The parlor, when this is not combined with the hall, should be furnished and decorated according to the chief use the family intend to make of it. If they are given to formal entertainment, the color scheme may be in "high key," that is, a combination of white with either gold, rose, or green, any of which forms a bright setting for gay evening costumes. But this decoration is not advisable in the case of the average American home, since it is too fine and frivolous for the reception of neighbors in ordinary dress. A quieter, more dignified color-scheme should be adopted; such as golden brown, with subdued decorations for the wall, and ecru-colored lace curtains for the windows. The floor may be of hardwood, in which case a few medium-sized Oriental rugs should be placed on the floor. It is not essential that these "match" the wallpaper, for they are of the nature of artistic household treasures, and so rise autocratically above the necessity of conformity. Where they are chosen with a view to the color scheme, it is advisable to make them the means of transition from the hall. If this is decorated in dark red, the rugs leading from it into the parlor may shade off from this into more golden tones. The design of the rugs should be unobtrusive. The homemaker should not feel that Oriental rugs are too expensive for consideration. Every once in a while their is a glut of them in the market, owing to an extensive importation, when they can be purchased at a price which will always insure the owner getting his money back if at any time he wishes to dispose of them. But the purchaser should be certain that the bargains offered are real ones, for rug-stores, like trunk-stores, always seem to be selling out "at a sacrifice." All Oriental rugs are well made, and, with proper usage, will last for generations, even enhancing in value. Therefore, they are always safe investments. Oriental rug-dealers repair rugs at a fair price for the time spent in doing so.

Since the floor space of a room with rugs in it is about two-thirds bare, the rugs will often not exceed the cost of a good carpet.

Hard woods take best a finish in brown or green, that gives an impress of natural texture impossible to secure by paint. Hardwood floors should be polished at least once a week with floor-wax, a simple compound of beeswax and turpentine, which can be made at home, or bought at the stores. This is useful for polishing any floor or woodwork. When the floor is not of hardwood, it may be stained. All varieties of stains are sold, the most durable, though the most expensive being the old-fashioned oil oak-stain. For the parlor and other floors, and corridors, stairways, etc., that do not get much wear, as well as for hardwood work in general, varnishing saves time and labor in cleaning.

For proper staining, the wood should be thoroughly scrubbed with soap and water; then, when dry, brushed over with hot size. Use concentrated size, a dry powder, rather than that in jelly form, as it is more convenient. It is dissolved and should be applied with a broad paint-brush. The application should be very rapid to prevent congealing and setting in lumps on the boards; accordingly the bowl containing the size should be set in boiling water until it is thoroughly liquid, and kept in this condition. The number of coats must depend upon the absorbent nature of the boards. One coat must be allowed to dry thoroughly before another is applied. Over night is a sufficient time for this. Varnishing also should be done rapidly to prevent dust settling on it. It is best done in a warm room, without draughts. Do not use stains ready-mixed with varnish, as these do not last as long, nor look so well as pure stains varnished after application. When the boards are in bad condition they should be first sandpapered. Cracks should be filled with wedges of wood hammered in and planed smooth. They can also be filled with thin paper torn up, mixed with hot starch and beaten to a pulp. This can be pressed into the cracks with a glazier's knife. The use of putty or plaster of Paris for this purpose is not so satisfactory as these methods.

For sleeping-rooms and living-rooms, which for sanitary reasons it is advisable to scrub, the stain should be left unvarnished.



CHAPTER VII

FURNITURE AND DECORATION

The Carpet Square—Furniture for the Parlor—Parlor Decoration—The Piano—The Library—Arrangement of Books—The "Den"—The Living-room—The Dining-room—Bedrooms—How to Make a Bed—The Guest Chamber—Window Shades and Blinds.

Housekeepers often prefer carpets to bare floors, and rugs for the reason that they "show the dirt" less. It is for this very reason that bare floors are best. Dirt is something to remove rather than conceal, and bare floors and rugs are more easily cleaned than carpets.

Covering the entire floor with plain filling, as a base for rugs, is an alternative for either hardwood or stained floors. It should be in the deeper tone of the color employed as a main part of the room's decoration.

When carpets are used, those in the hall, parlor, and dining-room should not be fitted into the corners, but a space should intervene between their edges and the walls. This may be filled with wood-carpetry, which, like all devices which suggest continuation of fine material through unseen parts, gives an air of art and elegance at comparatively little expense. Otherwise the floor, if hardwood, should be finished; if of other wood, stained and varnished. The carpet square is kept in position with brass-headed pins sold for the purpose.

Articles of furniture which are suitable for a parlor used chiefly as a reception room are light side chairs, and a settee, cane-seated with dark frames, or willow chairs, and settee, stained a dark hue, and brightened up with pretty cushions. These are not dear, so a little extra expense may be incurred in buying the parlor-table, which should be graceful in design and of rich dark wood, preferably mahogany, or in mahogany finish. A small table, of similar design and finish, should serve for afternoon tea, and a pretty desk stand near a window, with writing materials for the use of guests. There should be a clock upon the mantelpiece, and a few other articles of vertu, such as a vase or so, a bronze statuette, etc., all harmonized by the common possession of artistic elegance.

The pictures in the parlor should possess evident artistic merit. There should be no suggestion of amateurishness. Family attempts at drawing or painting, crayon portraits, etc., all photographs, with the exception of those intended as artistic studies, should be excluded from the walls. If good originals by capable artists are not obtainable, fine engravings, etchings, and even colored copies of noted pictures may take their place.

A few books, well bound and with contents worthy of the binding, should lie on the parlor table, with a late magazine or so, for the entertainment of the waiting guest. There should be fresh flowers arranged in pretty bowls to add their impress of cheerfulness and beauty to the room.

In most American homes the parlor is also the music room. Since a piano should be chosen for quality rather than appearance, an instrument of any finish is allowable in a room, whatever its decorative scheme. Except in a family containing an expert performer, a piano should be chosen for softness and richness of tone, instead of brilliancy. For most households the old cottage organ is a more practicable instrument than the "concert grand" often found in a small parlor, where its piercing notes, especially in combination with operatic singing, are so confined that tones and overtones, which should assist each other, mingle in jarring confusion. Indeed, when the parlor is large and high, a genuine pipe-organ built in a recess and harmonizing in finish with the woodwork of the room is not only the finest decoration possible, but the most appropriate musical instrument. Those families who possess an old-fashioned piano, such as thin and tinkly "square," are advised to have it overhauled and refinished by a competent piano-repairer, and preserved, if only for practice by the children. In case such an instrument has "overstrung" wires, it can be restored to a tone that is better than that of the usual upright piano.

The parlor that is put to family use is usually the best room to fit up for a library. In this case the form-and-color scheme of furnishing and decoration should differ entirely from that when the room is used only for the reception of guests. The furniture should be heavier and larger, indicating utility, and its finish, as also that of the walls, floor and woodwork, in deep shades of the more restful colors of the spectrum. Sage-green is a good color for the parlor-library. The furniture may be of this or even darker hue. There is no better style of furniture for the library than the Mission, made comfortable by leather cushions. If leather is thought too expensive, there are fair substitutes for it in such materials as pantasote. But leather should be procured if possible. It looks better and wears longer, and even when shabby keeps its respectability. With the Mission furniture may be mingled an old-fashioned upholstered chair or so, such as a large "Sleepy Hollow." A Morris chair is almost as comfortable as this, and perhaps upholds the dignity of the room a little better, though it does not give the same suggestion of "hominess." An old-fashioned sofa, wide-seated, and designed to be lain upon, should be placed in the room with its head toward the light, so that the occupant may read while reclining upon it. In almost every old house there is a horse-hair sofa, either put away in the attic or even in use, which can be reupholstered to fit the color-scheme of the room.

Books naturally form the chief ornament of the library. It is a mistake to give them an elaborate casing. The simplest form is the best; the shelves should run up evenly from the floor to a more or less ornamental and somewhat projecting top, terminating several feet from the ceiling. On this top a bust or so of an author may be appropriately placed, or copies of an ancient statue, and on the wall above, between the cases of shelves, may hang a few pictures, not necessarily bookish in suggestion, but reposeful in subject and tone, such as landscapes and marines.

A writing desk of comfortable size, with its chair, is essential in every library. It should be as far away as possible from the type of the modern business desk, and therefore an old-fashioned article with a sloping top, which, when let down, serves for the writing board, is an ideal form. Manufacturers continue to make these desks for home purposes.

The library table should be large and simple. One that is oval in shape is the best for the family to gather about, and therefore gives the most homelike appearance. The illumination of the library should center either upon this table, if a lamp is used, or above it, if gas or electric light. The desk should have a side-light of its own.

Modern library conveniences are presented in so handy and presentable shapes that the room may be perfectly equipped as a literary workshop without crowding it, or detracting from its appearance. A dictionary holder (wooden, not wire), a revolving bookcase for other works of reference, and a card index of the library may complete the equipment. It will be well to utilize one or more of the drawers of the desk as a file for clippings. These should be kept in stout manila envelopes, slightly less in size than the width and height of the drawer, and with the names of subjects contained, and arranged in alphabetical order.

The carpet should be plain in design, and underlaid with padding. The curtains should be of heavier and darker stuff than those in the parlor, and easily adjusted to admit the light.

The library and living room are generally next each other, and so each may and should have a fireplace in the common chimney. That of the library should be of severer design; that of the living-room more homelike. Dutch tiles, with pictures that interest children, are specially appropriate for the latter.

Where the father of the family demands a "den" for reading and smoking, this may be a small room on the same general order as the library, but with an emphasis on comfort. Thus, the sofa should be replaced by a wide divan, which may also serve on occasion as a sleeping-place. The Turkish style of furnishing is the customary one; the Japanese style being a fad that came in with the aesthetic craze, was carried to an uncomfortable excess, and has gone out of fashion. The most appropriate style for an American house is American Indian. The brilliant and strikingly designed Navajo blankets may be used for both rugs and couch covers, or hung up as wall-ornaments. Moqui basketware serves equally well for useful purposes, such as scrap-baskets, and for ornamentation. The pottery of the Pueblo Indians, being naive and primitive in design, is much more intimate and therefore appropriate than the Japanese bric-a-brac which it replaces.

The living-room is the heart of the house, and everything in it should be of a nature to collect loving associations. Almost any style of furniture is admissible into it, if only it is comfortable. There should be rocking-chairs, for the woman and the neighbors who drop in to see her, other chairs stout enough for a man to tip back upon the hind legs, and little chairs, or a little settee by the fireplace, for the children. The mother's desk should stand here, plainer than the one in the library, but of design similar to it; there should be a sofa as comfortable as the library one, to which the mother should have the first right. The paper should be cheerful in its tone and with a definite design. This will become endeared by association with home to the children, and the mother should be slow to replace it. The window draperies may be home-made, such as of rough-finished silk or embroidered canvas, and the floor covered with a thick rag-carpet, preferably of a nondescript or "hit-and-miss" design. If the housekeeper thinks that this is "hominess" carried to excess, she may cover the floor with an ingrain carpet, or better, plain filling of a medium shade, on which a few rag rugs are laid, light in color. Very artistic carpets and rugs are made out of old carpets and sold at reasonable figures, and there still remain in some small towns throughout the country weavers who weave into carpets the carpet-rags sewn together by housewives for the price of their labor alone.

There is a reason additional to its economy why this practice should not die out. The tearing up into strips of old garments, and the tacking of their ends together with needle and thread is work eminently suited for children, and one in which they take great pride, as it gives them a share in the creation of a useful and beautiful household article.

The dining-room should be decorated in accordance with the quantity of daylight it receives. It should be, if possible, a light room, with preferably the morning sun. In this case, it is properly furnished and decorated in dark tones, on the order of the library; if the room is dark, the furniture, wood-finish, and wall-paper should be warm and light in feeling. The housekeeper has a wide variety of sets of dining table and chairs to choose from. Whatever she selects should be distinguished by the quality of dignity. Here is the one room in the house where formality is thoroughly in place; it is at table where bad manners are wont most to show themselves among children, and laxity in etiquette among their parents. Just as the exclusive use of the room for eating purposes saves labor in housework, so will its dignity in decoration aid in enforcing the mother's teaching of good habits to the children.

Here, if anywhere in the house, plain wall-paper should be used, since the chief decorations are the china closet, cabinet and sideboard.

The dining-room ought not to have a fire-place or stove if other means of heating it are available, since heat, like food, should be equally distributed to those at table. Preference in seating should be a matter of honor rather than of material advantage.

Comfort and cleanliness are the qualities which condition the equipment and decoration of the bed-room. When one considers that a third of a man's life is spent in bed, it will be seen how exceedingly important is the selection of this article of furniture. The essential parts of a good bed are spring and mattress, and no expense should be spared here in securing the best. The frame, which though the ornamental part is the least essential, is a matter of indifferent consideration. There is no better kind of a bedstead than an iron or brass one, because of cleanliness and strength and the ease with which it may be taken apart and put together again. The pillows deserve almost equal consideration with the mattress. Since the feathers used in stuffing pillows may be cleaned, it is economical to see that these are of the best quality. Bed clothing is often selected under the mistaken impression that weight is synonymous with warmth, and heavy quilted comforts are chosen instead of lighter, woolen blankets. The pure woolen blanket is the ideal bed-covering and in various degrees of thickness may serve for all of the bed clothes save the sheets, and the light white coverlet, which is placed over all merely for appearance.

With increasing attention paid to hygiene, single beds rather than double are coming into favor. Even where two people occupy the same room they will be more comfortable in different beds. It is a mistake for young people and infants to sleep with older people, or for those who are well and strong with sickly or delicate persons, as there is apt to be a loss of vitality to the more vigorous party.

Everything connected with the bed should be regularly and thoroughly sunned and aired. The occupant on rising should throw back the bed-clothes over the foot of the bed, or, indeed, take them off and hang them over a chair in the sunlight.

The first thing in making a bed should be to turn the mattress. The lower sheet is then put on right side up and with the large end at the top. This is tucked in carefully all around, then the covering sheet is put on with the large end at the top, but the right side under. This is tucked in only at the foot in order to permit the bed to be easily entered. Over these the blankets are placed and folded back at the head under the fold of the upper sheet. Pillow-shams should never be used, as ornamentation on a bed is not necessary, and if it were a sham is never an ornament.

The walls of bedrooms may very properly be painted, as also the floors, to permit scrubbing, especially after the illness of an occupant. If papered, a chintz pattern is preferable; cretonne of similar design should then be used for furniture slips, etc. The woodwork may be white, with the chairs to match. There should be washable cotton rag-rugs, loosely woven to be grateful to the bare feet, at the bedside and in front of the bureau, dressing-table and doorway. Where space is limited, a combined bureau and dressing-table, or even a chiffonier with a mirror, may be used.

A child's bedroom may very appropriately have a wall-paper of a design intended to interest it, such as representations of animals, scenes from Mother Goose, etc. This is also suitable for the nursery.

The guest-room has come to be the chambre de luxe of the house, the place in which every conceivable article is introduced that might be required by the visitor, all being of expensive quality. Probably it is best to conform to this practice, since it is an expected thing, but money spent on the guest-room beyond that necessary to make it simply the best bedroom in the house, brings smaller returns in usage than anywhere else. The average guest is more pleased with a room such as he sleeps in himself at home, than with one where elegance seems too fine for use. It was a plainsman, who, being lodged in such a room on a visit to civilization, slept on the floor rather than touch the immaculate pillow-shams and bed-cover, which he conceived to be parts of the bed clothing not designed for use.

The window-shades of a house, since they show without, should be uniform in color, and no attempt be made to suit the individual decoration of a room to them. The material should be plain Holland, white or buff when there are outside blinds, otherwise green or blue. In recent years shutters, or outside blinds, have come somewhat into disuse. This is, on the whole, perhaps an improvement, for they are rarely manipulated with judgment, being either left open or kept shut for continuous periods. In the latter case they darken rooms which, though unused, would have been better for the admission of sunlight. The reason for this lack of manipulation is that they are opened and fastened with difficulty from the inside. All the purpose of the outside blinds is served by inside blinds, which are much more easily operated, and lend themselves admirably to decoration. One form of these, known as Venetian blinds, consisting of parallel wooden slats, strung on tapes, is coming again into vogue. They are cheaper than the usual sort of blinds, and are very durable as well as artistic. After all, however, shades are the most practical form of modulating the entrance of light into a house.



CHAPTER VIII

THE MOTHER

Nursing the Child—The Mother's Diet—Weaning—The Nursing-bottle—Milk for the Baby—Graduated Approach to Solid Diet—The Baby's Table Manners—His Bath—Cleansing His Eyes and Nose—Relief of Colic—Care of the Diaper.

But one upon earth is more beautiful and better than the wife—that is the mother.—L. SCHEFER.

Tennyson says, "The bearing and the training of a child is woman's wisdom." Herein nature is ever urging her to the proper course. Thus the love of the newborn infant prompts the mother to feed him with her own milk, and this supplies exactly the elements he requires for healthy development. No other milk, however skillfully modulated, no "infant's food," however scientifically prepared, can fully take its place.

Unless illness prevents her from feeding her own child, or she is of a moody and unhappy disposition, it is the mother's place to give her breast to the infant. The condition of mind of the mother has a great deal to do with the quality of the milk. A despondent and excitable temperament is often more productive of harm than a low physical condition. It is hardly necessary to warn the mother to be careful of her diet, as this has immediate effect on the quality of the milk. Of course, any drink containing alcohol must be avoided. Tea and coffee, except when taken in weak strength, have also a deleterious effect. Milk, and next to it, cocoa, are the best beverages for the mother. Mothers should also avoid taking medicine except when positively required.

There is no need for the mother to vary greatly her solid diet. She will naturally select that which is most nutritious and easily digested. Anything that tends to make her costive, such as fruits or green vegetables, should be partaken of with discrimination.

The baby should be fed with systematic regularity from the beginning. While a child does not need food for the first day after birth, nevertheless it is well to put it to the breast about six hours after birth, since for the first few days after child-birth the breasts secrete a laxative element which acts as a sort of physic upon the child, clearing its bowels of a black, tarry substance, that fills them. The full supply of normal milk comes after the third day. After the first feeding the baby should be put to the breast every four hours for the first day and after that every two hours, being kept there about twenty minutes each time. The mother should be watchful and see that the child is awake and is nursing. Even at this early age it can be compelled to learn a good habit. Unless it learns this habit, the mother will be put to great inconvenience and the baby will suffer because of the disarrangement of the systematic feeding. If he is allowed to nurse at his own pleasure, the results will quickly make themselves manifest in the form of colic, leading to wakefulness and bad temper.

A baby should not remain awake more than four hours in the day on the whole, and he should be so trained that the eight hours from ten o'clock at night to six in the morning, when his mother is sleeping, should be for him also an uninterrupted period of slumber.

The baby should be weaned at ten months unless he is unwell at the time or the weaning comes in the heat of the summer, when there is danger of his becoming sickly or peevish. Preparatory to weaning, the baby should be accustomed to the bottle. Provided the bottle holds half a pint or four glasses, the number of bottles may be increased from one a day at four months to two or six at eight months. The baby should certainly be weaned by the time it is a year old, as, even though the mother continues to have a plentiful supply of milk, this is not suited to his needs at this stage of his physical development. By this method of approach the act of permanently refusing the breast to the child will not greatly offend him. After a little crying he will philosophically accept the situation and reconcile himself to the substitute.

Weaning is rendered easier by selecting a nursing-bottle which has the nipple in the shape of the breast. Care should be taken that the hole in the nipple is not too large, supplying more milk than the stomach can take care of as it comes, and so causing stomachic disorder. The nursing bottle should at all times be kept thoroughly clean by rinsing in hot water and washing in hot soapsuds. The milk for the child's bottle should, wherever possible, be what is called "certified," that is, the milk from a herd of cows which have been declared by the proper authorities to be all in good health, and which have been milked under sanitary conditions. This milk is delivered in clean, sealed bottles, preventing the admission of any dirt or deleterious substance from the time it leaves the dairy till opened. The milk for the baby should not be purchased from the can.

Milk that has been sterilized, that is, bottled and put in boiling water for an hour, is not so good for the baby as pasteurized milk; that is, milk kept at something less than the boiling point for half an hour, since the higher temperature causes the milk to lose some of the qualities beneficial to the child.

Since cow's milk differs in its constituents from mother's, having more fat and less sugar, there will be need at first to modify the cow's milk, weakening and sweetening it somewhat. One good recipe for modifying cows' milk is: One part milk, two parts cream, two parts lime-water, three parts sugar water, the sugar water being made by putting two even teaspoonfuls of sugar of milk in a pint of water.

Condensed milk, which is often used as a substitute for cows' milk, is not nearly so good, since it has lost in the process of condensation one of the most important elements, that which forms bone tissue. Accordingly, babies fed upon condensed milk are apt to be "rickety," and they lack in general power to resist disease, which is primarily the mark of a baby fed on mother's milk, and to a slightly lesser degree, one fed upon cows' milk.

The stomach grows very rapidly during infancy, increasing from a capacity of one ounce soon after birth to eight ounces at the end of the year, and this should be taken into account by the increase of the amount supplied it. After the first week, a baby should increase in weight at the rate of one pound a month for the first six months. If he falls behind this rate and remains healthy, more sugar and fat may be introduced into his milk. If, however, he fails to gain weight and is sickly, the milk should be diluted and modified so as to make it easier of digestion.

Every mother should be warned against a common practice of starting the flow of milk from the nipple of the bottle by putting it in her mouth. Gums and teeth are rarely perfectly clean, and so form the favorite lurking place for disease germs, which, though they may not produce disease in the stronger body of the adult, may do so and often do so in the more susceptible physique of the child.

Just as the child was trained to the bottle while it was still taking the mother's milk, so it should be taught gradually to eat solids while it is fed upon the bottle. After the child has been weaned at the tenth month, he can be fed occasionally on broths or beef juice as a substitute for one of the milk feedings. The broth is more of a stimulant than a food, aiding digestion rather than supplying nourishment.

During the eleventh month, the yolk of a soft boiled egg, mixed with stale bread crumbs, may be added to the diet, together with a little orange juice or prune jelly. The latter will tend to keep his bowels free.

After twelve months, the child may be gradually accustomed to eat stale bread, biscuit or toast, broken in milk, thoroughly cooked oatmeal and similar cereals, baked potatoes moistened with broth, mashed potatoes moistened with gravy, and rice pudding. The pudding is made of two tablespoonfuls of clean rice, half a teaspoonful of salt, one-third of a cupful of sugar in five cups of milk. Bake in buttered pudding dish from two to three hours in slow oven, stirring frequently to prevent rice from settling.

At the age of two years and a half the child may be permitted to eat meat, preferably roast beef or mutton, cooked rare, or minced roast poultry.

Even though sugar is a very essential ingredient in the child's diet, it is very unwise to let it have this outside of its regular diet. Pure candy does not hurt the child by impairing its digestion so much as by interfering with its appetite for plain food. The child should never be allowed to form an inordinate appetite for anything, as this is certain to cause a corresponding deficiency elsewhere in his diet.

Even worse than the practice of giving candy to very young children is that of teaching them to drink tea and coffee. These are pure stimulants, supplying no tissue-building element, and taking the place of nutritious beverages that do, such as milk and cocoa.

After a child is old enough to be permitted to partake with discrimination of the general food of the table, he should be allowed to eat with the family. From the beginning he should be taught table manners, the use of knife and fork and napkin, and the subordination of his wishes to those of older people.

Next to feeding the baby properly, the most important duty of the mother is to see that it is kept clean. Even in its nursing days, after each feeding, she should rinse its mouth out by a weak boracic acid solution, since particles of milk may remain there which may become a source of infection. It is well for similar reason to wash her own breasts with the solution.

A baby should be bathed regularly at about the same time each day. During the first days of a child's life, he should be sponged in a warm room, with water at blood heat. In removing the garments, the mother should roll the infant gently from side to side, rather than lift him bodily. It is well to have a flannel cloth or apron ready to cover the child when it is being undressed. The baby's face should be washed in clear water, firmly and thoroughly with a damp cloth, and dried by patting with the towel. Then soap should be added to the water and the other parts of the baby's body washed in it; first, the head, ears and neck, then the arms, one uncovered at a time, then, with the mother's hand reaching under the cover, the back, during which process the baby is laid flat on the stomach, then the stomach, and last, the legs, one at a time, the baby being kept covered by the flannel as much as these operations permit.

The eyes of infants are prone to inflammation, and therefore require special attention in the way of cleansing. This can be done best by the use of the boracic solution upon a fresh pledget of cotton. Be careful not to use the same piece of cotton for both eyes, and to burn it after use. When the nose is stopped with mucous, a similar means can be used for cleansing it.

Every mother should study the individual nature and disposition of her child, in order to know what to do for it when it cries, for a cry may mean over-feeding as well as under-feeding, colic, or a wet diaper. Colic is often quickly relieved by turning the baby upon his stomach and rubbing his back, or by holding him in front of the fire, or wrapping him in a heated blanket. In drying the baby his comfort will be greatly increased by the use of talcum powder. Of course, soiled diapers should not be put on a child again until they are thoroughly washed. It will save the mother much trouble if absorbent cotton is placed within the diapers to receive the discharges from the bowels. These should be afterwards burned.

Too many clothes is bad for a young baby. If his stomach be well protected by a flannel band and he is kept from draughts, his other clothing may be very light, especially in summer.



CHAPTER IX

THE MOTHER

The School-child—Breakfast—Luncheon—Supper—Aiding the Teacher at Home—Manual Training—Utilizing the Collecting Mania—Physical Exercise—Intellectual Exercise—Forming the Bath Habit—Teething—Forming the Toothbrush Habit—Shoes for Children—Dress—Hats.

When the child reaches the school-age especial care should be taken of his diet. He should not be allowed to have meat at breakfast, except a little bacon with his eggs, one of which may be allowed a school-child when young, two when older. Well-cooked cereals, such as oatmeal and cream of wheat, should form the staple article of diet, though these may be varied by the ready-to-eat breakfast foods, such as corn-flakes. He should always have either sound fresh fruit, or stewed fruit, to eat with the cereal. His bread should always be toasted. Muffins are better for him than pancakes or waffles, which, however, should be allowed him occasionally as a treat.

As this kind of a breakfast largely consists of starchy foods, it should be eaten slowly, as starch requires thorough mastication. The practice of allowing children to lie late in bed, and then gulp their breakfast down in a minute or so, in order not to be late to school, is most pernicious.

The luncheon put up for school-children may consist chiefly of sandwiches, preferably several small ones of different kinds, rather than one or two large ones. Biscuit sandwiches are generally more palatable to a child than plain bread ones. Besides those made of cold meat, there should be at least one cheese or one salad-and-nut sandwich, and one jelly sandwich. A hard-boiled egg, preferably one that has been cooked for some time in water kept under boiling point, will vary this diet. Of course fruit, such as an apple, an orange, or a banana, forms the best dessert. Occasionally cake, gingerbread, sweet biscuit, or a piece of milk chocolate may be put in the basket for a pleasant surprise.

The supper of the school-child while young should be a simple one, something on the order of the breakfast. In the early days children were fed at night on hasty pudding, or mush-and-milk, (cornmeal), which is an ideal food when thoroughly prepared, the meal being slowly sprinkled into the pot, which was stirred constantly all the while. The North Italians prepare cornmeal in this fashion; the mush, which they call "polenta," forms an accompaniment of meat stews, thus affording all the elements of a "perfect ration." American cooks should employ cornmeal far more than they do. Mush in particular has the advantage possessed by King Arthur's bag-pudding, what cannot be eaten at night may be served "next morning fried." While fried food is, as a rule, not good at breakfast for any save one who has hard manual labor or physical exercise to perform, an exception may be made of fried mush and fried eggs, because their base is so nutritious that the heated fat can do little to impair their digestibility, while it certainly whets the appetite before eating, and pleases the palate when the food is in the mouth. It should be borne in mind that those foods which require much mastication ought especially to be made palatable in order to be chewed thoroughly. Therefore, starchy materials ought to be prepared in appetizing ways; on the other hand, meats, which require less mastication, may dispense with high seasoning and rich sauces, especially as they have their own natural flavors.

The mother should closely follow the work of the child at school and aid this in every way at home. She should patiently answer his many questions, except when she is convinced that he is not really in search of information, but is asking them merely for the sake of asking. Wherever the child ought to be able to reason out the answer, the mother should assist him to do so by asking him guiding questions in turn. This is the method that Socrates, the greatest of teachers and philosophers, employed with his pupils, and, indeed, with his own children. It is as useful in inculcating moral lessons as in teaching facts. When one of the sons of Socrates, Lamprocles, came to him complaining that the mother, Xanthippe, treated him so hardly that he could not bear it, the philosopher, by kindly questions, led the boy to acknowledge his great debt to her for her care of him in infancy and in sickness, and, by showing the many things Xanthippe had to try her patience, persuaded him to bear with her and to give her that love which was her due.

Where manual training is taught in the schools, the mother should give every opportunity to her children to practice it at home. Where it is not a part of the school course, parents should study to devise home substitutes for it, the mother teaching the girls sewing, embroidery, etc., and the father instructing the boys in carpentry and the like.

The desire to collect things, which seizes boys and girls at an early age, should be turned into useful channels by teachers and parents. Often this valuable instinct is largely wasted, as in the collecting of postage-stamps, the impulse which it gives to geographical and historical investigation being grossly perverted—for example a little island, that once issued a stamp which is now rare, looming larger in importance than a great country none of the stamps of which have any special value.

Every school, or, failing this, every home, should have a museum, not so much of curiosities as of typical specimens. These may be geological, botanical, faunal or archaeological; the rocks and soils and clays of the home country, the flowers of plants and sections of wood of trees; the skins of animals and birds (taxidermy is a fascinating employment for the young) eggs and nests (here the child should be taught to be a naturalist and not a vandal), and Indian arrow-heads and stone-axes.

In this connection it should be suggested that the most valuable collection of all is a herbarium of the flowers of literature, specimens of which may be found in the home library. That a child is not fond of reading is testimony that his parents no less than his teachers have failed in their duty.

Above all, the parents should see that their boys and girls have facilities for that physical culture which is necessary for health and proper development. Those exercises which are both recreative and useful are preferable. Gardening may be made a delight instead of a hardship, if the child is allowed to enjoy the fruits of his labor. Let him sell the vegetables he raises to the family, and, if there is an excess, to the neighbors, for pocket money. He will enjoy purchasing his own clothing even more than using the money solely for his pleasures.

Healthful sports should be encouraged, and games, such as chess, that develops the intellect. There are many card games, such as "Authors," that impart useful instruction in literature, history, natural science, business, etc. Playing these in the home is a good thing no less for parent than child. Many a mother has acquired a well-rounded culture after her marriage through her determination to "keep ahead of the children" in their studies and intellectual activities.

The child should be early accustomed to take cold baths, and then run about naked in a room under the impulse given by the tingling glow of reaction. If a play is made of the bath the habit will be formed for life, and in this way, one of the mother's chief struggles, to make the children clean themselves, will be abolished. It is natural for a child to get dirty, and therefore it should be made as habitual an impulse for them to get clean again.

Of all such habits, keeping the teeth clean is most important. Children's teeth are a chief source of anxiety to the mother even before they make their appearance.

Troubles in teething are generally due to innutritious and illy-digested food. Sometimes, however, when the food is all right, the teeth will still have difficulty in coming through the gums. Whenever the mother observes that her crying child refuses to bring its gums together on anything, she should examine them, and, if they are swollen, have them lanced.

The "milk-teeth," even though they are temporary, should be looked after carefully, as their decay will often spread to the coming permanent teeth. Besides, they should be preserved as long as possible, and in the best condition, to aid in mastication. Accordingly, young children should be taught regularly to rinse out their mouths and to use a tooth-brush and tooth-powder.

A child should run barefoot as much as conditions and climate permit. When it wears shoes, these should conform as much as possible to the shape of the foot. With such footwear, the active child may form for life the habit of a natural gait, especially if parents will point out the beauty and advantages of this, and praise the men and women of their acquaintance who possess it. It is about the time when a girl is learning Virgil in the High School that she is tempted by vanity and the desire to be "like the other girls" to put on French heels. Then it is that the teacher or mother should quote to her the line of the Aeneid about Venus:

"The true goddess is shown by her gait,"

and save her from an irreparable folly.

If mothers will remember that children are not dolls, and that mothers are not children to take pleasure in bedecking them, they will need no advice about dressing their little ones. There is only one rule for her to follow: She should consult the comfort and health of the child, and, as far as consistent with these, the convenience to herself. It may be "cute" to dress a child like a miniature man or woman, but it is cruel to the child. There is no reason for distinguishing sex by dress in young children. "Jumpers" form the best dress for either a little boy or little girl in which to play. Even when they are older and a skirt distinguishes the girl, bloomers or knickerbockers of the same material beneath, approach the ideal of dress for comfort, health and decency more nearly than white petticoat and drawers. Indeed, the skirt is best when it is a part of a blouse, which is also a suitable dress for a boy. A child should never be tortured with a large or stiff hat. The heads of children come up to the middles of men and women, and such a hat will be crushed in a crowd, and its poor little wearer placed in mortal terror. Indeed, children should be allowed to go bareheaded as much as possible, and, when they wear hats, have these simple in shape and soft in material. The plain cap is the best head covering for a boy. The girl's may be a little more ornamental, especially in color. The universal seizure by the sex upon the boy's "Tam o'Shanter" as peculiarly suited for a play and school-hat, is therefore right and proper. For a more showy style, lingerie hats are justified. But the most beautiful and appropriate form of the "best hat" for a little girl is one of uniform material, straw, cloth or felt, with simple crown, and wide, and more or less soft brim, ornamented by a ribbon alone. The addition of a single flower may be permitted, though this is like the admission of the camel's nose into the tent,—it may lead to the entrance of the hump—the monstrosity of the modern woman's bonnet, which of late years has by terms imitated a flower garden, a vegetable garden, an orchard, and, finally, with the Chanticler fad, a poultry-yard.

The knickerbocker and the short skirt are aesthetic, that is eye-pleasing, because they mark a natural division of the body at the knee. There is an artistic justification, therefore, in mothers keeping their sons out of "long pants" as long as possible, and in fathers (for it is they who are the chief objectors) in opposing their daughters' desire to don the dust-sweeping skirt that marks attainment to womanhood. Here, however, it is proper that the wishes of the younger generation triumph. It is a social instinct to conform to the custom of one's fellows, and the children have reached "the age of consent" in matters of fashion. Their fathers and mothers may lend their influence to abolish foolish customs, or to modify them in the direction of wisdom, but it is best that this be in their capacity as citizens, and not as parents.



CHAPTER X

CARE OF THE PERSON

The Mother's Duty Toward Herself—Her Dress—Etiquette and Good Manners—The Golden Rule—Pride in Personal Appearance—The Science of Beauty Culture—Manicuring as a Home Employment—Recipes for Toilet Preparations—Nail-biting—Fragile Nails—White Spots—Chapped Hands—Care of the Skin—Facial Massage—Recipes for Skin Lotions—Treatment of Facial Blemishes and Disorders—Care of the Hair—Diseases of the Scalp and Hair—Gray Hair—Care of Eyebrows and Eyelashes.

Certainly this is a duty, not a sin. "Cleanliness is indeed next to godliness."—JOHN WESLEY—On Dress.

In all her multitudinous concerns the housekeeper should not forget her duties toward herself. Many a mother in looking out that her children are a credit to the family in dress and manners and care of their persons, gives up all thought of standing as an exemplar of these things among the ladies of the community. This is a sacrifice of self that is not commendable, since it defeats its purpose. The mother should always be herself an illustration of the lessons she teaches, else they will not be seriously considered.

It is impossible here to give more than a few general suggestions as to the dress and millinery of the mother. She should have a variety of simple house-dresses, suited to her various duties, and these should be kept as neat as possible. Each should be made for its purpose, not converted to it from one of her fine dresses. Nothing gives an impression of slatternliness more than the wearing about the house of a frayed and soiled garment "that has seen better days."

The best dresses and hats of a woman, even one who goes little "into society," should also be sufficient in number and varied in style to suit the changing seasons of the year, and the widely differing occasions for use which occur in every station of life. The purchase of several good articles of attire rather than one or two is economical in the end. There is not only the obvious mathematical reason that, if one dress wears a year, four dresses must be bought in four years, whether this is done simultaneously or successively, but there is the physical reason that a dress, like a person, that has regular periods of rest, becomes restored in quality. Accordingly, all dresses should be laid very carefully away when not in use, and the proper means taken to refresh them.

Unfortunately the arbitrary and senseless changes in fashion render this practice hard to follow. No woman likes to look out of style. However, by a little cleverness garments and hats may be adapted to the prevailing mode (although the arbiters of fashion, in the interests of manufacturers, try by violent changes of style to render this impracticable). These adaptations may not be in the height of fashion, but they will be in good form and taste. Indeed, it is never good taste to follow extremes of style. The well-known lines of Pope on the subject hold true in every age:

"....in fashions the rule will hold, Alike fantastic if too new or old; Be not the first by whom the new are tried, Nor yet the last to lay the old aside."

Some of the best-dressed women in artistic and musical circles design their clothes wholly to suit their personal appearance, with such success that their independence of the prevailing mode of large or small hats or sleeves, striped or checked fabrics, etc., wins universal admiration.

Remember that a dress or a hat is never a "creation" in itself. The wearer must always be considered. Short, stout women should avoid horizontal stripes or lines of ornamentation that call attention to breadth, and should choose those perpendicular stripes and lines which tend to give an impression of height and slenderness. A hat lining may be used to put rosiness into a pale face, and a color may be selected for a dress which will neutralize too much redness in the skin. But these are matters of common knowledge to all women. The trouble is, that in their desire to be "in style," many women forget, or even deliberately ignore these fundamental principles of art in dress. Fondness for a particular color, as a color, causes many women to wear it, regardless of its relation to their complexion; and there have been women of mystical mind who, believing that each quality of soul had its correspondent in a particular hue, wore those colors which they thought were significant of their chief traits of character—with weird results, as you may imagine.

It is unnecessary, in this book of "practical suggestions," to discuss in detail the question of etiquette, which may be defined as "the prevailing fashion in social intercourse." Styles in visiting cards change from year to year, and the social usages of one city differ from another. If it is required to know these, the latest special work on etiquette should be procured.

The general principles of good manners, however, which lie at the basis of etiquette, just as good morals form the foundation of law, although there are discrepancies in both cases, may appropriately be presented here, though briefly.

Good manners and good morals alike follow the Golden Rule: "Whatsoever ye would that others should do to you, do ye even so to them." Egotism and selfishness are the bane of both. True politeness consists in considering the pleasure of others as a thing in itself, without regard to your own advantage. If an attention is paid, a gift given, a service rendered, these should be done solely for the recipient's happiness, not with a view to his making a return in kind, possibly with interest. It is good manners to call on people who will be pleased to see you; not on those whom you wish to see, but to whom you and your affairs are of no concern. A first visit to a newcomer in town is right and proper. A stranger is presumed to be desirous of making friends, but the first call ought to indicate whether or not he and you have that community of interest which is essential to friendship. If you are the newcomer, it is your duty to show your appreciation of the attention by returning first calls, but you should so act that your hosts will feel free to continue the acquaintance if it will be agreeable to them, or discontinue it if it is not. Indeed, in every situation you should give the other party this choice. Friendship is one of the most valuable forms of social energy, and it should carefully be conserved. Yet more than any other form it is wasted, because of a false regard for social conventions. At how many calls are both parties bored! How many persons—women in particular, who have not the man's freedom in selecting associates—continue in the treadmill round of an uncongenial social circle! To escape from this may require the special exercise of will, and the incurring of criticism, but these ought to be assumed. However, in most cases, a woman may gradually escape from the distasteful circle and form new and more congenial friends without remark.

After the brightening effects on mind and spirits of social intercourse comes the advantage of toning up the personal appearance. A decent self-respect in dress should always be flavored with a touch of pride, for this is an excellent preservative. To have a proper pride, there must be the incentive of the presence of other people whose admiration we may win. Pride in dress is naturally conjoined with the care of the person. There is an excellent term for this, which, though borrowed from the stable, carries with it only sweet and wholesome suggestions. It is "well-groomed." A well-groomed woman is not only a well-gowned woman, but one who, like a favorite mare, is always spick and span in her person, and happy in her quiet consciousness of it. And every woman, whether she possesses a maid or not, indeed, whether she has fine gowns or not, may win the admiration of all her associates by her "grooming."



CHAPTER XI

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF COOKING

The Prevalence of Good Recipes for All Save Meat Dishes—Increased Cost of Meat Makes These Desirable—No Need to Save Expense by Giving Up Meat—The "Government Cook Book"—Value of Meat as Food—Relative Values and Prices of the Cuts of Meat.

We may live without poetry, music and art; We may live without conscience, and live without heart; We may live without friends; we may live without books; But civilized man cannot live without cooks. ("OWEN MEREDITH")—Lucile.

All the other duties of the housewife are subsidiary to the great subject of preparing food for the household. The care of the home, the care of health, etc., all either bear upon this work or require ability to perform it.

With decks cleared for action, therefore, we will proceed to discuss the fundamental principles of cookery, the application of which, in the form of specific recipes, will follow in a separate chapter.

In the limited space which can be here devoted to the subject, it will be assumed that the housewife is a cook, and can follow plain directions, and that she is familiar with the methods of preparing the ordinary meals that are universal throughout the country. It will be also taken for granted that she has one or more general cook books containing a wide variety of recipes for the making of bread in its various forms, cakes, pies, omelettes, salads, desserts, etc., and the discussion will be confined to meats, wherein, owing to advancing prices, new economical methods of preparation are coming into practice, based upon a scientific knowledge of food values.

Vegetarianism and fruitarianism are being adopted by many households, less as a matter of principle than as a recourse from what are considered the present prohibitive prices of meats. Now the proper way to solve a problem is not to evade it, but to face it and conquer it, and this is eminently true of the meat problem. Granted that the proportion of family income devoted to food cannot be increased, it is a fact that, by an intelligent study of the food value of the different kinds of meat, and of economic ways of preparing them, the expense of living may be maintained at the former rate, if not, indeed, materially lessened, with a great increase in both the nutritive value and the palatability of the family meals.

The "new nationalism" of America, which, after all, is only the turning to newer needs of the old nationalism that gave homesteads to the people and supplied them with improved methods of agriculture, is rightly taking the lead in the scientific education of the housekeeper in this household economy.

With special regard to the requirements of the people in these days of rising prices, especially of meats, the United States Department of Agriculture has issued a booklet, prepared by C.F. Langworthy, Ph.D., and Caroline L. Hunt, A.B., experts in nutrition connected with the Department, which gives authoritative information about the cheaper cuts of meat and the preparation of inexpensive meat dishes. This has become generally known as "The Government Cook Book." By the permission of the Department we here present portions of the information it contains, together with those recipes which best illustrate the principles of meat cookery for the home table.

VALUE OF MEAT AS FOOD

Considering the fact that meat forms such an important part of the diet, and the further fact that the price of meat, as of other foods, has advanced in recent years, it is natural for housekeepers to seek more economical methods of preparing meat for the table, and to turn their thoughts toward the less expensive cuts and ask what economy is involved in their use, how they may be prepared, and whether the less expensive dishes are as nutritious and as thoroughly and easily digested as the costlier ones.

The value of meat as food depends chiefly on the presence of two classes of nutrients, (1) protein or nitrogenous compounds, and (2) fat. The mineral matter it contains, particularly the phosphorus compounds, is also of much importance, though it is small in quantity. Protein is essential for the construction and maintenance of the body, and both protein and fat yield energy for muscular power and for keeping up the temperature of the body. Fat is especially important as a source of energy. It is possible to combine the fat and protein of animal foods so as to meet the requirements of the body with such materials only, and this is done in the Arctic regions, where vegetable food is lacking; but in general it is considered that diet is better and more wholesome when, in addition to animal foods, such as meat, which is rich in proteins and fats, it contains vegetable foods, which are richest in sugar, starch, and other carbohydrates. Both animal and vegetable foods supply the mineral substances which are essential to body growth and development.

The difference between the various cuts of meat consists chiefly in amount of fat and consequently in the fuel value to the body. So far as the proteins are concerned, i.e., the substances which build and repair the important tissues of the body, very little difference is found.

This general uniformity in proportion of protein makes it easy for the housekeeper who does not wish to enter into the complexities of food values to make sure that her family is getting enough of this nutrient. From the investigations carried on in the Office of Experiment Stations the conclusion has been drawn that of the total amount of protein needed every day, which is usually estimated to be 100 grams or 3-1/2 ounces, one-half or 50 grams is taken in the form of animal food, which of course includes milk, eggs, poultry, fish, etc., as well as meat. The remainder is taken in the form of bread and other cereal foods and beans and other vegetables. The portion of cooked meat which may be referred to as an ordinary "helping," 3 to 5 ounces (equivalent to 3-1/2 to 5-1/2 ounces of raw meat), may be considered to contain some 19 to 29 grams of protein, or approximately half of the amount which is ordinarily secured from animal food. An egg or a glass of milk contains about 8 grams more, so the housekeeper who gives each adult member of her family a helping of meat each day and eggs, milk, or cheese, together with the puddings or other dishes which contain eggs and milk, can feel sure that she is supplying sufficient protein, for the remainder necessary will be supplied by bread, cereals, and other vegetable food.

The nutrition investigations of the Office of Experiment Stations show also that there is practically no difference between the various cuts of meat or the meats from different animals with respect to either the thoroughness or the ease with which they are digested. Therefore, those who wish to use the cheaper cuts need not feel that in so doing their families are less well nourished than by the more expensive meats.

RELATIVE VALUES AND PRICES OF THE CUTS OF MEAT

The relative retail prices of the various cuts usually bear a direct relation to the favor with which they are regarded by the majority of persons, the juicy tender cuts of good flavor selling for the higher prices. When porterhouse steak sells for 25 cents a pound, it may be assumed that in town or village markets round steak would ordinarily sell for about 15 cents, and chuck ribs, one of the best cuts of the forequarter, for 10 cents. This makes it appear that the chuck ribs are less than half as expensive as porterhouse steak and two-thirds as expensive as the round. But apparent economy is not always real economy, and in this case the bones in the three cuts should be taken into account. Of the chuck ribs, more than one-half is bone or other materials usually classed under the head of "waste" or "refuse." Of the round, one-twelfth is waste, and of the porterhouse one-eighth. In buying the chuck, then, the housewife gets, at the prices assumed, less than one-half pound of food for 10 cents, making the net price of the edible portion 22 cents a pound; in buying round, she gets eleven-twelfths of a pound for 15 cents, making the net value about 16-1/2 cents; in buying porterhouse, she gets seven-eighths of a pound for 25 cents, making the net value about 28-1/2 cents a pound. The relative prices, therefore, of the edible portions are 22, 16-1/2, and 28-1/2 cents; or to put it in a different way, a dollar at the prices assumed will buy 4-1/2 pounds of solid meat from the cut, known as chuck, 6 pounds of such meat from the round, and only 3-1/2 pounds of such meat from the porterhouse. To this should be added the fact that because of the way in which porterhouse is usually cooked no nutriment is obtained from the bone, while by the long slow process by which the cheaper cuts, except when they are broiled or fried, are prepared the gelatin, fat, and flavoring material of the bone are extracted. The bones of meats that are cooked in water, therefore, are in a sense not all refuse, for they contain some food which may be secured by proper cookery.

It is true, of course, that the bones of the steaks may be used for soup making, and that the nourishment may thus be utilized, but this must be done by a separate process from that of cooking the steak itself.

TEXTURE AND FLAVOR OF MEAT

Although meats vary greatly in the amount of fat which they contain and to a much less degree in their protein content, the chief difference to be noted between the cheaper and more expensive cuts is not so much in their nutritive value as in their texture and flavor. All muscle consists of tiny fibers which are tender in young animals and in those parts of older animals in which there has been little muscular strain. Under the backbone in the hind quarter is the place from which the tenderest meat comes. This is usually called the tenderloin. Sometimes in beef and also in pork it is taken out whole and sometimes it is left to be cut up with the rest of the loin. In old animals, and in those parts of the body where there has been much muscular action, the neck and the legs for example, the muscle fibers are tough and hard. But there is another point which is of even greater importance than this. The fibers of all muscle are bound together in bundles and in groups of bundles by a thin membrane which is known as connective tissue. This membrane, if heated in water or steam, is converted into gelatin. The process goes quickly if the meat is young and tender; more slowly if it is tough. Connective tissue is also soluble in acetic acid, that acid to which the sourness of vinegar is due. For this reason it is possible to make meat more tender by soaking it in vinegar or in vinegar and water, the proportions of the two depending on the strength of the vinegar. Sour beef or "sauer fleisch," as it is known to Germans, is a palatable dish of this sort. Since vinegar is a preservative this suggests a method by which a surplus of beef may be kept for several days and then converted into a palatable dish.

Flavor in meat depends mainly on certain nitrogenous substances which are called extractives because they can be dissolved out or "extracted" by soaking the meat in cold water. The quality of the extractives and the resulting flavor of the meat vary with the condition of the animal and in different parts of its body. They are usually considered better developed in older than in very young animals. Many persons suppose extractives or the flavor they cause are best in the most expensive cuts of meat; in reality, cuts on the side of beef are often of better flavor than tender cuts, but owing to the difficulty of mastication this fact is frequently not detected. The extractives have little or no nutritive value in themselves, but they are of great importance in causing the secretion of digestive juices at the proper time, in the right amount, and of the right chemical character. It is this quality which justifies the taking of soup at the beginning of a meal and the giving of broths, meat extracts, and similar preparations to invalids and weak persons. These foods have little nutritive material in themselves, but they are great aids to the digestion of other foods.

The amount of the extractives which will be brought out into the water when meat is boiled depends upon the size of the pieces into which the meat is cut and on the length of time they are soaked in cold water before being heated. A good way to hinder the escape of the flavoring matter is to sear the surface of the meat quickly by heating it in fat, or the same end may be attained by plunging it into boiling water. Such solubility is taken advantage of in making beef tea at home and in the manufacture of meat extract, the extracted material being finally concentrated by evaporating the water.

GENERAL METHODS OF COOKING MEAT

The advantages of variety in the methods of preparing and serving are to be considered even more seriously in the cooking of the cheaper cuts than in the cooking of the more expensive ones, and yet even in this connection it is a mistake to lose sight of the fact that, though there is a great variety of dishes, the processes involved are few in number.

An experienced teacher of cooking, a woman who has made very valuable contributions to the art of cookery by showing that most of the numerous processes outlined and elaborately described in the cook books can be classified under a very few heads, says that she tries "to reduce the cooking of meat to its lowest terms and teach only three ways of cooking. The first is the application of intense heat to keep in the juices. This is suitable only for portions of clear meat where the fibers are tender. By the second method the meats are put in cold water and cooked at a low temperature. This is suitable for bone, gristle, and the toughest portions of the meat which for this purpose should be divided into small bits. The third is a combination of these two processes and consists of searing and then stewing the meat. This is suitable for halfway cuts, i. e., those that are neither tender nor very tough." The many varieties of meat dishes are usually only a matter of flavor and garnish.

In other words, of the three processes the first is the short method; it aims to keep all the juices within the meat. The second is a very long method employed for the purpose of getting all or most of the juices out. The third is a combination of the two not so long as the second and yet requiring so much time that there is danger of the meat being rendered tasteless unless certain precautions are taken, such as searing in hot fat or plunging into boiling water.

There is a wide difference between exterior and interior cuts of meat with respect to tenderness induced by cooking. When beef flank is cooked by boiling for two hours, the toughness of the fibers greatly increases during the first half hour of the cooking period, and then diminishes so that at the end of the cooking period the meat is found to be in about the same condition with respect to toughness or tenderness of the fibers as at the beginning. On the other hand, in case of the tenderloin, there is a decrease in toughness of the fibers throughout the cooking period which is particularly marked in the first few minutes of cooking, and at the end of the cooking period the meat fibers are only half as tough as before cooking.



CHAPTER XII

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF COOKING

Texture and Flavor of Meat—General Methods of Cooking Meat—Economies in Use of Meat.

A good idea of the changes which take place while meat is being cooked can be obtained by examining a piece of flesh which has been "cooked to pieces," as the saying goes. In this the muscular fibers may be seen completely separated one from another, showing that the connective tissue has been destroyed. It is also evident that the fibers themselves are of different texture from those in the raw meat. In preparing meat for the table it is usual to stop short of the point of disintegration, but while the long process of cooking is going on the connective tissue is gradually softening and the fibers are gradually changing in texture. The former is the thing to be especially desired, but the latter is not. For this reason it is necessary to keep the temperature below the boiling point and as low as is consistent with thorough cooking, for cooks seem agreed, as the result of experience shows, that slow gentle cooking results in better texture than is the case when meat is boiled rapidly. This is the philosophy that lies back of the simmering process.

Losses of elements vary considerably with the method of cooking employed, being of course greatest where small pieces of meat are subjected to prolonged cooking. The chief loss in weight when meat is cooked is due to the driving off of water. When beef is cooked by pan broiling—that is, searing in a hot, greased pan, a common cooking process—no great loss of nutrition results, particularly if the fat and other substances adhering to the pan are utilized in the preparation of gravy. When beef is cooked by boiling, there is a loss of 3 to 20 per cent. of material present, though this is not an actual loss if the broth is utilized for soup or in some similar way. Even in the case of meat which is used for the preparation of beef tea or broth, the losses of nutritive material are apparently small though much of the flavoring matter has been removed. The amount of fat found in broth varies directly with the amount originally present in the meat; the fatter the meat the greater the quantity of fat in the broth. The loss of water in cooking varies inversely with the fatness of the meat; that is, the fatter the meat the smaller the shrinkage due to loss of water. In cooked meat the loss of various constituents is inversely proportional to the size of the cut. In other words, the smaller the piece of meat the greater the percentage of loss. Loss also appears to be dependent somewhat upon the length of time the cooking is continued. When pieces of meat weighing 1-1/2 to 5 pounds are cooked in water somewhat under the boiling point there appears to be little difference in the amount of material found in broth whether the meat is placed in cold water or hot water at the beginning of the cooking period. When meat is roasted in the oven the amount of material removed is somewhat affected by the character of the roasting pan and similar factors, thus the total loss in weight is naturally greater in an open than in a closed pan as the open pan offers more opportunity for the evaporation of water. Judging from the average results of a considerable number of tests, it appears that a roast weighing 6 pounds raw should weigh 5 pounds after cooking, or in other words the loss is about one-sixth of the original weight. This means that if the raw meat costs 20 cents per pound the cooked would represent an increase of 4 cents a pound on the original cost; but this increase would, of course, be lessened if all the drippings and gravy are utilized.

ECONOMIES IN USE OF MEAT

The expense for meat in the home may be reduced in several ways, and each housekeeper can best judge which to use in her own case. From a careful consideration of the subject it appears that the various suggestions which have been made on the subject may be grouped under the following general heads: Economy in selection and purchase so as to take advantage of varying market conditions; purchasing meat in wholesale quantities for home use; serving smaller portions of meat than usual or using meat less frequently; careful attention to the use of meat, bone, fat, and small portions commonly trimmed off and thrown away and the utilization of left-over portions of cooked meat; and the use of the less expensive kinds.

The choice of cuts should correspond to the needs of the family and the preferences of its members. Careful consideration of market conditions is also useful, not only to make sure that the meat is handled and marketed in a sanitary way, but also to take advantage of any favorable change in price which may be due, for instance, to a large local supply of some particular kind or cut of meat. In towns where there is opportunity for choice, it may sometimes be found more satisfactory not to give all the family trade to one butcher; by going to various markets before buying the housekeeper is in a better position to hear of variations in prices and so be in a position to get the best values. Ordering by telephone or from the butcher's boy at the door may be less economical than going to market in person as the range of choice and prices is of course more obvious when the purchaser sees the goods and has a chance to observe market conditions. Each housekeeper must decide for herself whether or not the greater convenience compensates for the smaller range of choice which such ordering from description entails. No matter what the cut, whether expensive or cheap, it can not be utilized to the best advantage unless it is well cooked. A cheap cut of meat, well cooked, is always preferable to a dear one spoiled in the preparation.

There is sometimes an advantage in using canned meat and meat products, and, if they are of good quality, such products are wholesome and palatable.

That economy is furthered by careful serving at table is obvious. If more meat is given at each serving than the person wishes or habitually eats the table waste is unduly increased. Economy in all such points is important and not beneath the dignity of the family.

In many American families meat is eaten two or three times a day; in such cases the simplest way of reducing the meat bill would very likely be to cut down the amount used, either by serving it less often or by using less at a time. Deficiency of protein need not be feared when one good meat dish a day is served, especially if such nitrogenous materials as eggs, milk, cheese, and beans are used instead. In localities where fish can be obtained fresh and cheap, it might well be more frequently substituted for meat for the sake of variety as well as economy. Ingenious cooks have many ways of "extending the flavor" of meat, that is, of combining a small quantity with other materials to make a large dish, as in meat pies, stews, and similar dishes.

By buying in large quantities under certain conditions it may be possible to procure meat at better prices than those which ordinarily prevail in the retail market. The whole side or quarter of an animal can frequently be obtained at noticeably less cost per pound than when it is bought by cut, and can be used to advantage when the housekeeper understands the art and has proper storage facilities and a good-sized family. When a hind quarter of mutton, for example, comes from the market the flank (on which the meat is thin and, as good housekeepers believe, likely to spoil more easily than some other cuts) should be cooked immediately, or, if preferred, it may be covered with a thin layer of fat (rendered suet) which can be easily removed when the time for cooking comes. The flank, together with the rib bone, ordinarily makes a gallon of good Scotch broth. The remainder of the hind quarter may be used for roast or chops. The whole pig carcass has always been used by families living on the farms where the animals are slaughtered, and in village homes; town housekeepers not infrequently buy pigs whole and "put down" the meat. An animal six months old and weighing about one hundred pounds would be suitable for this purpose. The hams and thin pieces of belly meat may be pickled and smoked. The thick pieces of belly meat, packed in a two-gallon jar and covered with salt or brine, will make a supply of fat pork to cook with beans and other vegetables. The tenderloin makes good roasts, the head and feet may go into head cheese or scrapple, and the trimmings and other scraps of lean meat serve for a few pounds of home-made sausage. In some large families it is found profitable to "corn" a fore quarter of beef for spring and summer use. Formerly it was a common farm practice to dry beef, but now it seems to be more usual to purchase beef which has been dried in large establishments. The general use of refrigerators and ice chests in homes at the present time has had a great influence on the length of time meat may be kept and so upon the amount a housewife may buy at a time with advantage.

In the percentage of fat present in different kinds and cuts of meat, a greater difference exists than in the percentage of proteids. The lowest percentage of fat is 8.1 per cent. in the shank of beef; the highest is 32 per cent. in pork chops. The highest priced cuts, loin and ribs of beef, contain 20 to 25 per cent. If the fat of the meat is not eaten at the table, and is not utilized otherwise, a pecuniary loss results. If butter is the fat used in making crusts for meat pies, and in preparing the cheaper cuts, there is little economy involved; the fats from other meat should therefore be saved, as they may be used in place of butter in such cases, as well as in preparing many other foods. The fat from sausage or from the soup kettle, or from a pot roast, which is savory because it has been cooked with vegetables, is particularly acceptable. Sometimes savory vegetables, onion, or sweet herbs are added to fat when it is tried out to give it flavor.

Almost any meat bones can be used in soup making, and if the meat is not all removed from them the soup is better. But some bones, especially the rib bones, if they have a little meat left on them, can be grilled or roasted into very palatable dishes. The "sparerib" of southern cooks is made of the rib bones from a roast of pork, and makes a favorite dish when well browned. The braised ribs of beef often served in high-class restaurants are made from the bones cut from rib roasts. In this connection it may be noted that many of the dishes popular in good hotels are made of portions of meat such as are frequently thrown away in private houses, but which with proper cooking and seasoning make attractive dishes and give most acceptable variety to the menu. An old recipe for "broiled bones" directs that the bone (beef ribs or sirloin bones on which the meat is not left too thick in any part) be sprinkled with salt and pepper (Cayenne), and broiled over a clear fire until browned. Another example of the use of bones is boiled marrow bone. The bones are cut in convenient lengths, the ends covered with a little piece of dough over which a floured cloth is tied, and cooked in boiling water for two hours. After removing the cloth and dough, the bones are placed upright on toast and served. Prepared as above, the bones may also be baked in a deep dish. Marrow is sometimes removed from bones after cooking, seasoned, and served on toast.

Trimmings from meat may be utilized in various "made dishes," or they can always be put to good use in the soup kettle. It is surprising how many economies may be practiced in such ways and also in the table use of left-over portions of cooked meat if attention is given to the matter. Many of the following recipes involve the use of such left-overs. Others will suggest themselves or may be found in all the usual cookery books.



CHAPTER XIII

RECIPES FOR MEAT DISHES

Trying out Fat—Extending the Flavor of Meat—Meat Stew—Meat Dumplings—Meat Pies and Similar Dishes—Meat with Starchy Materials—Turkish Pilaf—Stew from Cold Roast—Meat with Beans—Haricot of Mutton—Meat Salads—Meat with Eggs—Roast Beef with Yorkshire Pudding—Corned Beef Hash with Poached Eggs—Stuffing—Mock Duck—Veal or Beef Birds—Utilizing the Cheaper Cuts of Meat.

"To be a good cook means the knowledge of all fruits, herbs, balms and spices, and of all that is healing and sweet in fields and groves, savory in meats. It means carefulness, inventiveness, watchfulness, willingness, and readiness of appliance. It means the economy of your great-grandmother and the science of modern chemistry; it means much tasting and no wasting; it means English thoroughness, French art, and Arabian hospitality; it means, in fine, that you are to be perfectly and always ladies (loaf-givers), and are to see that everybody has something nice to eat."—JOHN RUSKIN.

RECIPES

(In these directions a level spoonful or level cupful is called for.)

TRYING OUT FAT

A double boiler is the best utensil to use in trying out small portions of fat. There is no danger of burning the fat, and the odor is much less noticeable than if it is heated in a dish set directly over the fire.

Common household methods of extending the meat flavor through a considerable quantity of material which would otherwise be lacking in distinctive taste are to serve the meat with dumplings, generally in the dish with it, to combine the meat with crusts, as in meat pies or meat rolls, or to serve the meat on toast and biscuits. Borders of rice, hominy, or mashed potatoes are examples of the same principles applied in different ways. By serving some preparation of flour, rice, hominy, or other food rich in starch with the meat we get a dish which in itself approaches nearer to the balanced ration than meat alone and one in which the meat flavor is extended through a large amount of the material.

MEAT STEW

5 pounds of a cheaper cut of beef. 4 cups of potatoes cut into small pieces. 2/3 cup each of turnips and carrots cut into 1/2-inch cubes. 1/2 onion, chopped. 1/4 cup of flour. Salt and pepper.

Cut the meat into small pieces, removing the fat; try out the fat and brown the meat in it. When well browned, cover with boiling water, boil for five minutes and then cook in a lower temperature until the meat is done. If tender, this will require about three hours on the stove or five hours in the fireless cooker. Add carrots, turnips, onions, pepper, and salt during the last hour of cooking, and the potatoes fifteen minutes before serving. Thicken with the flour diluted with cold water. Serve with dumplings (see below). If this dish is made in the fireless cooker, the mixture must be reheated when the vegetables are put in. Such a stew may also be made of mutton. If veal or pork is used the vegetables may be omitted or simply a little onion used. Sometimes for variety the browning of the meat is dispensed with. When white meat, such as chicken, veal, or fresh pork is used, the gravy is often made rich with cream or milk thickened with flour. The numerous minor additions which may be introduced give the great variety of such stews found in cookbooks.

MEAT DUMPLINGS

2 cups flour. 4 teaspoonfuls baking powder. 2/3 cup milk or a little more if needed. 1/2 teaspoonful salt. 2 teaspoonfuls butter.

Mix and sift the dry ingredients. Work in the butter with the tips of fingers, add milk gradually, roll out to a thickness of one-half inch, and cut with biscuit cutter. In some countries it is customary to season the dumplings themselves with herbs, etc., or to stuff them with bread crumbs fried in butter, instead of depending upon the gravy to season them.

A good way to cook dumplings is to put them in a buttered steamer over a kettle of hot water. They should cook from twelve to fifteen minutes. If it is necessary to cook them with the stew, enough liquid should be removed so that they may be placed upon the meat and vegetables.

Sometimes the dough is baked and served as biscuits over which the stew is poured. If the stew is made with chicken or veal it is generally termed a fricassee.

MEAT PIES AND SIMILAR DISHES

Meat pies represent another method of combining flour with meat. They are ordinarily baked in a fairly deep dish the sides of which may or may not be lined with dough. The cooked meat, cut into small pieces, is put into the dish, sometimes with small pieces of vegetables, a gravy is poured over the meat, the dish is covered with a layer of dough, and then baked. Most commonly the dough is like that used for soda or cream-of-tartar biscuit, but sometimes shortened pastry dough, such as is made for pies, is used. This is especially the case in the fancy individual dishes usually called patties. Occasionally the pie is covered with a potato crust in which case the meat is put directly into the dish without lining the latter. Stewed beef, veal, and chicken are probably most frequently used in pies, but any kind of meat may be used, or several kinds in combination. Pork pies are favorite dishes in many rural regions, especially at hog-killing time, and when well made are excellent.

If pies are made from raw meat and vegetables longer cooking is needed than otherwise, and in such cases it is well to cover the dish with a plate, cook until the pie is nearly done, then remove the plate, add the crust, and return to the oven until the crust is lightly browned. Many cooks insist on piercing holes in the top crust of a meat pie directly it is taken from the oven.

MEAT AND TOMATO PIE

This dish presents an excellent way of using up small quantities of either cold beef or cold mutton. If fresh tomatoes are used, peel and slice them; if canned, drain off the liquid. Place a layer of tomato in a baking dish, then a layer of sliced meat, and over the two dredge flour, pepper, and salt; repeat until the dish is nearly full, then put in an extra layer of tomato and cover the whole with a layer of pastry or of bread or cracker crumbs. When the quantity of meat is small, it may be "helped out" by boiled potatoes or other suitable vegetables. A few oysters or mushrooms improve the flavor, especially when beef is used. The pie will need to be baked from half an hour to an hour, according to its size and the heat of the oven.

MEAT WITH STARCHY MATERIALS

Macaroni cooked with chopped ham, hash made of meat and potatoes or meat and rice, meat croquettes—made of meat and some starchy materials like bread crumbs, cracker dust, or rice—are other familiar examples of meat combined with starchy materials. Pilaf, a dish very common in the Orient and well known in the United States, is of this character and easily made. When there is soup or soup stock on hand it can be well used in the pilaf.

TURKISH PILAF

1/2 cup of rice. 3/4 cup of tomatoes stewed and strained. 1 cup stock or broth. 3 tablespoonfuls of butter.

Cook the rice and tomatoes with the stock in a double boiler until the rice is tender, removing the cover after the rice is cooked if there is too much liquid. Add the butter and stir it in with a fork to prevent the rice from being broken. A little catsup or Chili sauce with water enough to make three-quarters of a cup may be substituted for the tomatoes. This may be served as a border with meat, or served separately in the place of a vegetable, or may make the main dish at a meal, as it is savory and reasonably nutritious.

STEW FROM COLD ROAST

This dish provides a good way of using up the remnants of a roast, either of beef or mutton, The meat should be freed from fat, gristle, and bones, cut into small pieces, slightly salted, and put into a kettle with water enough to nearly cover it. It should simmer until almost ready to break in pieces, when onions and raw potatoes, peeled and quartered, should be added. A little soup stock may also be added if available. Cook until the potatoes are done, then thicken the liquor or gravy with flour. The stew may be attractively served on slices of crisp toast.

MEAT WITH BEANS

Dry beans are very rich in protein, the percentage being fully as large as that in meat. Dry beans and other similar legumes are usually cooked in water, which they absorb, and so are diluted before serving; on the other hand, meats by the ordinary methods of cooking are usually deprived of some of the water originally present—facts which are often overlooked in discussing the matter. Nevertheless, when beans are served with meat the dish is almost as rich in protein as if it consisted entirely of meat.

Pork and beans is such a well-known dish that recipes are not needed. Some cooks use a piece of corned mutton or a piece of corned beef in place of salt or corned pork or bacon or use butter or olive oil in preparing this dish.

In the Southern States, where cowpeas are a common crop, they are cooked in the same way as dried beans. Cowpeas baked with salt pork or bacon make an excellent dish resembling pork and beans, but of distinctive flavor. Cowpeas boiled with ham or with bacon are also well-known and palatable dishes.