guinea; he had not an opportunity of examining this land, but it seems probable that it was one of Solomon's Islands.

We have already had occasion to notice the first voyage of Captain Cook, during which he traced the eastern coast of New Holland, and ascertained that it was separated from New Guinea. In this voyage he made further additions to our geographical knowledge of Australasia; for he visited New Zealand, which Tasman had discovered in 1642, but on which he did not even land. Captain Cook examined it with great care; and ascertained not only its extent, but that it was divided into two large islands, by a strait, which is called after him. During his second voyage he explored the New Hebrides, the most northern of which is supposed to be described by Quitos: Bougainville had undoubtedly sailed among them. The whole lie between the latitude of 14 deg. 29' and 24 deg. 4' south, and between 166 deg. 41' and 170 deg. 21' east longitude. After having completed his examination of these islands, he discovered an extensive country, which he called New Caledonia. In his passage from this to New Zealand he discovered several islands, and among the rest Norfolk Island. The great object of his third voyage, which was the examination of the north-west coast of America, did not afford him an opportunity of visiting for any length of time Australasia; yet he did visit it, and examined New Zealand attentively, obtaining much original and important information respecting it, and the manners, &c. of its inhabitants.

The voyages which we have hitherto noticed, were principally directed to the southern parts of Australasia. Between the years 1774 and 1776, some discoveries were made in the northern parts of it by Captain Forrest: he sailed from India in a vessel of only ten tons, with the intention of ascertaining whether a settlement could not be formed on an island near the northern promontory of Borneo. In the course of this voyage he examined the north coast of Waygiou; and after visiting several small islands, he arrived on the north coast of Papua.

The next accessions that were made to our geographical knowledge of Australasia, are derived from the voyage in search of La Peyrouse. The object of La Peyrouse's voyage was to complete the discoveries made by former navigators in the southern hemisphere: in the course of this voyage he navigated some portion of Australasia; but where he and his crew perished is not known. As the French government were naturally and very laudably anxious to ascertain his real fate, two vessels were despatched from France in the year 1791, for that purpose. In April, 1792, they arrived within the limits of Australasia: after having examined Van Diemen's Land, they sailed along an immense chain of reefs, extending upwards of 3OO miles on the east coast of New Caledonia. As Captain Cook had confined his survey to the north, they directed their attention to the south-west coast. After visiting some islands in this sea, they arrived at New Ireland, part of which they carefully explored. In 1793, after having visited New Holland, they sailed for New Zealand; and near it they discovered an island which lies near the eastern limit of Australasia: to this they gave the name of Recherche. The New Hebrides, New Caledonia, and New Britain, were also visited and examined; near the coast of the last they discovered several mountainous islands. Beside the accessions to our geographical knowledge of Australasia which we derived from this voyage, it is particularly valuable "on account of the illustrations of the natural history of the different countries, and the accuracy with which the astronomical observations were made." It is worthy of remark that the two ships lost nearly half their men; whereas, British navigators have been out as long, in a climate and circumstances as unfavourable to health, and have scarcely lost a single man.

At the beginning of this century, the French government planned a voyage of discovery, the chief object of which was to explore the seas of Australasia. Those parts of New Holland which were entirely unknown, or but imperfectly ascertained, were to be examined; the coast of New Guinea to be surveyed, principally in the search of a strait which was supposed to divide it into two parts; a passage by Endeavour Straits to the eastern point of the Gulf of Carpentaria was to be attempted; and then the expedition was to sail to Cape Northwest. Besides these objects in Australasia, the Indian Ocean was to be navigated.

Two vessels, the Geographe and Naturaliste, sailed on this expedition in October, 1800; but they did not by their discoveries add much that was important to the geography of Australasia. They indeed have made known to future navigators, reefs and shoals on the coast of New Holland; have fixed more accurately, or for the first time, some latitudes and longitudes belonging to this and other parts of Australasia, and have traced some small rivers in New Holland. They also confirmed the accuracy and justice of preceding observations in several points; particularly relative to the singular fineness of the weather, and serenity of the heavens in these seas.

Their greatest discovery undoubtedly consisted in a great archipelago, which they named after Bonaparte: the islands that composed it were in general small; some volcanic or basaltic; others sandy. After examining these, they were obliged to return to Timor, in consequence of the sickness of their crews. After they were recovered, they returned to the grand object of their expedition, which, though interesting and important to the navigator, or to the minute researches of the geographer, presents nothing that requires to be noticed in this place.

Such is the sum of the additions to our geographical knowledge of Australasia which has resulted from the voyages of discovery during the last one hundred years. The great outline, and most of the subordinate parts, are filled up; and little remains to be discovered or ascertained which can greatly alter our maps, as they are at present drawn. Additions, however, will gradually be made; errors will be corrected; a stronger and clearer light will be thrown on obscure points. Much of this will be done by the accidental discoveries and observations of the many ships which are constantly sailing from England to New Holland; or which trade from the latter country to New Zealand or other parts of Australasia, to India, or to China. By means of these voyages, additions have already been made to our knowledge, especially of New Zealand; and its inhabitants are beginning to feel and acknowledge the benefits which must always be derived from the intercourse of civilized people with savages.

Polynesia, extending from the Pelew Isles on the west, to the Isle of All Saints on the north-east, and the Sandwich Isles in the east, and having for its other boundaries the latitude of 20 deg. north, and of 50 deg. south, near the latter of which it joins Australasia, is the only remaining division of the globe which remains to come under our cognizance, as having been explored by maritime expeditions; and as it consists entirely of groups of small islands, we shall not be detained long in tracing the discoveries which have been made in these seas.

The Pelew Islands, one of the divisions of Polynesia, though they probably had been seen, and perhaps visited by Europeans before 1783, were certainly first made completely known to them at this period, in consequence of the shipwreck of Captain Wilson on them. The Sandwich Isles, the next group, have been discovered within the last century by Captain Cook, on his last voyage. The Marquesas, discovered by Mandana, were visited by Captain Cook in 1774, by the French in 1789, and particularly and carefully examined during the missionary voyage of Captain Wilson in 1797. Captain Wallis, who sailed with Captain Carteret in 1766, but was afterwards separated from him in his course across the South Pacific, discovered several islands, particularly Otaheite; to this and the neighbouring islands the name of Society Isles was given. Such are the most important discoveries that have been made in Polynesia during the last century; but besides these, other discoveries of less importance have been made, either by navigators who have sailed expressly for the purpose, as Kotzebue, &c., or by accident, while crossing this immense ocean. In consequence of the advances which the Sandwich Islands have made in civilization, commerce, and the arts, there is considerable intercourse with them, especially by the Americans; and their voyages to them, and from thence to China, whither they carry the sandal wood, &c. which they obtain there, as well as their voyages from the north-west coast of America with furs to China, must soon detect any isles that may still be unknown in this part of the Pacific Ocean.

Although, therefore, much remains yet to be accomplished by maritime expeditions, towards the extension and correction of our geographical knowledge, so far as the bearings of the coast, and the latitudes and longitudes of various places are concerned, there seems no room for what may properly and strictly be called discovery, at least of any thing but small and scattered islands.

It is otherwise with the accessions which land expeditions may still make to geographical knowledge; for though within these one hundred years the European foot has trodden where it never trod before, and though our geographical knowledge of the interior of Africa, Asia, and America, has been, rendered within that period not only more extensive, but also more accurate and minute than it previously was, yet much remains to be done and known.

In giving a short and rapid sketch of the progress of discovery, so far as it has been accomplished by land expeditions during the period alluded to, we are naturally led to divide what we have to say according to the three great portions of the globe which have been the objects of these expeditions, viz. Africa, Asia, and America.

1. Africa. This country has always presented most formidable obstacles to the progress of discovery: its immense and trackless deserts, its burning and fatal climate, its barbarous and treacherous inhabitants, have united to keep a very large portion of it from the intercourse, and even the approach of European travellers. Even its northern parts, which are most accessible to Europe, and which for 2000 years have been occasionally visited by Europeans, are guarded by the cruel jealousy of its inhabitants; or, if that is overcome, advances to any very great distance from the coast are effectively impeded by natives still more savage, or by waterless and foodless deserts.

The west coast of Africa, ever since it was ascertained that slaves, ivory, gold dust, gums, &c. could be obtained there, has been eagerly colonized by Europeans; and though these colonies have now existed for upwards of three hundred years, and though the same love of gain which founded them must have directed a powerful wish on those interior countries from which these precious articles of traffic were brought, yet such have been the difficulties, and dangers, and dread, that the most enthusiastic traveller, and the most determined lover of gain, have scarcely penetrated beyond the very frontier of the coast. If we turn to the east coast, still less has been done to explore the interior from that side; the nature, bearings, &c. of the coast itself are not accurately known; and accessions to our knowledge respecting it have been the result rather of accident than of a settled plan, or of any expedition with that view. The Cape of Good Hope has now been an European settlement nearly two hundred years: the inhabitants in that part of Africa, though of course barbarians, are neither so formidable for their craft and cruelty, and strength, nor so implacable in their hatred of strangers, as the inhabitants of the north and of the interior of Africa; and yet to what a short distance from the Cape has even a solitary European traveller ever reached!

But though a very great deal remains to be accomplished before Africa will cease to present an immense void in its interior, in our maps, and still more remains to be accomplished before we can become acquainted with the manners, &c. of its inhabitants, and its produce and manufactures, yet the last century, and what has passed of the present, have witnessed many bold and successful enterprizes to extend our geographical knowledge of this quarter of the globe.

As the sovereigns of the northern shores of Africa were, from various causes and circumstances, always in implacable hostility with one another, and as, besides this obstacle to advances into Africa from this side, it was well known that the Great Desert spread itself an almost impassable barrier to any very great progress by the north into the interior, it was not to be expected that any attempts to penetrate this quarter of the globe by this route would be made. On the other hand, the Europeans had various settlements on the western coast: on this coast there were many large rivers, which apparently ran far into the interior; these rivers, therefore, naturally seemed the most expeditious, safe, and easy routes, by which the interior might, at least to a short distance from the shore, be penetrated.

But it was very long before the Senegal, one of the chief of these rivers, was traced higher than the falls of Felu; or the Gambia, another river of note and magnitude, than those of Baraconda. In the year 1723, Captain Stebbs, who was employed by the Royal African Company, succeeded in going up this river as far as the flats of Tenda. Soon afterwards, some information respecting the interior of Africa, especially respecting Bonda, (which is supposed to be the Bondou of Park, in the upper Senegal,) was received through an African prince, who was taken prisoner, and carried as a slave to America.

All the information which had been drawn from these, and other sources, respecting the interior, was collected and published by Moore, the superintendent of the African Company's settlements on the Gambia; but though the particulars regarding the manners, &c. of the inhabitants are curious, yet this work adds not much to our geographical knowledge of the interior of this part of the world.

In the year 1788, the African Institution was formed: its object was to send persons properly qualified to make discoveries in the interior of Africa. The first person engaged by them was Mr. Ledyard; and, from all accounts of him, no person could have been better qualified for such an arduous enterprise: he was strong, healthy, active, intelligent, inquisitive, observant, and undaunted; full of zeal, and sanguine of success; and, at the same time, open, kind, and insinuating in his looks and manners. At Cairo he prepared himself for his undertaking, by visiting the slave market, in order to converse with the merchants of the various caravans, and learn all the particulars connected with his proposed journey, and the countries from which they came. But be proceeded no farther than Cairo: here he was seized with an illness, occasioned or aggravated by the delay in the caravans setting out for Sennaar, which proved fatal.

Mr Lucas was the next person employed by the African Institution. In October, 1788, he arrived at Tripoli, from whence he set out with two shereefs for Fezzan, by the way of Mescerata. On the fourth day after his departure, he reached Lebida, on the sea coast, the Leptis Magna of the Romans. He found, on his arrival at Mescerata, that he should not be able to procure the number of camels necessary to convey his goods to Fezzan; and was obliged to abandon his enterprize. From the information which he derived, at Mescerata, confirmed as it was by what the Association had learnt from the narrative of a native of Morocco, the geography of Africa was extended from Fezzan, across the eastern division of the Desert, to Bornou, Cashna, and the Niger.

In a year or two after the return of Mr. Lucas, the African Association, who were indefatigable in endeavouring to obtain information from all sources, learnt some interesting and original circumstances from an Arab. This person described a large empire on the banks of the Niger, in the capital of which, Housa, he had resided two years: this city he rather vaguely and inconsistently described as equalling London and Cairo in extent and population. As it was necessary to scrutinize the truth and consistency of his narrative, what he related was at first received with caution and doubt, but an incidental circumstance seemed to prove him worthy of credit; for in describing the manner in which pottery was manufactured at Housa, which he did by imitating the actions of those who made it, it was remarked that he actually described the ancient Grecian wheel.

In order to learn whether the accounts of this man were true and accurate, the African Institution sent out Major Houghton: he was instructed to ascertain the course, and, if possible, the rise and termination of the Niger; to visit Tombuctoo and Housa, and to return by the Desert. Accordingly he sailed up the Gambia to Pisania, and thence he proceeded to Medina, the capital of the Mandingo kingdom. His course from this city was north-east, which led him beyond the limit of European discovery, to the uninhabited frontier which separates Bondou and Mandingo. After some time spent in endeavouring to ingratiate himself with the king of the latter country, but in vain, he resolved to proceed into Bambouk. On arriving at Firbanna, the capital, he was hospitably treated by the king. Here be formed a plan to go with a merchant to Tombuctoo; but on his way he was robbed, and either perished of hunger, or was murdered: the exact particulars are not known. To Major Houghton we are indebted for our first knowledge of the kingdom of Bondou; and for the names of several cities on the Niger, as well as the course of that river.

Mr. Park was next employed by the African Association; and what he learnt, observed, did, and suffered, fully justified them in the choice of such a man. "His first journey was unquestionably the most important which any European had ever performed in the interior of Africa. He established a number of geographical positions, in a direct line of eleven hundred miles from Cape de Verde: by pointing out the positions of the sources of the Senegal, Gambia, and Niger, he has given a new aspect to the physical geography of this continent; he has fixed the boundaries of the Moors and Negroes; unfolded to us the empire of Ludamar; and described, from personal observation, some important towns on the banks of the Niger, or Joliba. The information which he has communicated concerning this part of Africa, and their manners, is equally new and interesting. He has traced with accuracy the distinction betwixt the Mahometans and Pagans." This journey was accomplished between the 2d of December, 1795, when he left Pisania, a British factory two hundred miles up the Gambia, and the 10th of June, 1797, when he returned to the same place, an interval of eighteen months.

Notwithstanding the dangers and fatigues which he had undergone; notwithstanding that, on his return to his native country, he had married, and entered on a life which promised him competence and domestic happiness; yet his mind yearned for a repetition of those scenes and adventures to which he had lately been accustomed. No sooner, therefore, did he learn that another mission to Africa was in contemplation, than he set his inclination on undertaking it, if it were offered to him. This it was: he accepted the offer; and on the 30th of January, 1805, he left Portsmouth.

It is surprising and lamentable, that notwithstanding his knowledge and experience of the climate of the country to which he was going, he should have begun his expedition at a time when her was sure to encounter the rainy season long before he could reach the Niger.

The expedition was most unfortunate: Mr. Park perished in it, after having undergone dreadful hardships, and witnessed the death of several of his companions; and of one of them who was his most intimate friend. The exact place and circumstances of his own fate are not known: it is known, however, from his own journal, which he transmitted to England, that he had reached Sansandang, which is considerably short of Silla, which he had reached in his first journey; and from other sources, it is known, that from the former place he went to Yaour in Haoussa, where he is supposed to have been killed by the natives.

The African Association were still indefatigable in their endeavours to explore the interior of Africa; and they found little difficulty in meeting with persons zealously disposed, as well as qualified, to second their designs. Mr. Horneman, a German, who possessed considerable knowledge, such as might be of service to him on such an enterprise, and who was besides strong, active, vigorous, undaunted, endowed with passive courage, (a most indispensable qualification,) temperate, and in perfect health, was next selected. He prepared himself by learning such of the Oriental languages as might be useful to him; and on the 10th of September, 1797, arrived at Alexandria. Circumstances prevented him from pursuing his route for nearly two years, when he left Cairo, along with a caravan for Fezzan. His subsequent fate is unknown; but there is reason to believe that he died soon after his departure from Fezzan.

It is not necessary to mention any of the subsequent expeditions which were sent by the Association into the interior of Africa; since none of them have added to our knowledge of this portion of the globe. There have, indeed, been communications received from some of the merchants trading from the north of Africa to the Niger, which confirm the accounts of large and powerful kingdoms on its banks, and the inhabitants of these kingdoms are comparatively far advanced in manufactures and commerce; but, besides these particulars, little respecting the geography of the interior has been ascertained. The course of the Niger is proved beyond a doubt to be, as Herodotus described it, upwards of 2000 years ago, from west to east; but the termination of this large river is utterly unknown. Some think it unites with the Nile, and forms the great western branch of that river, called the Bahr el Abiad, or White River; others think that it loses itself in the lakes or swamps of Wangara, or Ghana, and is there wasted by evaporation; while another opinion is, that its course takes a bend to the west, and that it falls into the Atlantic, or that it discharges itself into the Indian Ocean.

The British government, anxious to determine, if possible, this curious and important question, sent out two expeditions, about seven years since, to explore in every possible way the course and termination of the Niger. The first, under the conduct of Captain Tuckey, proceeded up the Zaire; the other ascended the Nunez in north Africa, in order, if possible, to reach the navigable part of the Niger by a shorter course than that followed by Park, and with the design of proceeding down the river till it reached its termination. The issue of both these expeditions, particularly of the former, was singularly melancholy and unfortunate: Captain Tuckey, and fifteen persons out of the thirty who composed it, perished in consequence of the excessive fatigue which they underwent after they had reached above the cataracts of the river, the want of sufficient and proper food, and a fever brought on, or aggravated, by these causes. Captain Tuckey was the last who fell a victim, after having traced the Zaire, till it became from four to five miles in breadth. The mountains were no longer seen, and the course of the river inclined to the north; these circumstances, joined to that of its becoming broader, render the opinion that it is the same with the Niger more probable than it previously was: the accounts given to Captain Tuckey were also to the same effect. The second expedition, under the direction of Major Peddir, reached Kauendy on the Nunez, where he died: his successor in the command, Captain Campbell, penetrated about 150 miles beyond this place, but not being able to procure the means of proceeding, he was obliged to return to it, where he also died.

Within 150 miles of the British settlement at Cape Coast Castle, there is a powerful and rich nation, called the Aahantees: they seem first to have been heard of by Europeans about the year 1700; but they were not seen near the coast, nor had they any intercourse with our factories till the year 1807: they visited the coast again in 1811, and a third time in 1816. These invasions produced great distress among the Fantees, and even were highly prejudicial to our factory; in consequence of which, the governor resolved to send a mission to them. Of this journey an account has been published by Mr. Bowdich, one of those engaged in it. The travellers passed through the Fantee and Assen territories. The first Ashantee village was Quesha; the capital is Coomastee, which the mission reached on the 19th of May, 1817. Mr. Bowdich paints the splendour, magnificence, and richness of the sovereign of the Ashantees in the most gorgeous manner; and even his manners as dignified and polished. But though his work is very full of what almost seems romantic pictures and statements of the civilization and richness of the Ashantees, and gives accurate accounts of their kingdom, yet, in other respects, it is not interesting or important, in a geographical point of view. There are, indeed, some notices which were collected from the natives or the travelling Moors, regarding the countries beyond Ashantee, and some of their opinions respecting the Niger. The most important point which he ascertained was, that the route from the capital to Tombuctoo is much travelled; and it is now supposed that this is the shortest and best road for Europeans to take, who wish to reach the Niger near that city. Indeed, we understand that merchants frequently come to the British settlement at Sierra Leone, who represent the route into the interior of Africa and the neighbourhood of the Niger from thence, as by no means arduous or dangerous.

We shall next direct our attention to the north of Africa.

The hostility of the Mahometans, who possessed the north of Africa, to Christians, presented as serious an obstacle to travels in that quarter as the barbarism and ferocity of the native tribes on the west coast did to discoveries into the interior in that direction. In the sixteenth century, Leo Africanus gave an ample description of the northern parts; and in the same century, Alvarez, who visited Abyssinia, published an account of that country. In the subsequent century, this part of Africa was illustrated by Lobo, Tellea, and Poncet; the latter was a chemist and apothecary, sent by Louis XIV to the reigning monarch of Abyssinia; the former were missionaries. From their accounts, and those of the Portuguese, all our information respecting this country was derived, previously to the travels of Mr. Bruce.

Pocock and Norden are the most celebrated travellers in Egypt in the beginning of the seventeenth century; but as their object was rather the discovery and description of the antiquities of this country, what they published did not much extend our geographical knowledge: the former spent five years in his travels. The latter is the first writer who published a picturesque description of Egypt; every subsequent traveller has borne evidence to the accuracy and fidelity of his researches and descriptions. He was the first European who ventured above the cataracts.

The great ambition and object of Mr. Bruce was to discover the source of the Nile; for this purpose he left Britain in 1762, and after visiting Algiers, Balbec, and Palmyra, he prepared for his journey into Abyssinia. He sailed up the Nile a considerable way, and afterwards joined a caravan to Cosseir on the Red Sea. After visiting part of the sea coast of Arabia, he sailed for Massoucut, by which route alone an entrance into Abyssinia was practicable. In this country he encountered many obstacles, and difficulties, and after all, in consequence of wrong information he received from the inhabitants, visited only the Blue River, one of the inferior streams of the Nile, instead of the White River, its real source. This, however, is of trifling moment, when contrasted with the accessions to our geographical knowledge of Abyssinia, the coast of the Red Sea, &c., for which we are indebted to this most zealous and persevering traveller. Since Mr. Bruce's time, Abyssinia has been visited by Mr. Salt, who has likewise added considerably to our knowledge of this country, though on many points he differs from Mr. Bruce.

The most important and interesting accession to our knowledge of the north of Africa was made between the years 1792 and 1795, by Mr. Browne. This gentleman seems to have equalled Mr. Bruce in his zeal and ardour, but to have surpassed him in the soundness and utility of his views; for while the former was principally ambitious of discovering the sources of the Nile,—a point of little real moment in any point of view,—the latter wished to penetrate into those parts of the north of Africa which were unknown to Europeans, but which, from all accounts of them, promised to interest and benefit, not only commerce, but science. His precise and immediate object was Darfur, some of the natives of which resided in Egypt: from their manners and account of their country, Mr. Browne concluded the inhabitants were not so hostile to Christians and Europeans as Mahometans are in general. He therefore resolved to go thither; as from it he could either proceed into Abyssinia by Kordofan, or traverse Africa from east to west. He therefore left Assiou in Egypt with the Soudan caravan in 1793, passed through the greater Oasis, and arrived at Sircini in Darfur: here he resided a considerable time, but he found insurmountable obstacles opposed to his grand and ulterior plan. He ascertained, however, the source and progress of the real Nile or White River. The geography of Darfur and Kordofan is illustrated by him in a very superior and satisfactory manner. The geography of Africa to the west of these countries is likewise elucidated by him: he mentions and describes a large river which takes its rise among the mountains of Kumri, and flows in a north-west course. This river is supposed to be that described by Ptolemy under the name of Gir, and by Edrisi as the Nile of the Negroes. The fate of Mr. Browne, who from all the accounts of him seems to have been admirably fitted by nature and habits for a traveller, was very melancholy. After his return to England from Darfur he resolved to visit the central countries of Asia: he accordingly set out, but on his way thither he was murdered in Persia.

At the commencement of this century, circumstances occurred Which rendered Egypt and the countries adjacent more accessible to Europeans than they had ever been before. In the first place, the French, who most unjustly invaded it, took with their invading army a number of literary and scientific men, by whom were published several splendid works, principally on the antiquities of this ancient country. In the second place, the English, by driving out the French, and by their whole conduct towards the ruling men and the natives in general, not only weakened in a very considerable degree the dislike to Europeans and Christians which the Mahomedans here, as elsewhere, had ever entertained, but also created a grateful sense of obligation and of favour towards themselves. Lastly, the pacha, who obtained the power in Egypt, was a man of liberal and enlightened views, far above those who had preceded him, and disposed to second and assist the researches and journies of travellers.

In consequence of these favourable circumstances, and the additional circumstance, that by the conquests and influence of Bonaparte English travellers were shut out from a great part of Europe, they directed their course towards Egypt. Their object was chiefly to investigate the numerous, stupendous, and interesting antiquities.

In the year 1813, Mr. Legh, a member of the House of Commons, performed a journey in this country, and beyond the cataracts. Above the cataracts he entered Nubia, and proceeded to Dehr, its capital. These travels are, however, chiefly interesting and instructive for that which indeed must give the chief interest to all travels in Egypt and Nubia—the description of antiquities.

The second cataract continued the limit of the attempts of European travellers, till it was reached and passed, first by Mr. Burckhardt, and afterwards by Mr. Banks. No modern traveller has excelled Mr. Burckhardt in the importance of his travels; and-few, in any age, have equalled him in zeal, perseverance, fortitude, and success.

He was employed by the African Association to explore the interior of Africa. Having perfected himself in the knowledge of the religion, manners, and language of the Mahomedan Arabs, by frequent and long residences among the Bedouins, he proceeded to Cairo. Here, finding that the opportunity of a caravan to Fezzan or Darfur was not soon likely to occur, he resolved to explore Egypt and the country above the cataracts. He accordingly "performed two very arduous and interesting journies into the ancient Ethiopia; one of them along the banks of the Nile from Assouan to Dar al Mahas on the frontiers of Dongola, in the months of February and March, 1813, during which he discovered many remains of ancient Egyptian and Nubian architecture, with Greek inscriptions; the other between March and July in the following year, through Nubia to Souakun. The details of this journey contain the best notices ever received in Europe of the actual state of society, trade, manufactures, and government, in what was once the cradle of all the knowledge of the Egyptians."

Although it will carry us a little out of our regular and stated course, to notice the other travels of this enterprising man in the place, yet we prefer doing it, in order that our readers, by having at once before them a brief abstract of all he performed for geography, may the better be enabled to appreciate his merits.

Soon after his second return to Cairo, he resolved to penetrate into Arabia, and to visit Mecca and Medina. In order to secure his own safety, and at the same time gain such information as could alone be obtained in the character of a Mahomedan, he assumed the dress, and he was enabled to personate the religion, manners, and language of the native Hadje, or pilgrims. Thus secure and privileged, he resided between four and five months in Mecca. Here he gained some authentic and curious information respecting the rise, history, and tenets of the Wahabees, a Mahomedan sect. These travels have not yet been published.

The last excursion of Mr. Burckhardt was from Cairo to Mount Sinai and the eastern head of the Red Sea. This journey was published in 1822, along with the travels in Syria and the Holy Land; the latter of which he accomplished while he was preparing himself at Aleppo for his proposed journey into the interior of Africa. These travels, therefore, are prior in date to those in Nubia, though they were published afterwards.

He spent nearly three, years in Syria: his most important geographical discoveries in this country relate to the nature of the district between the Dead Sea and the Gulf of Elana; the extent, conformation, and detailed topography of the Haouran; the situation of Apanea on the river Orontes, which was one of the most important cities of Syria under the Macedonian Greeks; the site of Petreea; and the general structure of the peninsula of Mount Sinai. Perhaps the most original and important of these illustrations of ancient geography is that which relates to the Elanitic Gulph: its extent and form were previously so little known, that it was either entirely omitted, or very erroneously laid down in maps. From what he observed here, there is good reason to believe that the Jordan once discharged itself into the Red Sea; thus confirming the truth of that convulsion mentioned and described in the nineteenth chapter of Genesis, which interrupted the coarse of this river; converted the plain in which Sodom and Gomorrah stood into a lake, and changed the valley to the southward of this district into a sandy desert.

But Mr. Burckhardt, considering all these excursions, and their consequent numerous and important accessions to geographical knowledge, as only preludes to the grand expedition for which he had expressly come to the East, still looked forward to the interior of Africa. This, however, he was not destined to reach; for while at Cairo, waiting for a caravan, which was to proceed by Mourzouck,—a. route which he had long decided on as the most likely to answer his purpose,—he was suddenly seized with a dysentery, on the 5th of October, 1817, and died on the 15th.

Travellers in. Egypt and Nubia have been numerous since the time of Mr. Burckhardt; but as they chiefly directed their investigations and inquiries to the antiquities of the country, they do not come within our proper notice; we shall therefore merely mention the names of Belzoni, (whose antiquarian discoveries have been so numerous and splendid,) Mr. Salt, Mr. Bankes, &c. To this latter gentleman, however, geography is also indebted for important additions to its limits; or, rather, for having illustrated ancient geography. He penetrated, as we have already mentioned, as far as the second cataract: he visited some of the most celebrated scenes in Arabia, and made an excursion to Waadi Mooza, or the Valley of Moses. He also visited Carrac; but the most important discovery of this gentleman relates to the site of the ancient Petraea, which was also visited by Burckhardt. Onr readers will recollect that this city has been particularly noticed in our digression on the early commerce of the Arabians, as the common centre for the caravans in all ages; and that we traced its ancient history as far down as there were any notices of it. Its ruins Mr. Bankes discovered in those of Waadi Mooza, a village in the valley of the same name.

Since Mr. Burckhardt travelled, geographical discoveries have been made in this part of the world by Messrs. Ritchie and Lyon, Lord Belmore and Dr. Richardson, Messrs. Waddington and Hanbury, Messrs. Caillaud and Drovetti, Sir Archibald Edmonstone, Sir Frederick Henniker, and by an American of the name of English. The travels of Messrs. Ritchie and Lyon were confined to Fezzan, and are chiefly curious for the notices they give, derived from native merchants, of the course of the Niger, By means of the travels of Lord Belmore and Dr. Richardson, the latitudes and longitudes on the Nile have been corrected from Assouan to the confines of Dongola. Mr. Waddington and Mr. Hanbury, taking advantage of an expedition sent into Ethiopia by the pacha of Egypt, examined this river four hundred miles beyond the place to which Burckhardt advanced. The travels of the two French gentlemen extended to the Oasis of Thebes and Dakel, and the deserts situated to the east and west of the Thebaid. In the Thebaic Oasis some very interesting remains of antiquity were discovered: the great Oasis was well known to the ancients; but the Thebaic Oasis has seldom been visited in modern times. Brown and Poncet passed through its longest extent, but did not see the ruins observed by Mr. Caillaud.

This gentleman, who was employed by the pacha to search for gold, silver, and precious stones, after a residence of five months at Sennaar, traversed the province of Fazocle, and followed the Arrek, till it entered the kingdom of Bertot. At a place called Singue, in the kingdom of Dar-foke, which is the southern boundary of Bertot, situated on the tenth parallel of latitude, and five days' journey to the westward of the confines of Abyssinia, the conquests of Ishmaei Pacha terminated. Only short notices of these travels of Mr. Caillaud have as yet been published.

Sir A. Edmonstone's first intention was to visit the Thebaic Oasis; but understanding from Mr. Belzoni that Mr. Caillaud had already been there, but that there was another Oasis to the westward, which had never been visited by any European, he resolved to proceed thither. This Oasis was also visited by Drovetti much about I he same time: he calls it the Oasis of Dakel. It seems to have escaped the notice of all the ancient authors examined by Sir Archibald, except Olympiodorus. Speaking of the Thebaic Oasis, he mentions an interior and extensive one, lying opposite to the other, one hundred miles apart, which corresponds with the actual distance between them.

The American traveller accompanied the expedition of the pacha of Egypt as far as Sennaar. He commences the account of his voyage up the Nile at the second cataract; and as far as the pyramids of Meroe, where the voyage of Messrs. Waddington and Hanbury terminated, his accounts correspond with what they give. He did not, however, follow the great bend of the river above Dongola: this he describes as 250 miles long, and full of rocks and rapid. He again reached the Nile, having crossed the peninsula in a direct line, at Shendi. Near this place he discovered the remains of a city, temples, and fifty-four pyramids, which are supposed, by a writer in the Quarterly Review, to be the ruins of the celebrated Meroc, as their position agrees with that assigned them by a draughtsman employed by Mr. Bankes. The army halted on the western bank of the Nile, opposite Halfaia: about five hours' march above this place the Bahr el Abiad, or White River, flows into the Bahr el Azreck, or Nile of Bruce. In thirteen days from the junction of these two rivers, the army, marching along the left, or western branch of the Azreck, reached Sennaar.

In the year 1817, Delia Cella, an Italian physician, accompanied the army of the bashaw of Tripoli as far as Bomba, on the route towards Egypt, and near the frontiers of that country. He had thus an opportunity "of visiting one of the oldest and most celebrated of the Greek colonies, established upwards of seven hundred years before the birth of Christ; and in being the first European to follow the footsteps of Cato round the shores of the Syrtis, and to explore a region untrodden by Christian foot since the expulsion of the Romans, the Huns, and the Vandals, by the enterprising disciples of Mahomet." In this journey he necessarily passed the present boundary between Tripoli and Bengaze, the same which was anciently the boundary between Carthage and Cyrene; and our author confirms the account of Sallust, that neither river nor mountain marks the confines. He also confirms the description given by Herodotus of the dreadful storms of sand that frequently arise and overwhelm the caravans in this part of the Syrtis. At the head of the Syrtis the ground is depressed, and this depression, our author supposes, continues to the Great Desert. Soon after he left this barren country, he entered Cyrenaica, the site of Cyrene: that most ancient and celebrated colony of the Greeks was easily ascertained by its magnificent ruins. From Cyrene the army marched to Derna, and from this to the gulf of Bomba, an extensive arm of the sea, where the expedition terminated.

Such are the most recent discoveries in this portion of Africa.

The settlement of the Cape of Good Hope, originally established by the Dutch, and at present in possession of the English, was naturally the point from which European travellers set out to explore the southern parts of Africa. Their progress hitherto has not been great, though, as far as they have advanced, the information they have acquired of the face of the country, its productions, the tribes which inhabit it, and their habits, manners, &c. may be regarded as full and accurate. The principal travellers who have visited this part of Africa, and from whose travels the best information may be obtained of the settlement of the Cape, and of the country to the north of it for about 900 miles, are Kolbein, Sparman, Le Vaillant, Barrow, Lichtenstein, La Trobe, Campbell, and Burcheli. To the geography of the east coast of Africa, and of the adjacent districts, little or no addition has been made for a very considerable length of time.

II. The discoveries in Asia may in general be divided into those which the vast possessions of the Russians in this quarter of the globe, and the corresponding interest which they felt to become better acquainted with them, induced them to make, and into those to which the English were stimulated, and which they were enabled to perform, from the circumstance of their vast, important, and increasing possessions in Hindostan.

The most important and instructive travels which spring from the first source, are those of Bell of Antermony, Pallas, Grnelin, Guldenstedt, Lepechin, &c. Bell was a Scotchman, attached to the Russian service: his work, which was published about the middle of the last century, contains an account of the embassy sent by Peter the Great to the emperor of China, and of another embassy into Persia; of an expedition to Derbent by the Russian army, and of a journey to Constantinople. Of the route in all these directions he gives an interesting and accurate account, as well as of the manners, &c. of the people. Indeed, it is a valuable work, especially that portion of it which conducts us through the central parts of Asia,—an immense district, which, as we have already remarked, is not much better known at present, (at least considerable portions of it,) than it was three or four centuries ago. The travels of Pallas, &c. were undertaken by order of the Russian government, for the purpose of gaining a fuller and more accurate account of the provinces of that immense empire, especially those to the south, which, from climate, soil, and productions were most valuable, and most capable of improvement.

The English possessions in Hindostan have led the way to two sets of discoveries, or rather advancements in geographical knowledge: one which was derived from the journies frequently made overland from India to Europe; and the other, which was derived from embassies, &c. from Calcutta to the neighbouring kingdoms. In general, however, the journies overland from India, having been undertaken expressly for the purpose of expedition, and moreover being through countries which required the utmost caution on the part of the travellers to preserve them from danger, did not admit of much observation being made, or much information being acquired, respecting the districts that were passed through. The travels of Jackson, Forster, and Fitzclarence, are perhaps as valuable as any which have been given to the public respecting the route from India to Europe, and the countries, and their inhabitants, passed through in this route.

From the embassies and the wars of the British East India Company in Hindostan, we have derived much valuable information respecting Persia, Thibet, Ava, Caubul, &c.; and from their wars, as well as from the institution of the Asiatic Society, and the facilities which their conquests afforded to travellers, the whole of the peninsula of Hindostan, as well as the country to the north of it, as far as Cashmere and the Himaleh mountains, may be regarded as fully explored. Perhaps the most valuable accession to geographical knowledge through the English conquests, relates to these mountains. They seem to have been known to Pliny under the name of Imaus: they are described by Plotemy; and they were crossed by some of the Jesuit missionaries about the beginning of the seventeenth century; but they were not thoroughly explored till the beginning of the nineteenth. Mr. Moorcroft was the first European, after the missionaries, who penetrated into the plains of Tartary through these mountains. The fullest account, however, of the singular countries which lie among them, is given by Mr. Frazer, who in 1814 passed in a straight line, in a direction of this chain, between 60 and 70 miles, and also visited the sources of the Ganges.

Our commerce with China for tea, and the hope of extending that commerce to other articles, produced, towards the end of the last century and the beginning of this, two embassies to China, from both of which, but especially from the first, much additional information has been gained respecting this extensive country, and its singular inhabitants; so that, regarding it and them, from these embassies, and the works of the Jesuit missionaries, we possess all the knowledge which we can well expect to derive, so long as the Chinese are so extremely jealous of strangers.

The British embassies to China, besides making us better acquainted with this country, added no little to our information respecting those places which were visited in going to and returning from China. Perhaps the most important correction of geography is that which was made by Captains Maxwell and Hall, who took out the second embassy: we allude to what they ascertained respecting the kingdom of Corea. They found a bay, which, according to the charts of this country, would be situated 120 miles in the interior; and at the same time they ascertained, that along the southern coast of Corea there was an archipelago of more than 1000 islands. These discoveries; the valuable additions which were made during the voyage of Captain Maxwell to the geography and hydrography of the Yellow Sea; the correction of the vague and incorrect notions which were long entertained respecting the isles of Jesso and the Kuriles, by the labours of La Perouse, Broughton, Krusentein, &c., and the full and minute information given to the public respecting Java, and other parts of the southern Indian archipelago, by Raffles, Craufurd, &c. seem to leave little to be added to our geographical knowledge of the eastern and southeastern portions of Asia.

III. We come now to America;—and though Africa is one of the most ancient seats of the human race, and of civilization and science, and America has been discovered only about 350 years, yet we know much more respecting the coasts and interior of the latter than of the former portion of the globe.

Although the Spaniards and Portuguese, who, till very lately, possessed nearly the whole of South America, guarded their possessions strictly from the curious intrusion of foreigners, and were themselves very sparing in giving to the world the information respecting them which they must have acquired,—yet, even during their power there, the geography of this part of America was gradually developed and extended; the face of the country; the great outline of those immense mountains, which, under the torrid zone, are visited by the cold of the Pole; the nature of the vast plains which lie between the offsets of these mountains; and the general direction of the rivers, not less remarkable for their size than the mountains and plains, were generally known. The geography of South America, however, taking the term in the most philosophical and comprehensive sense, has been principally enriched within these few years, by the labours of Humboldt and his fellow-traveller Bompland, of Depons, Koster, Prince Maximilian, Luccock, Henderson, and by those Englishmen who joined the Spanish Americans during their struggle with the mother country. From the observations, enquiries, and researches of these travellers, our information respecting all those parts of South America which constituted the Spanish and Portuguese dominions there, especially of Mexico, Terra Firma, Brazil, and Buenos Ayres, and generally the eastern and middle portions, has been much extended, as well as rendered more accurate and particular. Humboldt, especially, has left little to be gleaned by any future traveller, from any of those countries which he has visited and described.

The rapid and wonderful increase in the territories and inhabitants of the United States, has necessarily laid open the greater part of North America to our acquaintance. The United States, limited in their wish and endeavours to extend themselves on the north by the British possessions there, and on the south by the Spanish territories, and moreover drawn towards the interior and the shores of the Pacific by the grand natural navigation which the Mississippi and its numerous streams afford for inland commerce, and by the commercial access to the wealth of the East which the possession of the shores of the Pacific would open to them, have pushed their territories towards the west. First, the Alleghany Mountains, a feeble barrier to an encreasing population, and a most enterprising as well as unsettled people, were passed; then the Mississippi was reached and crossed; and at present the government of the United States are preparing the way for extending their territories gradually to the Western Ocean itself, and for spreading their population, as they go westwards, to the north and the south, as far as their limits, will admit.

All those countries, over which they have spread themselves, are of course now well known, principally from the accounts published by Europeans, and especially Englishmen, who have been tempted to explore them, or to settle there. The government of the United States itself has not been backward in setting on foot exploratory travels into the immense districts to the west of the Mississippi: to these enterprizes they seem to have been particularly directed and stimulated by the acquisition of Louisiana from France, a country "rich and varied in its soil, almost inexhaustible in natural resources, and almost indefinite in extent."

This acquisition was made in the year 1803, and within four years of this period, three exploratory expeditions were sent out by the United States. The principal object of the first, which was under the direction of Major Pike, was to trace the Mississippi to its source, and to ascertain the direction of the Arkansa and Red Rivers, further to the west. In the course of this journey, an immense chain of mountains, called the Rocky Mountains, was approached, which appeared to be a continuation of the Andes. The ulterior grand object, however, of this expedition was not obtained, in consequence of the Spaniards compelling Major Pike to desist and return. A second attempt was made, by another party, but the Spaniards stopped them likewise. In the years 1804, 5, and 6, Captains Lewis and Clarke explored the Missouri to its source, crossed the Rocky Mountains, and proceeding towards the North Pacific Ocean, ascertained, the origin and course of the River Columbia.

In the years 1819 and 1820, several persons, well qualified for the undertaking by their science, spirit, and enterprize, accompanied by riflemen, hunters, and assistants, were sent out by the government of the United States, for the purpose of gaining a more full and accurate knowledge of the chain of the Rocky Mountains, and of the rivers, winch, rising there, flowed into the Mississippi. After passing through a great extent and variety of country, and gaining some curious information respecting various Indian tribes, especially of those who inhabit the upper course of the Missouri, they reached the Mountains: these and the adjacent districts they carefully examined. They next separated, one party going towards the Red River, and the other descending the Arkansa. The former party were misled and misinformed by the Indians, so that they mistook and followed the Canadian River, instead of the Red River, till it joined the Arkansa. They were, however, too exhausted to remedy their error. The latter party were more successful.

The great outline of the coast, as well as of the greater portion of the vast continent of America, is now filled up. In the northernmost parts of North America, the efforts of the British government to find a north-west passage, the spreading of the population of Canada, and the increasing importance of the fur trade, bid fair to add the details of this portion; the spread of the population of the United States towards the west, will as necessarily give the details of the middle portion; while, with respect to the most southern portions of North America, and the whole of South America, with the exception of the cold, bleak, and barren territory of Patagonia, the changes which have taken place, and are still in operation, in the political state of the Spanish and Portuguese provinces, must soon fill up the little that has been left unaccomplished by Humboldt, &c.

What portions, then, of Asia, America, and Africa, are still unknown?—and what comparison, in point of extent and importance, do they bear to what was known to the ancients? In Asia, the interior of the vast kingdom of China is very imperfectly known, as well as Daouria and other districts on the confines of the Chinese and Russian empires; central Asia in general, and all that extensive, populous, and fertile region which extends from the southern part of Malaya, nearly under the equator, in a northerly direction, to the fortieth degree of latitude, are still not explored, or but very partially so, by European travellers. This region comprehends Aracan, Ava, Pegu, Siam, Tsiompa, and Cambodia. The south and east coasts of Arabia still require to be more minutely and accurately surveyed. In the eastern archipelago, Borneo, Celebes, and Papua, are scarcely known. Though all these bear but a small proportion to the vast extent of Asia, yet some of them, especially the country to the north of the Malay peninsula, and the islands in the eastern archipelago, may justly be regarded as not inferior, in that importance which natural riches bestows, to any part of this quarter of the globe.

Still, however, we possess some general notice, and some vague reports of all these countries; but it is otherwise with respect to the unknown portions of Africa. The whole of this quarter of the world, from the Niger to the confines of the British settlement at the Cape of Good Hope, may, with little limitation, be considered as unknown. Travellers have indeed penetrated a short distance from the western coast into the interior, in some parts between the latitude of the Niger and the latitude of the extreme northern boundary of the Cape settlement: and a very little is known respecting some small portions of the districts closely adjoining to the eastern coast; but the whole of central Africa is still unexplored, and presents difficulties and dangers which it is apprehended will not be speedily or easily overcome. To the north of the Niger lies the Sahara, or Great Desert; of this, probably, sufficient is known to convince us that its extent is such, that no country that would repay a traveller for his fatigue and risk, is situated to the north of it. To the east of the Niger, however, or rather along its course, and to the north of its course, as it flows to the east, much remains to be explored; many geographical details have been indeed gathered from the Mahomedan merchants of this part of Africa, but these cannot entirely be trusted. The course and termination of the Niger itself is still an unsolved problem.

Captain Scoresby, a most intelligent and active captain in the whale fishery trade, has very lately succeeded in reaching the eastern coasts of Greenland, and is disposed to think that the descendants of the Danish colonists, of whose existence nothing is known since this coast was blocked, up by ice at the beginning of the fifteenth century, still inhabit it. The northern shores of Greenland, and its extent in this direction are still unknown.

Notwithstanding the zeal and success with which the government of the United States prosecute their discoveries to the west of the Mississippi, there is still much unexplored country between that river and the Pacific Ocean. It is possible that lands may lie within the antartic circle, of which we have hitherto as little notion as we had of South Shetland ten years ago; but if there are such, they must be most barren and inhospitable. It is possible also, that, notwithstanding the care and attention with which the great Pacific has been so repeatedly swept, there may yet be islands in it undiscovered; but these, however fertile from soil and climate, must be mere specks in the ocean.

But though comparatively little of the surface of the globe is now utterly unknown, yet even of those countries with which we are best acquainted, much remains to be ascertained, before the geography of them can justly be regarded as complete. Perhaps we are much less deficient and inaccurate in our knowledge of the natural history of the globe, than in its geography, strictly so called; that is, in the extent, direction, latitudes and longitudes, direction and elevation of mountains, rise, course, and termination of rivers, &c. How grossly erroneous geography was till very lately, in some even of its most elementary parts, and those, too, in relation to what ought to have been the most accurately known portion of Europe, may be judged from these two facts,—that till near the close of the last century, the distance from the South Foreland, in Kent, to the Land's End, was laid down in all the maps of England nearly half a degree greater than it actually is; and that, as we have formerly noticed, "the length of the Mediterranean was estimated by the longitudes of Ptolemy till the eighteenth century, and that it was curtailed of nearly twenty-five degrees by observation, no farther back than the reign of Louis XIV."

To speak in a loose and general manner, the Romans, at the height of their conquests, power, and geographical knowledge, were probably acquainted with a part of the globe about equal in extent to that of which we are still ignorant; but their empire embraced a fairer and more valuable portion than we can expect to find in those countries which remain to reward the enterprise of European travellers. The fertile regions and the beautiful climate of the south of Europe, of the north of Africa, and above all of Asia Minor, present a picture which we can hardly expect will be approached, certainly will not be surpassed, under the burning heats of central Africa, or even the more mitigated heats of the farther peninsula of India. The short and easy access of all portions of the Roman Empire to the ocean, gave them advantages which must be denied to the hitherto unexplored districts in the interior of Asia and Africa. The farther peninsula of India is infinitely better situated in this respect.

At that very remote period, when sacred and profane history first displays the situation, and narrates the transactions of the human race, the countries, few in number, and comparatively of small extent, that were washed by the waters of the Mediterranean, comprised the whole of the earth which was then known. Asia Minor, which possessed the advantage of lying not only on this sea, but also on the Euxine, and which is moreover level in its surface, and fertile in its soil, seems to have been the first additional portion of the earth that became thoroughly known. The commercial enterprize of the Phoenicians, and their colonists the Carthaginians,—the conquests of Alexander the Great, and of the Romans, gradually extended the knowledge of the earth in all directions, but principally in the middle regions of Europe, in the north of Africa, and in Asia towards the Indus. At the period when the Roman empire was destroyed, little more was known; and during the middle ages, geography was feebly assisted and extended by a desire to possess the luxuries of the East, (which seems to have been as powerful and general with the conquerors of the Romans as with the Romans themselves,) by the religious zeal of a few priests, and by the zeal for knowledge which actuated a still smaller number of travellers.

The desire of obtaining the luxuries of the East, however, was the predominating principle, and the efficient cause of the extension of geography. Actuated by it, the passage of the Cape of Good Hope was accomplished; the eastern limits of Asia were reached; America was discovered, and even the Frozen Seas were braved and carefully examined, in the hope that by them a speedier passage might be found to the countries which produced these luxuries. At length the love of conquest, of wealth, and of luxury, which alone are sufficiently gross and stimulating in their nature to act on men in their rudest and least intellectual state, and which do not loose their hold on the most civilized, enlightened, and virtuous people, was assisted by the love of science; and though when this union took place, little of the globe was unknown, as respected its grand outline, and the general extent and relative situation of the seas and lands which compose its surface, yet much remained to be accomplished in determining the details of geography; in fixing accurately and scientifically the situation of places; in exhibiting the surface of the land, as it was distinguished by mountains, plains, lakes, rivers, &c.; in gaining a full and accurate knowledge of the natural history of each country, and of the manners, customs, institutions, religion, manufactures and commerce of its inhabitants.

Before we give a sketch of the progress of commercial enterprize during the last hundred years, it will be proper to notice the advancement of geographical science during the same period, and the assistance which was thus afforded, as well as from other sources, to those who travelled both by sea and land, for the purpose of discovering or exploring foreign and distant countries. This part of our subject seems naturally to divide itself into three parts; viz. the improvement of maps, which was equally advantageous to sea and land travellers; those particulars which rendered navigation more safe, easy, and expeditious; and those particulars which bestowed the same benefit on land travellers.

The science of geography dates its origin, as we have already mentioned, from Mercator, though he was unable to point out and explain the law, according to which the projection which bears his name might be laid down on fixed principles: this was effected by an Englishman of the name of Wright. Mathematical geography, strictly so called, seems to have owed its origin to the discussion respecting the flattening of the Poles, which took place, in the beginning of the eighteenth century, among Newton, Huygens, and Cassini, and which was afterwards continued by some of the most distinguished mathematicians and natural philosophers of France and England. Still, however, the construction of maps derived little advantage from the application of strict science to geography, till Delisle, in France, and Haase, in Germany, directed their attention and talents to this particular subject: their efforts were indeed great, but in some measure unavailing, in consequence of the want of sufficient materials. The same impediment lay in the way of Busching, notwithstanding he brought to the task the characteristic patience and research of a German. To him, however, and the more illustrious D'Anville, accurate delineations and descriptions of the countries of the globe may first justly be ascribed.

D'Anville possessed excellent and ample materials, in authentic relations, and plans and delineations made on the spot: with these he advanced to the task, calling to his aid mathematical principles. He first exhibited in his maps the interior of Asia free from that confusion and error by which all former maps had obscured it; and struck out from his map of Africa many imaginary kingdoms. Ancient geography, and the still more involved and dark geography of the middle ages, received from him the first illumination; and if subsequent geographers have been able to add to and correct his labours, it has been chiefly owing to their possessing materials which did not exist in his time.

Busching confined himself entirely to modern geography; and though his minuteness is generally tiresome and superfluous, yet we can pardon it, for the accuracy of his details: he was patronized and assisted in his labours by all the governments, of the north, who gave him access to every document which could further his object.

Since the time of D'Anville and Busching, the description of countries, and the construction of maps, have proceeded with a rapidly encreasing decree of accuracy. In ancient geography, Gosselin, Rennell, Vincent, and Malte Brun, are among the most celebrated names. Two Germans, Voss and Munnert, have directed their labours to illustrate and explain the geographical details and hints of the Greek poets. It would be almost endless to enumerate those to whom modern geography, and the construction of modern maps are principally indebted. Gaspari and Zimmerman, among the Germans, have thrown into a philosophical and interesting form the labours and heavy details which were supplied them by less original but more plodding men. The English, though, as Malte Brun observes, they are still without a system of geography which deserves the name, are rich in excellent materials, which have been supplied by the extent of their dominions and their commerce in various parts of the globe; by their laudable and happy union of conquest, commerce, and science; and by the advantage which Dalrymple, Arrowsmith, and other geographers have derived from these circumstances. The French, Russians, Spaniards, Danes, and indeed most nations of Europe, sensible of the vast importance of accurate maps, especially such as relate to their respective territories, have contributed to render them much more accurate than they formerly were; so that at present there is scarcely any part of the globe, which has been visited by sea or land, of-which we do not possess accurate maps; and no sooner has the labour of any traveller filled up a void, or corrected an error, than the map of the country which he has visited becomes more full and accurate.

The most direct and perfect application of mathematical and astronomical science to the delineation of the surface of the globe, so as to ascertain its exact form, and the exact extent of degrees of latitude in different parts of it, has been made by the English and French; and much to their honour, by them in conjunction. The first modern measurement of degrees of latitude was made by an Englishman of the name of Norwood: he ascertained the difference of latitude between London and York in 1635, and then measured their distance: from these premises he calculated, that the length of a degree was 122,399 English yards. At this time there was no reason to suppose that the earth was flattened at the Poles. Shortly afterwards, it having been discovered that the weights of bodies were less at the equator than at Paris, Huygens and Cassini directed their attention, as we have already stated, to the subject of the figure of the earth. In 1670 Picard measured an arc of the meridian in France; and in 1718, the whole area extending through France was measured by Cassini and other philosophers. The results of this measurement seemed to disprove Newton's theory, that the curvature of the earth diminished as we recede from the equator. To remove all doubts, an arc near the equator was measured in Peru, by some French and Spanish astronomers; and an arc near the arctic circle by some French and Swedish astronomers; the result was a confirmation of Newton's theory, and that the equatorial diameter exceeded the polar by about 1/204 part of the whole.

Since this period, arcs of the meridian have been measured in several countries. In 1787 it was determined by the British and French governments to connect the observatories of Greenwich and Paris by a series of triangles, and to compare the differences of latitudes and longitudes, ascertained by astronomical observations, with those ascertained by actual measurement. The measurement in England was extended to a survey of the whole kingdom; and the accurate maps thus obtained have been since published. Arcs of the meridian have also been measured lately from Dunkirk to Barcelona,—in Lapland, by which an error in the former measurement there was corrected;—and in India.

We have been thus particular in our notice of this subject, because it is evident that such measurements must lie at the foundation of all real improvements in the construction of maps.

Let us next turn our attention to the improvements in navigation which have taken place during the last and present centuries; these seem to consist, principally, in those which are derived from physical science, and those which are derived from other sources.

The grand objects of a navigator are the accurate knowledge of where he exactly is, in any part of his course, and how he ought to steer, in order to reach his destination in the shortest time. The means of ascertaining his latitude and longitude, of calculating how far he has sailed, and at what rate he is sailing, and the direction of his course with reference to the port to which he is desirous to proceed, are what he principally requires. We do not intend, by any means, to enter at any length, or systematically, on these subjects; but a brief and popular notice of them seems proper and necessary in such a work as this.

Astronomy here comes essentially to the aid of navigation: we have already seen how, even in the rudest state of the latter, it derived its chief assistance from this sublime science, confined as it then was to a knowledge of the position of a few stars. Astronomy enables the navigator to ascertain his latitude and longitude, and to find the variation of the compass. The principal difficulty in ascertaining the latitude at sea, arose from the unsteady motion of the ship: to remedy this, several instruments were invented. We have already alluded to the astrolobe; but this, as well as the others, were imperfect and objectionable, till such time as Hadley's quadrant was invented, the principle and uses of which were first suggested by Newton.

To ascertain the longitude was a much more difficult task: there are evidently two methods of doing this,—by time-keepers or chronometers, and by making the motions of the celestial bodies serve instead of time-keepers. About the middle of the seventeenth century, Huygens proposed the pendulum clock for finding the longitude at sea; but it was unfit for the purpose, for many and obvious reasons. Watches, even made with the utmost care, were found to be too irregular in their rate of going, to be depended upon for this purpose. In the reign of Queen Anne the celebrated act was passed, appropriating certain sums for encouraging attempts to ascertain the longitude. Stimulated by this, Mr. Harrison invented his time-keeper, which on trial was found to answer the purpose with such tolerable accuracy, that he was deemed worthy to receive the sum awarded by parliament: it went within the limit of an error of thirty miles of longitude, or two minutes of time, in a voyage to the West Indies. Since this period, chronometers have been much improved, and excellent ones are very generally used: perhaps the most trying circumstances in which any were ever placed, existed during the voyage for the discovery of a northwest passage by Captain Parry; and then most of those he had with him were found to be extremely accurate.

It is evident, however, that chronometers are liable to a variety of accidents, and that in very long voyages the means of verifying their rate of going seldom occur. Hence the lunar method, or the method of ascertaining the longitude by means of the motions of the moon, is more useful and valuable. Here again, the profoundest researches of Clairaut, Euler, D'Alembert, and La Place, were brought practically to bear on navigation. Guided and aided by these, Tobias Mayer, of Gottingen, compiled a set of solar and lunar tables, which were sent to the lords of the admiralty, in the year 1755; they gave the longitude of the moon within thirty seconds. They were afterwards improved by Dr. Maskelyne and Mr. Mason, and still more lately by Burg and Burckhardt; the error of these last tables will seldom exceed fifteen seconds, or seven miles and a half. The computations, however, necessary in making use of these tables, were found to be very laborious and inconvenient; to obviate this difficulty, the nautical almanack, suggested by Dr. Maskelyne, was published, which is now annually continued. The longitude is thus ascertained to such a nicety, as to secure the navigator from any danger arising from the former imperfect modes of finding it; "he is now enabled to make for his port without sailing into the parallel of latitude, and then, in the seaman's phrase, running down the port, on the parallel, as was done before this method was practised. Fifty years ago, navigators did not attempt to find their longitude at sea, unless by their reckoning, which was hardly ever to be depended on."