 |
On arrival at the sugar mills it was skinned, the skin becoming the property of the manager, and the natives disposed of the flesh. The animal proved to be a tigress, and evidently had young cubs, as she had a quantity of milk. This the Chinese coolies were very eager to secure, as it is by them considered to be a valuable medicine. We never heard whether any more tigers were caught in this trap.
The ordinary method, however, adopted for catching tigers is by means of pits, which are dug from twelve to fifteen feet in depth, and somewhat pyramidal in form. Sometimes pointed stakes are fixed in the bottom of the pit. The mouth is covered over with light brushwood, and when convenient, a tree is felled and laid a few feet from it across the tiger's track, so that the animal in leaping off the tree adds impetus to his own weight in falling into the trap.
The trouble of digging these pits is not so slight as might be supposed, as the construction of a pit in the proper manner fully occupies a couple of convicts a fortnight, besides the risk of being interrupted in their labour by the tiger happening to encounter them, and, naturally enough, on finding the work they were engaged upon, testifying his displeasure at the treachery they were meditating against him by making a meal of them.
An Indian sportsman wrote to the Singapore Free Press, at the time when so many Chinese were being destroyed at Singapore, saying:—
"I have been accustomed to tiger hunting in India, but the same mode could not be adopted here, the jungle being of a different character. Indeed, the only plan which is likely to be attended with success is by setting traps; and it is to be regretted that the local Government did not long since take some pains to prove this to the cultivators. Had this been done, many lives might have been spared." The Chinese were evidently delighted at the interest shown by the European gentlemen on the last occasion, and it is to be hoped that they will exert themselves to rid the island of tigers by this means.
While the ravages of tigers were destructive of human life on land, crocodiles were almost equally as mischievous on the coast and in the rivers, and many Chinese and other natives fell a prey to their voracity. Sometimes bathers were attacked; at other times fishermen, shrimp catchers, and oyster divers were carried off or attacked by them. Some crocodiles, like some tigers, have a peculiar partiality to human flesh, and often display remarkable ingenuity in gratifying their appetites. Regular man-eater crocodiles existed in some of the rivers in the Straits Settlements, notably in the rivers in Province Wellesley; but many were found also in the rivers in Singapore and Malacca, as well as on the sea coast. Some of these man-eaters were very bold, and would attack natives in their canoes, sometimes getting under the canoe and upsetting it in order to devour the occupants. Cases have been known of persons being snatched out of boats. A case of this kind happened in the Prye River, in Province Wellesley. The supervisor in charge of the public works was proceeding in a ferry boat with some convicts to repair the boundary pillar, situated some distance up the river, when suddenly a splash was heard, and his convict orderly, who was squatting in the bow of the sampan, or boat, uttering a cry, stood up, at the same time pointing to the stern of the boat. Upon looking round, a Chinaman, who had been seated in the stern of the boat, was found to be missing. A crocodile had, as it were, shot up out of the water, and, seizing the Chinaman by the waist, had drawn him down into the river, and nothing more was seen of them at the time. Shortly afterwards, a canoe with a Malay man and his wife in it was upset near the same spot by a crocodile, and both of them disappeared. A little later a Kling, who had been in the habit of diving for mud oysters near Qualla Prye Ferry for many years, and had repeatedly been cautioned about his danger in doing so, was missed, and it was ascertained that he had been seen diving for oysters as usual, and had suddenly disappeared, and had not been seen to come up again.
This sort of thing went on for some time, and the crocodiles could not be caught. At last the convicts stationed at Prye town convict lines succeeded in capturing a large crocodile, and this is how they managed it. They prepared a bait by tying a strong hook underneath the body of a pariah dog. One end of a piece of light iron chain[17] was fastened to this hook; the other end was fastened to a log of very light wood as a buoy. They then went in a boat to that part of the river where the greater number of casualties had occurred. Here they drifted about, at the same time pinching the dog's ears and otherwise tormenting him to make him yelp. After watching the surface of the water for some time, they descried the V mark on the water indicating the approach of a crocodile; then, throwing the dog and buoy overboard, they pulled away for some distance to watch the result.. They saw the crocodile rapidly approaching the dog, who was swimming for his life. Suddenly there was a howl, and the dog disappeared. Then they watched the buoy, which would sometimes disappear under the water and then rise again to the surface; and in this manner they traced the crocodile, and followed him into a small creek, where he crawled on shore; and there they dispatched him with musket balls. This crocodile measured fourteen feet from the tip of his nose to the end of his tail, and was said to be the largest specimen captured at that time, but they have been known to reach from eighteen to twenty feet in length. Upon opening him a human leg and a pair of Chinaman's trousers were discovered, and it was concluded that this was one of the man-eaters.
[Footnote 17: Shreds of tough rope are better.]
As an illustration of the effect of shock upon the human system at the sight of wild beasts, we may mention a case of a Malay fisherman who was shrimping on the bar at the mouth of the Krian River (Province Wellesley), when a crocodile approached him from behind and seized him by the thigh. The Malay drew his parang and hacked away at the creature's nose until he let go. Some convicts stationed at Nebong Tubal and a Malay police peon saw what was happening and put off in a boat to his assistance. They rescued the poor fellow, and the police conveyed him at once by boat to the hospital at Butterworth, where his wounds, which were not very serious, were attended to; but the shock to the nervous system was so great that the man lost his reason, and would constantly leave his cot and walk down the hospital ward, moving his hands up and down, as if in the act of shrimping. He died shortly after. A similar case of shock, and a well-known story in the Straits Settlements, occurred in Province Wellesley, but this was from a tiger. A Roman Catholic priest was returning to his house after breakfasting with a planter at Alma, and when passing through some tall "lalang" grass a tiger suddenly sprang out into the path a few yards in front of him. The priest, with great presence of mind, suddenly opened his Chinese umbrella in the face of the tiger; the animal gave a leap round to one side, and the priest repeated the umbrella movement. The tiger then gave another leap round to the other side, and the umbrella action was again performed. This was renewed till the tiger, who evidently was not hungry, and had taken alarm, made a disappointed growl and bounded away into the high lalang grass, and the priest hastened on his way home. On reaching his house he took a cold bath, to brace up his nerves as he said; but the next day he was confined to his bed, and died a fortnight after the event, due entirely, it was said, to the shock that he had sustained.
* * * * *
No. 8
As we have already intimated, the house of correction at Singapore was under the management and control of the Convict Department; and there were frequently from thirty to forty Europeans confined in this prison, chiefly seamen on short sentences for neglect of duty on board ship.
When Sir Robert McClure was commanding a vessel of war[18] in Chinese waters about 1859, his ship was on the Singapore station for some little time; and upon his arrival he sent in to the house of correction a very incorrigible man-of-war's man named John —— (we will not give his surname, for he may be yet alive). This man had been several times punished while the ship was in China, and had been twice sentenced to be flogged. We heard all about him from the officer of the ship who had brought him ashore.
[Footnote 18: H.M.S. Esk.]
His sentence was three weeks' imprisonment: the first week in solitary confinement on bread and water, and congee or rice gruel diet. Upon his receipt into the prison, after the usual routine, he was placed in one of the penal cells, and bread and water set before him. Before the cell door was closed, he looked hard at the chief warder, saying, "Take away that filth; I won't eat it." The chief warder reported to the Superintendent that the man in the cells was a dangerous-looking character, and he was afraid we should have trouble with him, for he had never seen a man with such a hang-dog look. The morning of the second day he had touched neither bread nor water, though fresh had been given him, and in a churlish manner he said to the chief warder, who had remonstrated with him, "I'll eat the tail of my shirt first, before I eat what you bring me." The doctor visited him, and made his report to the Superintendent that he was a strong man, and in excellent health, and that he might be safely left until hunger obliged him to eat, but that he would see him twice a day.
Upon the afternoon of the second day the Superintendent himself, upon his inspecting the prisoners in the penal cells, entered this prisoner's cell, and the following dialogue ensued: "What is your name?" "What is that to you?" "But I am the Superintendent of this jail, and I ask you a simple question, and I want a simple answer." Then looking at the Superintendent with a disrespectful air the prisoner said, "Look at my warrant if you want to know it." "But I want to hear it from yourself." "Well, if it is any satisfaction to you, my name is John ——" The Superintendent then said, "Now I want to know what part of England you come from." "Well, what do you want to know that for? but I say again, if it is any satisfaction to you, I come from Saltash." "So you are a Cornishman, are you?" replied the Superintendent. "I know Saltash very well. It is a fine old place. And I know the Viaduct, and the cottages over against it. I wonder if you were born there in one of those cottages? Perhaps you were, and have a mother now living there; and if you have, and she knew that her son was now in an Indian jail, you would break that old woman's heart, that you would." This ended the conversation, and the cell door was shut.
Late in the evening the chief warder sent a special messenger to the Superintendent's quarters, asking him to visit the prison before nightfall, for the prisoner in the cells from the man-of-war in the harbour had something to communicate. So before it was yet very dark the Superintendent went down, and the cell door being opened, and the bull's-eye lantern turned upon the man, the Superintendent at once noticed a change in the countenance of his prisoner, for the reckless, devil-may-care expression had shifted, and as if by some good influence within. "Well, you sent for me, and I have come; what do you want?" said the Superintendent. Then in a faltering voice, and with tears in his eyes, the prisoner said, "I only want to say, sir, before I go to sleep, that you are the first man that has ever overcome me, for you spoke to me of my 'mother'; and now, sir, you can do anything you like with me, and I'll carry out my sentence properly, and go back aboard my ship and do my duty as a British sailor ought to do."
And he did; and after his release went in the ship on to Bombay, from whence the Superintendent heard from Sir Robert McClure that John —— was as well behaved a man as he had on board, and that the treatment he had received in the Singapore jail had quite altered his nature, and he would like to know the prescription for it.
Very often, when a long course of positive punishment has ceased to have its effect, a contrary treatment may lead to quite a change in the character, and if anything will touch the heart of a vicious Briton, it is to bring him to think upon the early counsels of a godly mother.
Chapter XI
ABOLITION OF THE CONVICT DEPARTMENT AND DISPOSAL OF THE CONVICTS
On the separation of the Straits Settlements from British India in 1867, it was arranged that the Indian life convicts at Singapore should be transferred to Port Blair in the Andaman Islands. In the course of correspondence which took place on the subject, His Excellency the Governor of the Straits Settlements proposed, in respect of those convicts who were to continue in the Straits, that a liberal use of the power of pardon should be made in the case of such convicts, the nature of whose crimes and whose subsequent character warranted it.
The Government of India agreed to this proposal, with the proviso that pardon should be conditional on convicts not returning to India, or in the case of Burmese to Burmah, without the special sanction in each case of the Government of India; and that this sanction would not be given in any cases in which the crime was "Thuggee" or "Dacoity," or robbery by administering poisonous drugs, or other form of organized crime, or in the case of mutiny or rebellion accompanied with murder.
Accordingly, the Straits Government authorities submitted lists of convicts whom they recommended for pardon. After consulting the local governments concerned, the Government of India issued orders in each case, authorizing the release and return to India of some of the convicts, granting conditional pardon to others, and refusing release on any account to the remainder.
This decision did not commend itself to the Straits Government, and His Excellency the Governor suggested the deputation of a special officer from India to inquire into the matter.
Mr. Brodhurst, of the Bengal Civil Service, was accordingly deputed. This officer extended his inquiries to the cases of other convicts brought specially to his notice by the Straits Government; and on receipt of his report, the Government of India granted unconditional releases in certain cases, while in others the convicts were pardoned conditionally on their not leaving the Straits.
On this representation by the Straits Government, His Excellency the Governor-General in Council, having reconsidered the subject, decided that any Indian or Burmese, who had completed twenty-five years' imprisonment and bore a good character, should be released, with permission to return to India or Burmah, provided he, or she, as the case might be, was not convicted of one of the offences enumerated below, viz.:—
1. Thuggee.
2. Dacoity.
3. Professional poisoning.
4. Belonging to a gang of Dacoits.
5. Belonging to a gang of Thugs.
6. Mutiny or rebellion with murder.
Of those who did not come under this category, some were pardoned unconditionally; others were released after they had completed twenty-five years' imprisonment, on condition that their conduct continued satisfactory. Of those who were pardoned unconditionally many returned to their own country; but when they arrived there they found things so uncongenial that they returned to the Straits and settled down as shopkeepers, cowkeepers, cartmen, etc., and most of them sought and obtained employment either with private individuals or in the Public Works Department. Several of the skilled artificers, who had been petty officers, were employed as sub-assistant overseers and gangers on public works, where their services proved to be of great utility, their prison training having rendered them much more to be relied upon than free men, and, as far as we have been able to ascertain, none of them have been reconvicted.
Of the total number of convicts in the Straits at the time when the convict establishment was broken up in 1873—
256 had been transported for Thuggee.
581 " " " " Dacoity.
21 " " " " Professional poisoning.
269 " " " " Robbery with murder, including highway robbery and gang robbery. ——- 1,127
The remainder were nearly all for murder, for being accomplices in murder, or for robbery with violence, and for felony.
Chapter XII
DISEASES AND MALINGERING
Perhaps a few observations on the principal diseases to which these Indian convicts were liable may be found useful; and we take for the purpose the statistics of the year 1863-64 as given in Appendix No. 2, when nostalgia did not occur. In alluding to these diseases, we shall at the same time notice the locality of the Singapore jail, and the composition of the soil on which it was built. It is now universally recognised that the soil on which communities reside continuously does in a measure influence their health.
So many works on hygiene have, however, been written, and so much has been said by medical experts on this subject, that we may almost say that it has been exhaustively treated. What we wish to show is simply that soil and locality do not influence all communities alike.
The site of the Singapore jail in Brass Basa Road was originally a piece of low ground saturated with brackish water; and the convicts themselves were, as we have elsewhere stated, employed in conveying red earth from the side of Government Hill to reclaim most of this marsh, in order to erect thereon the necessary buildings for their occupation. The site had to be raised from two to four feet, and the red earth was what might be called disintegrated laterite or clay ironstone. When the finished level was completed, it was about two feet above high water mark S.T. The surface of the enclosure had been so thoroughly trodden down, rolled, and graded to the drains and into the adjoining canal, that, with the periodical coatings of pure white sand from the Serangoon sand pits that had been laid over it, it had become almost impervious to water; and this we would notice particularly, for it had much to do with the sanitary condition of the jail and its inmates.
The dormitories were further raised slightly over two feet above the general surface, and their floors were carefully laid, so as literally to be as dry as a bone.
From Appendix No. 2 it will be seen that the principal disease from which these Indian convicts suffered was "fever," but not of a dangerous type; for, upon comparing the admissions to hospital with the deaths from this disease in all three settlements during the year referred to, we find that in Singapore and Penang they were nil, and but seven in Malacca. The next ailment which presented numerous cases were abscesses and ulcers, and the deaths from this cause amounted only to one in Singapore. Many of these ulcers were on the legs, and were caused by grit getting between the skin and the leather band worn under the fetter rings of convicts in the fourth and fifth classes. Stomach and bowel complaints rank next on the list, but we find that the deaths here only amounted to units. Rheumatic affections were numerous, caused perhaps in that damp climate from working on extra-mural duties and returning to jail in wet clothes with the wind blowing on them. A few cases of dropsy appear on the list, the largest number occurring in Penang, three only at Singapore. There were ordinary cases of oedema.
The death-rate to strength per cent, from ordinary diseases for the year given was 2.20 for Singapore, 3.82 for Penang, and 3.17 for Malacca. Perhaps the special attention to sanitation in Singapore may account for the death-rate being lower here than at the sister settlements.
After the convict jail had been broken up, and the convicts had all left it, the jail was handed over to the prison authorities to be converted into a criminal prison for the whole settlements. Not long after this change had taken place a very peculiar disease broke out amongst the inmates. It was known as Beri-beri, or, as some call it, the "Bad sickness of Ceylon." It is a very serious disease, and some think it arises from extreme exertion without sufficient sustenance to the body. In 1878 the ratio of mortality in the prison had risen to 16.20 per cent.; in 1879 it was further augmented to 20.63 per cent. The Local Government deemed it necessary without delay to appoint a Committee of Inquiry into the possible causes which had given rise to the spread of this disease. The conclusion at which they arrived was that it was due to the want of proper drainage of the site, so that the soil had got water-logged, and had generated malaria; also, that the prisoners needed a more nitrogenous diet. They advised the erection of an entirely new prison on a better and more elevated locality. These suggestions were all adopted, and the Committee in their judgment were greatly aided by Dr. Irvine Rowell, C.M.G., the Principal Civil Medical Officer, who formed one of the Committee.
There was no time lost by the Government with the Colonial Engineer (Major McNair) in preparing plans and erecting on the west side of Pearl's Hill, near the old civil jail, a prison on the cellular system, and after the most approved English model; but the change of site did not effectually remove the disease, for as late as the year 1884 "there were 262 cases under treatment. In the first nine months of that year the deaths were comparatively small, but during the latter three months they increased, constituting nearly one half of the total deaths during that period." Dr. Kerr attributed this increase to exacerbation in the type, and epidemicity of the disease.
It is not necessary, nor is it within our province, to attempt a description in detail of this disease; and happily it is mostly confined to Ceylon and the Malay Archipelago, though it occurs occasionally in China and Japan, where in the former country it is known as "Tseng," and in the latter as "Kak-ki." It is referred to in a book we have quoted in the body of this work, viz., that written by "Godinho de Eredia" in 1613, reproduced by M. Leon Janssen in 1882. It is called there bere-bere, which in the Malay language signifies a "sheep," or a "bird which buries its eggs in the sand," and is not now known by the Malays under that name, as far as we can gather, as a "disease." Godinho de Eredia says that the Malays cured it by the use of a wine made from the nipa palm, from whence we know a saccharine fermentable juice exudes from the cut spadices of this and other species. They call this juice "tuaca." Marco Polo alludes to the same wine in his second book, chapter xxv.
Some authorities say it arises from malarious exhalations, favoured by damp, or over-crowding in buildings improperly ventilated. To this latter cause we are inclined to attribute the outbreak in the Singapore prison; for when the prison was occupied by the Indian convicts, the area of open space round the different wards and buildings was well exposed to the action of sun and wind, but after its conversion into a criminal prison, this open space was divided off by high division walls, and for the purpose of shot drill and work sheds the enclosure was still further crowded. Perhaps the disturbance also of the soil may have had something to do with it, for we have known instances in the town where the excavation of subsoils had liberated noxious gases.
It was, however, very remarkable that during the period of over twenty-five years when this jail was occupied by the Indian convicts, not a single case of beri-beri was known to have occurred. The medical officers were quite unable to account for this, and of its non-occurrence in other parts of the town.
The Rev. Wallace Taylor, M.D., of Osaka in Japan, attributed the disease to a microscopic spore found largely developed in rice, and which he had also detected in the earth of certain alluvial and damp localities.
FEIGNED DISEASES
The question of feigned diseases should find a place in a work treating upon convicts, for amongst a number of natives in confinement—and indeed also amongst European prisoners where—regular work is insisted upon, and idleness in any is severely punished, it is but natural that some should be found to resort to expedients to escape work, or, in other words, to malinger.
Perhaps the most frequent cases of convicts in irons was the encouraging of sores round the ankles, where the iron rings of their fetters were placed; and this was done, notwithstanding the precaution always taken to guard the ankles with leathern bands for the rings to rest upon. When suspicion was attached to a convict in irons that he was tampering with his leg sores, he was at once detailed to work with the gang beating out coir from cocoanut husks: it involved no use of the legs, but it was the hardest of labours. The result was that the convict soon gave up the trick, and begged to return to outdoor work with his own gang. Of course there were cases where convicts working on roads or at sand pits may get grit below their leathers, which, without knowing it at the time, would cause a sore; but such cases were readily distinguished from those sores wilfully caused and designedly kept open.
We had no cases of feigned insanity or any species of mania, but cases of imitated "moon blindness," or dim-sightedness, did occur now and again for the purpose of shirking night watch.
Upon one occasion we had a remarkable instance of shamming blind, which is worth giving in detail. The case was that of a life convict transported from Madras, who complained that lime had suddenly got into both of his eyes while employed at the lime kilns. It was deemed by the medical authorities as not unnatural that he should become blind from caustic quick-lime, and he was admitted into the convalescent gang, where he had only the simple and easy task of picking oakum. The deceit was as cleverly kept up for years as it was cleverly commenced at the outset, and was only detected by Dr. Cowpar, a hard-headed Scotchman and skilful surgeon, who, during the absence of the permanent incumbent, had been appointed by the Government to officiate as medical officer of the jail. After his inspection of the invalids in the convalescent gang, he looked at the eyes of the "blind man"; and, having some suspicion in his mind, he decided that he should be put aside for closer examination. When the inspection was over, the "blind man" was taken, and carefully led by the peon in charge of the gang to one of the long wards, when he was told to walk up and down in the presence of the doctor. After he had made two or three trips, the doctor directed two men to hold a long pole about a foot off the ground on the track he had to pass. When he came to the pole he fell over it flat on his face, and to the bystanders it seemed rather an inhuman proceeding on the part of the doctor, but he had observed an ominous pause before the convict had struck the pole with his legs.
He sent for his case of instruments, and, withdrawing a probe, he with little difficulty removed the film off both of the man's eyes, which proved to be nothing more nor less than the thin membrane found inside an egg, which the convict had artfully introduced, and renewed from time to time. Of course he was reduced to the fifth class, and to the hardest labour.
We have often thought it strange that none of his fellow-convicts appeared to suspect him, or if they did, they kept it back from the jail authorities; and certainly to any casual observer the deception was complete, and it was the best case of feigned blindness we have ever known or heard of.
Upon the whole, however, cases of malingering were few and far between, as most of the convicts became after a time interested in the works upon which they were engaged, and those in irons were ever on the look-out for promotion to a higher class. Sometimes there was a case of feigned rheumatism or paralysis, but the application of the galvanic battery invariably cured them of that after a few powerful shocks.
Chapter XIII
CONCLUSION
We have now given a full, and, as far as we could, a succinct account of the system pursued in the old Singapore jail. We have traced the history of the convict establishments in all the penal settlements in those seas, and have shown the progressive improvements in the convict prisons up to the time when, as was acknowledged by many competent authorities, a system of organization and discipline had been satisfactorily attained to, especially at the headquarter jail at Singapore. We have also shown the number and variety of industries that were from time to time introduced, and the utilization of trained artificers in the construction of important public works in the Straits Settlements.
Perhaps we may say that the conduct of these prisons from the year 1825, down to 1845, was in a measure experimental; but at any time we do not assert that the system was free from defects. But on the whole, in the treatment of these trans-marine convicts, it worked with remarkable success, and was well adapted to their condition and circumstances; for it must not be forgotten that we had to deal with convicts who in great part had expiated their crimes by a sentence of banishment to a foreign country, which we have already explained was more severely felt by a native of India than could possibly be by any European. As a matter of fact, owing to caste prejudices, transportation across the seas was to many of the Indian convicts worse than death itself, for it carried with it not only expulsion from caste, but, owing to their wrong conception of fate, or "nusseeb" as they call it, a dread of pain and anguish in another existence.
In the later management of this jail, to all fresh arrivals for life there was a period of probation of three years, during which time they were fettered and worked in gangs upon the public roads. This was thoroughly punitive, and with no liberty whatever. They were, in point of fact, full of fears and practically without hope. After a time, they began to find that the only chance of any amelioration from this hard labour was by a course of good conduct; and they saw before them their own countrymen, who had once been similarly circumstanced, occupying better positions and employed on less distasteful work. They also heard from their fellows that several had attained to a ticket of leave, and were earning for themselves an honest livelihood in the place of their banishment. This, then, was their encouragement; but not a few at first, however, though carefully treated in hospital, died from "nostalgia," or "love of country," before they could complete their term of probation.
The late General, then Captain Man, who, as we have already said, did a great deal in the consolidation of the convict system of Singapore, went from the Straits Settlements to the Andamans, and inaugurated there the same system; but we learn that since his time convicts upon first arrival from India are placed for a certain period in separate cells, and no doubt the authorities had good and weighty reasons for the change. We have no report as to the advantage or otherwise of this probationary alteration, but from what we have said, it will be seen that we incline to the belief that for this class of native convicts work in irons upon the public roads is a better "first trial" than to place them under what is known to us as the "cellular system."
For local prisoners, who after their sentences have expired are returned to the town, we do advocate the "cellular system," and have ourselves designed and built for term convicts several wards upon this system. The advantage gained is complete isolation from one another for a fixed period, and the indiscriminate admixture of classes thus avoided, and so possibly by this means a recrudescence of crime in the place prevented; but with convicts under banishment, and mostly for a life term, we think the conditions are very different, and we prefer the plan adopted in the old Singapore convict jail.
The punishments in force by our laws are of course designed to deal out retributive justice to the prisoner for his offence against society, and so to prevent, if possible, a repetition of the offence by others, and by this means to protect society against evil-doers. There is no wish to punish with any vindictive feeling, but rather, if it can be done, to bring about the reform of the prisoner, and to take away from him the desire to offend again; and as "Beccaria," the Italian philanthropist, well said, "those penalties are least likely to be productive of good effect which are more severe than is necessary to deter others."
In the later days of our Singapore convict jail, of which time only are we in a position to express an opinion, the treatment of the convicts was one of discipline from beginning to end. There was first the probationary period under fetters, in gangs upon the public roads, or upon the severest hard labour; next the period of freedom from this restraint and a time of test, and if they stood this test well, then advancement to a position of trust, either on the lower rung of the prison warder-staff, with a belt of authority across the shoulder, or, if an aptitude for any trade was evinced, to the position of a novice in the workyard, at whatever branch of industry the convict was thought to be best suited. There was then open to the prison warder a rise in grade to that of peon, with a distinctive badge, and eventually to the highest grade of a tindal or duffadar, if duly qualified. In the case of the industrial class there was also open a promotion to a higher grade, and eventually to that of a foreman of artificers. All were fully occupied and employed, and the jail was in point of fact a busy hive of industry, the pervading idea of the convict authorities being to teach the convict to love labour, and to take a personal interest in it.
We know that there are still some who think that no prisoner, while undergoing his sentence, should be allowed to feel any pleasure in the occupation in which he may be engaged; and hence they advocate the crank, shot drill, and other aimless tasks, which serve but to irritate, and do not the least good to the heart, from whence all our actions spring. For a short term of probation, no doubt, the task should be irksome; but when this is over and it should not be prolonged work should be given which would tend to call out the best feelings, restore self-respect, and act as a sort of cordial to remove lowering and depression. To explain by a homely instance what we mean, we will mention an incident that occurred to one of us when building the Woking prison in 1866. A convict undergoing sentence there, of the labouring class, was found to be of an exceptionally dogged and dull nature. Nothing pleased him; he was disgusted with the world, and wished he was out of it. After a time he was tried at plain brick-laying in a foundation, and gradually began to handle a brick rather well. He seemed to grow step by step more reconciled to his lot, and was advanced to work upon a chimney-piece. A day or two later he was asked how he was getting on. He then replied, with a bright smile upon his face, "Oh, very well, sir, now! I likes my chimbley-piece, and dreams of her at nights in my lonely cell."
Hence we see how the implacable temper of this convict gave way over a congenial bit of work, and the first step was thus taken towards his reformation of character, and he continued to improve until his release from prison.
Herbert Spencer says with truth, "that experience and experiments have shown all over the world that the most successful criminal discipline is a discipline of decreased restraints and increased self dependence"; and to a degree of this "self dependence" the convict we refer to had been encouraged to aspire.
Of course, in all criminal prisons we must expect a certain percentage of incorrigible characters, who under the best training cannot be brought under control; but the bulk of those in the old Singapore jail, and we had often as many as two thousand at a time, were well behaved, and gave evidence of the good influence of a course of discipline upon them; for when they were advanced to a ticket-of-leave, and thrown again on their own resources, they very rarely a second time came under the cognisance of the police, but peaceably merged into the population, and earned their livelihood by honest means.
We have one word to say in reference to the employment of these convicts as warders over their fellow-prisoners; a system, so far as we are aware, then unattempted either in Europe or America, even in a modified form. We do not, however, see why, in the case of well-behaved and suitable European convicts sentenced to long periods of penal servitude, some might not be placed in certain such positions of trust under free warders; and as the new prison rules for our jails may possibly involve a large increase in the warder staff, it has occurred to us that the system might have a trial to a limited extent; but we are, of course, not in a position to speak with any authority upon the subject as affecting our own prisons. In our case, with the exception of two or three European warders, the whole warder staff were convicts; and at first, certainly, there was the fear that so large a number of convict warders might side with the convicts, when a rule they might have thought repugnant to all, was introduced by the governing body. There also appeared the danger that discipline might be undermined by a system of favouritism, especially amongst men of the same caste, or that they would shut their eyes to breaches of the rules.
None of these apprehensions were, however, experienced; but, on the contrary, these convict warders were always the first to apprise the authorities of any contemplated attempt at escape, or of any ill-feeling that might be brewing amongst any particular class, or breach of prison rules; so that, in a great measure, they acted in the double capacity of both detectives and police. It was only upon very rare occasions that a convict warder had to be disrated; and the punishment amongst them consisted for the most part in fines for want of vigilance and attention to detail, and such like petty offences. They all manifested the highest appreciation of the trust reposed in them, and lived in a perpetual fear that they might forfeit their position, and have to begin anew the whole course of jail punishment.
It need scarcely be said that great care was exercised to single out men of the best character, and to the highest posts those who could take upon themselves responsibility as men of purpose and discretion. Promotion in the different grades was made only by the Superintendent, who in our case was an officer who had served in India, knew natives of most sects and races, and was acquainted with their habits and customs, and spoke one or two of their languages.
The prison system in all its branches worked in perfect harmony, and all the parts of it seemed to be adapted to each other. Discipline was maintained throughout, and the artificer gang, as we have shown, developed a high skill in their various trades; so that important public works could be executed without difficulty or embarrassment. Those also who had passed through its course, and were admitted back to society upon a ticket of leave, as a rule behaved themselves as good citizens.
In the extraction of labour from the convicts, there was no desire on the part of the Government to work the establishment with a view to show any pecuniary profit in the returns; though, as it proved, the actual cost to the State was often more than reimbursed by their labour, estimated as it was at two-thirds of that prevailing in the place, and the material at half the market price. However, in regard to this part of the question we might here quote "Jeremy Bentham," who once wisely said of prison labour, "It is not the less reforming for being profitable."
We would now take leave of our old Singapore jail, as indeed, owing to the result of the earnest entreaty of the community to the Government, it finally took leave of us in 1873, though in our judgment perhaps a little too prematurely in the best interests of the colony.
We can only hope that in the record we have now given, we have furnished some suggestions for general application to those who, like ourselves, are concerned not merely with the punishment of the criminal, but also with his reformation, both as a question of social science, and to the prisoner's own ulterior benefit.
This reformation could, we think, be best brought about by a course of severe probationary discipline at the outset, to be followed up by continuous employment upon productive occupations and trades, so as to encourage within the criminal a lively diligence and a persevering industry; ourselves meanwhile also encouraged in the task by the words of Shakespeare, that
"There is some soul of goodness in things evil, Would men observingly distil it out."
King Henry V., Act. iv., Scene i.
APPENDICES
APPENDIX I
Statement of the expenses of the convict jail in Singapore for the years 1862-63 and 1863-64, showing the average cost per prisoner:—
Heads of Expenditure. 1,964 Prisoners in 1862-63. 1,995 Prisoners in 1863-64.
1862-63. 1863-64. ———— ———— Rs. Rs. Rations 67,803 9 10 62,901 0 10 Money Allowance 20,938 13 8 19,369 14 3 ——————— ——————— Total 88,742 7 6 82,270 15 1 Cost per Prisoner 45 2 11 41 3 10
Fixed Establishment 16,094 1 0 11,173 1 5 Cost per Prisoner 8 3 1 5 9 7 Extra Establishment nil. nil. Cost per Prisoner " " ——————— ——————— Total 16,094 1 0 11,173 1 5 Cost per Prisoner 8 3 1 5 9 7
Hospital Charges European Medicines } Bazaar ditto } 472 13 0 454 10 4 Sick Diet } ——————— ——————— Total 472 13 0 454 10 4 Cost per Prisoner 0 3 10 0 3 7 1/2
Clothing, including Blankets and Bedding 8,699 14 6 8,250 14 4 Cost per Prisoner 4 6 11 4 2 2 Contingencies 3,235 3 1 4,407 5 3 Cost per Prisoner 1 10 4 2 3 4 1/2 Additions, Alterations, and Repairs 100 12 2 51 8 8 Cost per Prisoner 0 0 10 0 0 5 ——————— ——————— Gross Cost of Maintenance 17,345 3 3 106,608 7 1 Gross Cost per Prisoner 59 11 11 53 7 0
The above table gives a fair average of the annual cost of maintenance of each prisoner as taken from the records of the jail.
APPENDIX II
Return of the Hospital Department of prisoners in jails in Singapore, Penang and Province Wellesley, and Malacca, from 1st May, 1863, to 30th April, 1864, exhibiting the average strength, number of admissions of sick, number of deaths, etc., in each jail during the year, and the rate per cent.:—
——————————————————————————————————— Stations Singapore. Penang and Malacca. Total. Province Wellesley. ——————————————————————————————————— Average strength during the Year 2,400 1,150 661 4,211 ——————————————————————————————————— Admissions during the Year
Fevers 222 260 292 774 Eruptive Fevers 25 2 26 53
Diseases of the Lungs 30 55 63 148 Liver 9 — 1 10 Stomach and Bowels 81 216 93 390 Brain 12 19 41 72 Generative and Urinary Organs 51 23 24 98 Eyes 50 27 9 86 Skin 50 20 37 107
Cholera 3 — — 3 Dropsies 13 27 6 46 Rheumatic Affections 58 107 31 196 Abscesses and Ulcers 204 198 84 486 Wounds and Injuries 58 93 42 193 Other Diseases 181 47 32 260
Total 1,047 1,094 781 2,922 ——————————————————————————————————— Deaths during the Year
Fevers — — 7 7 Eruptive Fevers 7 1 3 11
Diseases of the Lungs 4 2 2 8 Liver 1 — — 1 Stomach and Bowels 6 9 4 19 Brain — 2 — 2 Generative and Urinary Organs — — — — Eyes — — — — Skin 3 — — 3
Cholera 2 — — 2 Dropsies 3 8 1 12 Rheumatic Affections 1 — 1 2 Abscesses and Ulcers 1 — — 1 Wounds and Injuries 2 1 — 3 Other Diseases 25 21 3 49
Total 55 44 21 120 ——————————————————————————————————— Discharged during the Year 943 1,012 742 2,697 Transfer during the Year — — — — Liberated during the Year — — — — Remaining 49 38 18 105 ——————————————————————————————————— Rate per cent.
Sick to Strength 43.62 95.1 118.45 69.43
Death by ordinary diseases to strength 2.20 3.82 3.17 2.802
Death by Cholera to strength 00.8 — — 004.74
Total Deaths to Strength 2.29 3.82 3.17 2.84 ———————————————————————————————————
The rate per cent. of the total deaths to strength at the three settlements may appear high, but it is accounted for by the number of old convicts dying off.
APPENDIX III
The following table gives the value of materials manufactured by convict labour; the money expenditure in addition to the convict labour on each item, and the difference in favour of the State for the years 1862-63 and 1863-64:—
————————————————————————- Value of Materials. ————————————————————————- 1862-63. Rs. Rs.
To value of Bricks 25,149 10
To value of Lime 600 9
To value of Cement 3,844 12
To value of Granite 2,058 10
To value of Weaver's Work 1,432 11
To value of Rattan Work 862 0 ————- 33,988 4 Deduct Expenditure 29,908 10 ————- Difference in favour of the State Rs. 4,074 10 ————————————————————————- Cost of Production. ————————————————————————- 1862-63. Rs. Rs.
Bricks By Convict Labour 14,293 9 Money Expenditure 5,882 10 ————- 20,176 3 Lime By Convict Labour 242 14 Money Expenditure 535 14 ————- 778 12 Cement By Convict Labour 952 13 Money Expenditure 138 9 ————- 1,091 6 Granite By Convict Labour 5,859 9 Money Expenditure nil. ————- 5,859 9 Weaver's Work By Convict Labour 594 6 Money Expenditure 546 6 ————- 1,140 12 Rattan Work By Convict Labour 862 0 Money Expenditure nil. ————- 862 0 ————- Total Rs. 29,908 10 ————————————————————————-
————————————————————————- Value of Materials. ————————————————————————- 1863-64. Rs. Rs.
To value of Bricks 26,683 12
To value of Lime and Cement 3,720 0
To value of Granite 6,574 0
To value of Weaver's Work 1,872 5
To value of Rattan Work 915 13 ————- 36,765 14 Deduct Expenditure 25,344 8 ————- Difference in favour of the State Rs. 11,421 6 ————————————————————————- Cost of Production. ————————————————————————- 1863-64. Rs. Rs.
Bricks By Convict Labour 8,122 14 Money Expenditure 9,667 4 ————- 17,790 2 Lime and Cement By Convict Labour 785 6 Money Expenditure 552 6 ————- 1,337 12 Granite By Convict Labour 3,327 9 Money Expenditure nil. ————- 3,327 9 Weaver's Work By Convict Labour 1,368 14 Money Expenditure 604 7 ————- 1,973 5 Rattan Work By Convict Labour 915 13 Money Expenditure nil. ————- 915 12 ————- Total Rs. 25,344 8 ————————————————————————-
APPENDIX IV
The following is a tabulated account of the cost of the brick kilns to the State, and the value of these convict-made bricks in the local market.
The output of bricks per month when four tables were at work was 230,000, and their value at $45.00 per 10,000 would be $1,035. The cost of manufacture was as follows:—
$ Overseer's Salary 45.00
Labour of 125 Convicts, at 25cts. per diem for artizans and 9cts. for labourers 306.00
Cost of Fuel 200.00
Wear and Tear 17.10
Food for Cattle 24.30
Contingencies 16.20 ———- Total $608.60 =======
$ Value of 230,000 of Bricks at $45 per laksa, that being the market price for Government Bricks 1,035.00
Deduct cost of manufacture 608.60 ———— Difference to credit of the State $426.40 ========
Bricks were debited to Government Works at $20 per laksa. The size of a Government brick mould was 10 1/4 x 5 1/4 x 3 ins. The bricks when burnt measured 9 x 4 1/2 x 2 3/4 ins., and weighed about 7 lbs. when dry, and about 7 lbs. 3 or 4 ozs. after soaking in fresh water. These were ordinary bricks, but those manufactured for hydraulic work were impervious to water.
NOTE.—The size of a Chinese-made brick when burnt is 10 x 5 x 1 1/2 ins. It requires 22 Chinese-made bricks to build one cubic foot of brickwork, but of convict-made Government bricks a cubic foot of brickwork requires 13 only.
APPENDIX V
Number and nature of defaults committed by Indian convicts:—
———————————————————————————— Nature of Defaults. For the year 1846. 1856. 1866. ———————————————————————————— Stealing 11 11 11
Disobedience of Orders 4 1 10
Drunkenness 2 15 6
Assault 1 — —
Neglect of Duty 4 22 12
Smuggling Articles into Jail 4 — 4
Disturbing Women at Night 1 — —
Sleeping while on Duty 1 3 7
Cutting and Wounding 1 1 —
Breaking open a Convict's Box 1 — —
Allowing Local Prisoners to speak to Outside Men — 1 —
Receiving Money for Safe Keeping and Denying the Same — 3 —
Quarrelling and Abusing — 5 9
Telling Falsehood — 3 2
Allowing Local Prisoners to Abscond — 3 19
Idleness at Work — 1 3
Gambling — 6 4
Absent from Roll Call — 4 17
Impertinence to Warder — 1 —
Selling his own Cloths — 2 —
Confined by the Police — 5 —
Striking a Fellow-Convict — 5 3
Refusing to Work — 3 6
Unlawfully Detaining a Man's Sampan — 1 —
Creating a Disturbance — 2 2
Bringing a False Charge — 1 1
Writing a Threatening Petition — 2 —
Having Stolen Property in Possession — 1 —
Wilfully Destroying Tools — 1 —
Carelessness at Work — 7 6
Leaving Work without Orders — 4 4
Intending to Abscond — 11 —
Bringing a Woman into the Hospital at Night — 1 —
Selling Rations — 2 —
Begging in the Streets — 1 3
Committing a Nuisance — 1 —
Mixed up in Street Rows — 1 —
Counterfeiting Coin — 1 —
Buying Rations from a Fellow-Convict — — 1
Pawning — — 1
Suspected of Thieving — — 2
Losing Cloths — — 4
Leaving his Watch — — 6
Committed by the Police — — 9
Attempting to Commit Suicide — — 1
Marrying without Permission — — 1
Carrying Letters for Local Prisoners — — 3
Disrespect to Superiors — — 2
Obtaining Money under False Pretences — — 1
Receiving Bribes — — 1
Impertinence — — 2
Malingering — — 2
Suspected of being Concerned in a Murder — — 2
Assaulting a Free Man — — 4 ———————————————————————————— Total 30 132 172 ————————————————————————————
This table gives the number and nature of the defaults committed by the Indian convicts for the years 1846, 1856 and 1866, but it is doubtful whether the list for 1846 is complete, as the prison records do not appear to have been fully kept up; anyhow they are not to be found, and at that time the inquiry room had not been established. The number of convicts under discipline and on ticket of leave during the twenty years was between 1,900 and 2,500, which shows a small percentage of defaulters, and they are all, with few exceptions, of a petty nature.
APPENDIX VI
Extracts from letters from T. Church, Esq., Resident Councillor, Singapore, addressed to the Honourable the Governor of the Straits.
15th September, 1849. Transmits copy of letter from Captain Man, dated August, 1849, forwarding account of value of labour of the convicts for the year ending 30th April last.
In my last report I adverted to the efficient state of this department, and the importance of the work performed by convicts under the zealous and active supervision of the Superintendent. The accompanying papers will, I think, satisfy your Honour, and distant authorities likewise, that the value of the labour of the convicts, particularly the artificers, is annually becoming developed; and even now the skill of the men is quite equal, if not superior, to the free labourers generally employed by the Superintending Engineer; in fact, Major Faber has on more than one occasion expressed his professional opinion on the superiority of the masonry and other works executed by the convict body. I trust the period is not far distant when the Government will allow all repairs and minor works to be done by the Superintendent of Convicts, a measure much to be desired, and vastly more economical than the present system.
The annexed statement has no pretensions to accuracy, and I am rather disposed to place on record Captain Man's estimate than my own; but whichever is adopted, the result is most satisfactory, as showing that the labour of the convicts is equivalent to all expenses incurred in their maintenance at this station.
August, 1850. A cursory view of the papers submitted by Captain Man will show how much the community are indebted to the convict body for the cleanliness of the streets in town, and the extensive and admirable roads in the country, which elicit the praise and even the astonishment of sojourners from the continent of India, and the Colonies.
10th August, 1852. Captain Man's report is exceedingly gratifying, and demonstrates how admirably adapted the existing rules and regulations are to preserve order and discipline among a large body of probably the most vicious and demoralized characters from the presidencies, and at the same time render their labour of considerable importance to the place of transportation.
Extracts from the letters of the Governor of the Straits Settlements to the Resident Councillor, Singapore:—
29th August, 1850. The management of the convict body at Singapore reflects great credit on Captain Man, whose energy and zeal in the execution of his duties have always been very conspicuous; and I notice with extreme satisfaction the eulogium passed on that officer in the concluding paragraphs of your communication.
The observations of the Superintendent of Convicts and Roads at this station, as well as at Penang, on the aforesaid rules and regulations, coupled with your notice of the same, have afforded me unqualified gratification, seeing that they were drawn up by me so far back as 1845 in the face of much opposition to the entire abolition of free men as petty officers, in which, however, as in all matters connected with the welfare of this station, I acknowledge your cordial support and assistance.
APPENDIX VII
The head of the Madras Medical Department Dr. Edward Balfour, visited this jail in August, 1863, and thus recorded his opinion:—
The point that most struck me in the management of this jail were the diversified occupations and evident industry of its inmates, and their complete employment. The mass were actively working, and the few were superintending those engaged in labour. I have not before seen the various labouring industries of artizans so largely introduced in any jail, nor have I seen such diligence in their labour. Blacksmiths' and tinsmiths' work, carpentry and sawmills, carving and coopering, stonemasons, manufacture of coir and woollen yarn for blankets, weaving door-mats, and printing too, all in active operation inside the jail, with wood-cutting, brick and tile works, and vegetable gardens without. Daily task work, and its allotment and registration as to quantities performed in the jail, may be operating to produce the application to the work before them which the prisoners were everywhere giving. The hospital and its arrangements were very perfect. The well-kept floor, the clean cots, and the very small number of about twenty inmates out of a strength of 2,000, may be taken as indicative of the care in all other sanitary arrangements. Both the sickness and mortality seems very small. I have been much gratified with what I have seen, and have learned some points of interest and value.
APPENDIX VIII
Extract from the Singapore Free Press, October, 1884:—
To this day many of the released convicts are living in Singapore, cart owners, milk sellers, road contractors, and so on. Many of them are comfortably off, but are growing fewer year by year, and their places will never be filled by that class again. The name of Major McNair is a password to their good feelings, and all their disputes used to go to him as a matter of course. When the Major wrote the Sarong and Kris, Perak and the Malays, it was remarked by one of the reviewers that he hoped the Major would some day give an account of the old jail to the world. It was one of the most remarkable sights of the place, and no one came from India on a visit in those days without going over it before he returned. For all sorts of things, from coir matting and rattan chairs down to waste paper baskets, every one went to the jail; and the rattan chairs the Chinese now sell here so largely, were invented in the jail, beginning with a cumbrous heavy chair, which was the first pattern, down to the shape we see now.
No doubt the system had its defects, and there was a wide difference between the jail as it is now, filled with offenders sentenced in Singapore, and a jail which contained criminals who came from distant places and did not know the local language, and had no friends outside the walls to help them to escape from the island if they succeeded in getting clear of the jail; but, notwithstanding, it was often a wonder to many to find so large an establishment of the worst characters of India kept in check by what was, practically, almost personal influence alone.
APPENDIX IX
From the Singapore Free Press, February 2nd, 1899. Given to show how very lately this "head scare" superstition is entertained:—
THE "HEAD-CUTTING" SCARE.
To the Editor of the Free Press Pao.
MOST POWERFUL SIR,—Permit thy humble servant to approach thee by the way of my friend Tan Tan Tiam, who knoweth the Ang Moh's speech, and kindly consenteth to write to him who moveth the Government to influence the Tye Jin to have compassion upon the exiled sons of China.
Thy servant is a humble puller of the man-power-carriage by night, and is suffering grievously because he is unable to carry on his lawful occupation of plying by hire, by reason of the dire fear that besetteth him. It hath come to the ears of thy servant and of his fellows, that the Ang Moh's engineers do seek a sacrifice to appease the offended gods of earth and water, whom they have outraged by disturbing his habitation on the hill that standeth behind the office of the Tye Jin, which they of India call Ko-mis-a-yat. The said engineers, perchance from ignorance, have neglected to consult the wise ones of earth-lore as to the means to be taken to please the said spirits, who have consequently so tormented the Ang Moh that they seek a sacrifice. Not of the rich and family-blessed, who would make a complaint to the Government, if they were sacrificed; but of us poor and friendless man-power-carriage coolies, who in the exercise of our nightly avocation are called to distant parts of the town, where the knife that is invisible will speedily sever the head from the body, and the cloth that is impenetrable will stifle the last cry of him that hath none to avenge, and our heads go to make the water run within the pipe, and make firm the foundations of this new water hole.
Let the engineers make the necessary sacrifices, that we may go without fear and trembling to those who call us, with mighty voice and thick, to go to Si Poi Poh. Then shall we receive the reward of the Ang Moh's gratitude, far exceeding that of they who aforetime dwelt in the land, or of our brothers of the Celestial Empire.
HAK-CHEW.
Index
Alquada Reef lighthouse, 112.
Andaman Islands, 21, 143.
Anecdotal History, on Singapore, etc., convicts, 47, 67.
Balfour, Dr. Edward: opinion of Singapore jail, 182.
"Bastiani," exporter of pine-apples to Europe, 60.
Begbie, Captain, 43.
Belcher, Sir Edward, R.N., 61.
Bencoolen, First penal settlement at, 1-3. Sir Stamford Raffles' letters on treatment of convicts at, 4-8. Transfer of convicts from, to Penang, 8. Transfer of convicts from, to Singapore, 39.
"Bencoolen Rules" in force at Singapore, 43.
Bennett, Mr. John, 61, 74.
Beri-beri disease, 149.
Blundell, Hon. Edmund Augustus, 73.
Branding, 12.
Bricks, Dearth of, at Singapore in 1844, 58.
Bricks made by convicts, 110, 174.
Brodhurst, Mr., 144.
Budoo road, 44.
Bukit Timah Canal, 71.
Butterworth, Colonel, 20, 61, 62.
"Butterworth Rules," 21, 62, 63.
Campbell, Major, 42.
Canning, Lord, 75.
Cape Rachado, 29.
Carrimon Islands, 33.
Cathedral, Singapore, 97-101.
Cavenagh, General Sir Orfeur, 52.
"Cellular system," 158.
Chains, Convicts in, 40, 87.
Chester, Lieutenant, 40.
Chinese rioters dispersed by Indian convicts, 67-68.
Church, Hon. Thomas, 73. Extracts from letters on value of convict labour, 179-181.
Clarke, Sir Andrew, 3, 14.
Clothing of convicts at Singapore jail, 94.
Cobra, 128.
Coleman, G. D., Work performed by, at Singapore, 43-46.
Collyer, Colonel, 75.
Collyer Quay, 76.
Convicts, Treatment of, at Penang, 16-20. Ticket-of-leave, at Penang, 24. at Malacca, 27-30. Transfer of, from Bencoolen to Singapore, 39. First trial of, as warders at Singapore, 40. Lenient treatment of, 41. used for suppressing fires at Singapore, 42. employed as orderlies and servants, 42. at Singapore, Malacca, Penang, and Maulmein, Extract from Anecdotal History on, 47. used for destroying tigers, 52. used for surveying, 56. employed for road-constructing, 19, 28, 59. build lighthouses at Singapore, 60, 62. Indian, disperse Chinese rioters, 68. Bukit Timah Canal improved by, 71. A new St. Andrew's Church constructed by, 72, 97. assist in building fortifications of Singapore, 76. Government House built by, 77, 101. Classification of, at Singapore jail, 84-89. Average number of, at Singapore, 89. Trades of, 90-92. hours of work at Singapore, 92. Clothing of, at Singapore jail, 94. Industries of (intramural) 104-108. Industries of (extramural) 108-112. Stories about Indian, 113-142. Indian, fondness for spying, 123. Indian, Transfer of, to Port Blair from Singapore, 143. Pardoning, 143-145. Analysis of crimes of, in 1873, 145. Diseases of, at Singapore, 147-152. Death-rate of, at Singapore, 149. Disciplinary treatment of, at Singapore, 159. Incorrigible, 161. Materials made by, 172-175. Bricks made by, 172-175. Defaults committed by Indian, 176.
Cotton, Dr. George, 74.
Cowpar, Dr., 154.
Crawfurd, Mr. John, 36, 101.
Crocodiles, 130, 134-138.
"Dacoity," 12.
Davidson, M. F., 61, 62.
Death-rate of convicts at Singapore, 149, 170.
De Barros on Malacca, 26.
Dindings, 14.
Diseases of convicts at Singapore, 147-152. Feigned, 152-155.
Du Cane, Sir Edmund, 96.
Edinburgh, H.R.H. The Duke of, 77.
Faber, Captain, 58. lays foundation stone of Pearl's Hill jail, 64.
Farquhar, Major, 33.
Fires, Convicts used for suppressing, 42.
Flogging, 88.
Forlong, General, 21, 63. appreciation of Singapore convict system, 63.
Fraser, Colonel, report on management of Singapore jail, 110.
"Funny Joe," 126.
Godinho de Eredia, 25, 151.
Government House at Singapore, 101-104.
Guillaume, architect, 97.
Guthrie, Mr. Alexander, 35.
Guthrie, Mr. James, 101.
Hamadryads, Convicts bitten by, 16.
Hay, Mr. Andrew, 35.
"Head Scare," 69-70.
Hilliard, Captain, 20.
Hospital erected at Singapore, 57.
Humphrey, Rev. William Topley, 73.
Industries, Convict, 104-112.
Jail erected near Brass Basa Canal, 54. New Civil, at Pearl's Hill, 64. Singapore, Description of, 77-83. Singapore, Classification of convicts at, 84-89. Singapore, Rations for, 93. Industries at Singapore, 104-112. Convict Probation at Singapore, 157. Expenses of Singapore, 169. Statistics of Hospital Department, 170-171.
Janssen, M. Leon, 151.
Johnstone, Mr. A. L., 35.
Johore, Sultan of, 36.
Kerr, Dr., 150.
Labour, Value of convict, 92. Statistics of convict, 172-175.
Latrines, 80-82.
"Licuala acutifida," 24.
Light, Captain, 15.
Lighthouses at Singapore, 60-62. erected at eastern entrance to Straits of Malacca, 62.
McClure, Sir Robert, 139.
MacKenzie, Mr. E., 35.
McNair, Lieut., 73.
McNair, Major, 52. Rules introduced by, 1858-59, 63. prepares plans for Government House at Singapore, 77, 97, 101.
Macpherson, Captain Ronald, 71, 73.
Macpherson, Colonel, 97. Attempt to kill, 125.
Magaelhaens, Mr., 61.
Mahomed Shah, 26.
Malacca, Origin of name of, 25. Size of, 26. Trade of, 26. The Portuguese at, 26. Appearance of, 27. First convicts at, 27. Industrial training of convicts at, 29. Transfer of convicts to Singapore from, 30. trade, 1845-46, 65.
Man, Captain, 158.
Man, General, 20, 21.
Man, General, Initiation of carpenter's work at Singapore, 64.
Marco Polo, 151.
Maxwell, Mr. D. A., 35.
Mayne, Major, 76.
Montgomery, Mr. W., 35.
Moor's Notices of the Indian Archipelago, 45.
Morgan, Mr. A. F., 35.
Morgan, Mr. John, 35.
Mouat, Dr., Paper on ticket-of-leave system at Singapore, 10. Testimony as to conservancy of Singapore jail, 82. Report on Singapore jail, 1864-65, 105.
Napier, Mr. D. F., 35.
Netley Abbey, 97.
New Harbour Dock, 67.
Ord, Lady, 101.
Ord, Sir Harry St. George, 76, 101.
Oxley, Dr., House of, attacked by burglars, 43.
Pangkor, 14.
Penang, Convicts transferred to, from Bencoolen, 8, 14. Increase in population of, 15. Trade of, 16, 65. Treatment of convicts at, 16-20. Ticket-of-leave at, 24. Seat of government fixed at, 41. "Penang lawyers," 24. "Penang Rules," 8, 18. in force at Singapore, 43.
Pine-apples at Singapore, 59.
Piracy in the Straits of Malacca, 120-122.
Pooley, Lieut.-Col. Charles, 73.
Port Blair, Transfer of Indian life-convicts to, 143.
"Prince of Wales Island" (see also Penang), 14.
Prisoners (see Convicts).
Province Wellesley, Acquisition of, 14.
Pulo Ubin, British flag planted at, 38.
Purvis, Captain, 73.
Purvis, Mr. John, 35.
Queen, H.M. The, Statue of, 104.
Raffles', Sir Stamford, letters to Government on treatment of convicts at Bencoolen, 4-8. Views of, on necessity of trading centre in Straits of Malacca, 33. Address from merchants at Singapore to, 36. reply to address from merchants at Singapore, 37. "The Coney" lighthouse named after, 62.
Raffles Institution, 45.
Rations for Singapore jail, 93.
Rawlinson, Sir Robert, K.C.B., 76.
Read, Mr. C. R., 35.
Read, Mr. W. H., C.M.G., 100.
Rhio, 33.
Roads opened between Bukit Timah and Krangi, 59. to summit of Telok Blangah Hill, 59.
Rock-blasting by Indian convicts, 66.
Rowell, Dr. Irvine, C.M.G., 150.
St. Andrew's Church, 68. Construction of a new, 72. consecrated by Dr. George Cotton, Bishop of Calcutta, 74.
Scott, Mr. Charles, 35.
Scott, Mr. Thomas, 101.
Serangoon road, 44.
Shaw, Mr. Frank, 131.
Singapore, Foundation of settlement, 34. Origin of name of, 31. Size of, 32. ceded to Great Britain, 34. Population of, 34. First settlers at, 34, 35. Early prison at, 35. Address from merchants at, to Sir Stamford Raffles, 36. Extracts from reply to address from merchants to Sir S. Raffles, 37. First census, 38. Transfer of convicts from Bencoolen to, 39. First church for, 45. jail erected, 1841, 54. Tigers at, 49-53. Extract from The Free Press on progress of town, 55. hospital erected, 57. bricks, 58. pine-apples, 59. trade, 1845-46, 65. census, 1849, 67. new church, 72. Fortification of, 75. waterworks, 76. jail, Description of, 77-83. cathedral, 97-101. Government House, 101-104. Expenses of, jail, 169.
Singapore Free Press: Extract on capture of a tiger, 50. Extract on ravages of tigers, 51. Extract on progress of Singapore town, 1842, 55. Extract on Singapore lighthouse, 61. Extract on tiger-hunting, 134. on released convicts, 183-184. on "head-cutting" scare, 185-186.
Sleeman, Colonel, 12.
Stevenson, Captain, 48.
Stone Quarrying at Singapore, 111.
Surveying, Convicts used for, 56.
Tanjong Tatti, 33.
Tan-Tock-Seng, 57.
Taylor, Rev. Wallace, M.D., 152.
Temple, Col. R.C., 21.
Thompson, J. T., 56. designs hospital for Singapore, 57. designs Singapore lighthouse, 60.
"Thuggee," 11.
"Tickery Banda," 113.
Ticket-of-leave system, 10, 24. employed in pine culture, 60.
Tigers at Singapore, 49-53. trap, 131.
Trade for year 1845-46 of Penang, Singapore, and Malacca, 65.
Trades of Singapore convicts, 90-92.
Transportation, 8. Effect of, on the native of India, 9, 117, 157.
Tropical Possessions in Malayan India, Story about "Tickery Banda" in, 113.
Warders, Singapore convicts as, 40, 48, 162.
Well-digging at Singapore, 112.
White, Rev. Edmund, 45.
Wilson, Rt. Rev. Daniel, D.D., 73.
Xavier, St. Francis, 27.
Butler & Tanner, The Selwood Printing Works, Frome, and London.
Transcriber's Notes:
Inconsistencies in the hyphenation of words preserved. (cocoanuts, cocoa-nuts; extramural, extra-mural; intramural, intra-mural; lookout, look-out; tongkong, tong-kong; transmarine, trans-marine; workyard, work-yard)
Pg. 37, inserted missing period. (extracts from it. After acknowledging)
Pg. 167-8, these were blank pages in the original text and anchors have not been inserted for them.
Pg. 187, index entry "Alquada". Is spelled "Alguada" in main text. Original spellings of both preserved as it is unclear which the author intended.
Pg. 188, index entry "Crawfurd, Mr. John". Pg. 36 which index refers to spells the name as "Crawford" while Pg. 101 spells it as "Crawfurd". Original spellings retained in all cases as it is unclear which spelling the author intended.
Pg. 189, index entry "Malacca". Inserted period after page number. (First convicts at, 27.)
Pg. 189, index entry "Moor's Notices of the Indian Archipelago". In the original text, both both the author's name and the title of the book were italicized.
Pg. 191, index entry "Tanjong Tatti". Is spelled "Tanjong Jatti" in main text. Original spellings of both preserved as it is unclear which the author intended.
Pg. 191, index entry "Thompson, J. T.". Inserted comma before page number. (Singapore lighthouse, 60)
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