5. Our forefathers were devout. They were easily shocked in many ways. However, they permitted many liberties in the application of sermons to particular individuals. Such things would nowadays be strongly disapproved or resented.

6. Man's life is divided into two parts by a constantly moving point. This point is called the present. It divides the past from the future.

7. The Spartans were tormented by ten thousand absurd restraints. They were unable to please themselves in the choice of their wives. They were unable to please themselves in their choice of food or clothing. They were compelled to assume a peculiar manner, and to talk in a peculiar style. Yet they gloried in their liberty.

8. The mere approach to the temperance question is through a forest of statistics. This forest is formidable and complicated. It causes one, in time, to doubt the truth of numbers.

9. They passed the old castle. It was almost unrecognizable. This was by reason of the scaffolding which surrounded it. The castle was now being transformed into a national museum.

10. He stood looking with curiosity at John Peters. Peters limped slightly. Otherwise, he looked well and happy. He was moving about shaking hands right and left.

11. They rushed at him with a yell. He had by this time reached the base of the fountain. With a sudden wonderful leap he sprang onto the railing. There he was out of reach. He balanced himself by touching the brackets which held the lamps.

12. The unintelligent worker reminds one of the squirrel on the wheel. The squirrel rushes round and round and round all day long. At the end of the day the squirrel is still a squirrel. It is still rushing round and round. It is getting nowhere.

13. The man looked at the ladder. He believed he could reach it. There was a sudden flash of hope in his face. His face was already scorched by the fire.

14. Smith was financially embarrassed. He was determined to get to his home. He crawled on top of the trucks of an express car. The car was about to leave the terminal. He courted almost certain death.

15. The commander again looks toward the hills. He looks for a long time. Something seems to excite his apprehension. He converses earnestly with the staff officer. Then the two look more than once toward a poplar tree. The tree stands at the top of the hill. Only its top half shows. The hill is on the east.

16. The most important political question has been the tariff question. This has been most important for ten years. It is important because it is believed to have caused high prices and trusts.

17. The pleasantest month is June. It has flowers. It has mild weather. It has a slight haze in the atmosphere. These things seem to flood one's soul with peace and contentment.

91. The essential qualities that a sentence should possess, aside from correctness, are those of Unity, Coherence, Emphasis, and Euphony.

UNITY. Unity demands that the sentence deal with but one general thought, and that it deal with it in such a consistent and connected manner that the thought is clearly and effectively presented. Unity demands, also, that closely related thoughts should not be improperly scattered among several sentences.

1. Statements having no necessary relation to one another should not be embodied in one sentence.

Bad: The house sat well back from the road, and its owner was a married man. Good: The house sat well back from the road. Its owner was a married man.

a. Avoid the "comma blunder"; that is, do not use a comma to divide into clauses what should be separate sentences, or should be connected by a conjunction.

Bad: Jones lives in the country, he has a fine library. Good: Jones lives in the country. He has a fine library. Good: Jones lives in the country and has a fine library.

b. Avoid the frequent use of the parenthesis in the sentence.

Bad: This is a city (it is called a city, though it has but twelve hundred people) that has no school-house.

2. Avoid all slipshod construction of sentences.

a. Avoid adding a clause to an apparently complete thought.

Bad: That is not an easy problem, I think. Good: That, I think, is not an easy problem. Good: I do not think that is an easy problem.

Bad: He could not be elected mayor again under any circumstances, at least so I am told. Good: He could not, I am told, be elected mayor again under any circumstances. Good: I am told that he could not under any circumstances be elected mayor again.

b. Avoid long straggling sentences.

Poor: The students often gathered to watch the practice of the team, but, just before the last game, the management excluded almost all, and only a few who had influence were allowed to enter, and this favoritism caused much hard feeling and disgust, so that the students were reluctant to support the team, and lost most of their interest, a fact which had a bad effect on the athletics of the institution.

3. Unite into one sentence short sentences and clauses that are closely and logically connected with one another.

Bad: That it is a good school is not without proof. Its diploma admits to all colleges. Good: That it is a good school is not without proof, for its diploma admits to all colleges. Good: That its diploma admits to all colleges is proof that it is a good school.

Bad: This fact was true of all of us. With the exception of John. Good: This fact was true of all of us, with the exception of John.

Bad: Edward came. But John never appeared. Good: Edward came, but John never appeared.

Bad: The town has two railroads running through it. Also, three trolley lines. Good: The town has two railroads running through it, and also three trolley lines. Good: The town has two railroads and three trolley lines running through it.

4. Do not change the point of view.

Bad: We completed our themes, and they were handed in to the teacher. (In the first part of the sentence, the subject is we; in the second it is themes.) Good: We completed our themes and handed them in to the teacher. Good: Our themes were completed and handed in to the teacher.

Bad: The stage took us to the foot of the hill, and we walked from there to the top, where our friends met us. Good: We were taken to the foot of the hill by the stage, and we walked from there to the top, where we were met by our friends.

EXERCISE 67

Revise such of the following sentences as violate the principles of unity:

1. I frequently had ridden on a bicycle, and though the first ride made me stiff, I felt little inconvenience afterwards.

2. Of the firm Jones & Smith, Jones is a man to be respected. While Smith is thoroughly dishonest.

3. John had plenty of energy and ambition. And it is hard to understand why he didn't succeed.

4. I have taken thorough courses in history in both grade school and high school, and I also worked on the farm in the summer.

5. In the East the people are conservative. But, in the West, they are radical and progressive.

6. The news came that special rates would be given from Chicago, and that we could go to Seattle and back for fifty dollars, and so, when our checks came, we seized our grips and started on a trip which was so long and eventful, but as enjoyable as any two months we had ever spent, and gave us an experience that was very valuable in our work, which we took up on our return in the fall.

7. The town has a fine public library, besides there are a number of steel mills.

8. One may reach Boston in two ways. Either by water or by rail.

9. Women (and Christian American women, too) frequently try to evade the customs laws.

10. My aunt has some of Jefferson's silver spoons, so she says.

11. He graduated from college (I think it was Harvard, though I am not sure) and then taught for three years.

12. This is one of Hugo's novels, it is very good.

13. He accomplishes everything he undertakes, if it is at all possible.

14. Washington was president of the United States. But Hamilton guided its financial policy.

15. Every year they sell three hundred sets, and Mr. West helps to write the letters.

16. The country people were the chief patrons of the store. Although no small amount of trade came from the town.

17. The box sat under a tree, and the dog, which was a collie, would go when he was told and sit on it, and no one could call him away but his master who was very often cruelly slow in doing so, but the dog never lost patience.

18. He was one of those persons (of whom there are so painfully many) who never do what they promise.

19. He then went to his room, which was in the back of the house, to sleep, and his books were found there the next day.

20. He was the man that I had mentioned, who had been recommended for the position. Who had been refused because of his deficiencies in English.

21. I can't go, I don't think.

22. He was a very big and very strong man. And, he should have made a great football player.

23. He will surely be elected, I haven't any fear.

24. The food was good, and the service was fine, but we did not care to stay on account of the weather, which was rainy most of the time, and because it was an out-of-the-way place.

25. He converses intelligently and pleasantly, and never gossips, hence he is an agreeable companion.

26. He died of smallpox, and was ninety years old.

27. There were twenty boys in the class. Each past twenty-five years of age.

28. He is in every way honorable, at least so far as money matters are concerned.

29. I had not previously thought of going to college, but now I was enthusiastic on the matter, and all my time (at least most of it) was devoted to poring over catalogues, of which I had a great number, and many of which I knew by heart from having gone over them so often, and finally a college was selected which seemed to suit me, so I went there in the fall to study chemistry.

30. He was very sensitive. So that we could tease him very little without making him angry.

31. There are a great number of stations along this short line of railroad, these, however, do little business.

32. They stopped and asked us the road to Milton, and it was discovered that they were going in the wrong direction, as Milton lay south of Williamsport, and we were camping twenty miles north.

33. He will most likely be suspended, it may perhaps be.

34. That day my cousin went home, and the next day John came to spend a few hours with me, and in the afternoon we drove all over the valley, but neither of us grew tired, because there were so many things to converse about, and so many long treasured questions to ask, and John left in the evening, and then I went to bed.

35. He has been proved a gambler, there you have it all.

36. Mrs. Smith (whose husband had been killed by a falling beam in one of the buildings he was constructing) consented to give us a room and board.

37. He read his lesson carefully, then he closed the book to think it over.

38. He is the most peculiar person I ever met—in the last few years at least.

39. I am reading a book, it is very interesting.

40. They get a great deal of amusement when he is walking (which he does every nice day) by whistling in time with his steps.

41. He gave me this book which you see, and I have been able to get a vast amount of information out of it.

42. It was noticed by everyone that he always behaved well. When he was in school.

43. The magician was present. And pleased everybody with his performances.

44. Because he liked music, John was considered an odd fellow, and his father was dead.

92. COHERENCE. Coherence in the sentence demands that the arrangement and the construction of the sentence be clear and free from ambiguity.

1. Frame the sentence so that it can have but one possible meaning.

Wrong: He owned several dogs and was greatly troubled with the mange.

Right: He owned several dogs and was greatly troubled because they had the mange.

Right: He was greatly troubled because several of his dogs had the mange.

2. See that the antecedent of every pronoun is clear and explicit.

Wrong: The dog was bitten on the front foot which has since died.

Right: The dog, which has since died, was bitten on the front foot.

Right: The dog was bitten on the front foot and has since died.

3. See that the word to which each modifier refers is unmistakable.

a. Place every modifying element as near as possible to the word which it modifies.

Wrong: He was sitting in a chair reading a book made in the mission style.

Right: He was sitting in a chair made in the mission style and was reading a book.

Right: He was sitting reading a book in a chair made in the mission style.

Wrong: The table had been inlaid by his father, containing over fifteen hundred pieces.

Right: The table, containing over fifteen hundred pieces, had been inlaid by his father.

Right: The table contained over fifteen hundred pieces and had been inlaid by his father.

b. Avoid the "squinting construction." By this term is meant the placing of a clause so that it is impossible to tell whether it refers to the preceding or succeeding part of the sentence.

Wrong: It would be hard to explain, if you were to ask me, what the trouble was.

Right: If you were to ask me what the trouble was, it would be hard to explain.

4. Place correlatives so that there can be no doubt as to their office. Neither—nor, both—and, etc., are frequently not placed next to the expressions they are meant to connect. See Sec.84.

Wrong: He neither brought a trunk nor a suit-case.

Right: He brought neither a trunk nor a suit-case.

Wrong: He not only received money from his father, but also his mother.

Right: He received money not only from his father, but also from his mother.

Right: He not only received money from his father, but also received it from his mother.

5. Omit no word that is not accurately implied in the sentence.

Wrong: The man never has, and never will be successful.

Right: The man never has been, and never will be successful.

Wrong: It is no concern to him.

Right: It is of no concern to him.

6. Use a summarizing word, in general, to collect the parts of a long complex sentence.

Republicans, Democrats, Socialists, Prohibitionists, and Populists—all were there.

7. Express similar thoughts, when connected in the same sentence, in a similar manner.

Bad: I decided on doing the work that night, and to write it out on the typewriter. Good: I decided to do the work that night and to write it out on the typewriter.

Bad: Textbooks are going out of use in the modern law schools, but some schools still use them. Good: Textbooks are going out of use in the modern law schools, but in some they are still used. Good: Though textbooks are going out of use in modern law schools, they are still used in some of them.

Bad: One should never try to avoid work in school, for you always increase your trouble by doing so. Good: One should never try to avoid work in school, for one always increases his trouble by doing so. Good: One usually only increases his troubles by trying to avoid work in school.

EXERCISE 68

Point out and correct any lack of coherence that exists in the following sentences:

1. Chicken lice are troubling all the farmers in the state.

2. The statute requires that one study three years, and that you pass an examination.

3. He is home.

4. Rich and poor, old and young, large and small, good and bad, were in the assemblage.

5. He both presented me with a gold piece and an increase in salary.

6. Tell the doctor, if he comes before seven, to call.

7. When the dog came on the porch, feeling playful, I laid aside my paper.

8. I only knew John.

9. The cart was pulled by a man creaking under a heavy load.

10. John told his father that his coat was too tight for him.

11. I not only knew the president but also the whole board of directors.

12. The boxes were full of broken glass with which we made fire.

13. Mrs. Smith wants washing.

14. A young woman died very suddenly last Sunday while I was away from home as a result of a druggist's mistake.

15. He was hit in the discharge of his duty by a policeman.

16. A dog has been found by Mrs. Jones with one black ear.

17. In taking the census innumerable errors are made, thus making the result unreliable.

18. It was a pleasure to see them work and their good nature.

19. The boy went to the teacher and told him that his trouble was that he used the wrong book.

20. John was not punished because of his ill health, and he was not entirely to blame for it.

21. They said they saw them coming before they saw them.

22. The officers arrested the men and they were then locked up.

23. You made the same mistake that you now make last week.

24. Wishing to make no mistake the boy was told by him to see the professor.

25. It resulted opposite to that in which it was expected.

26. They are required to report both on their way to work and coming home.

27. Under his direction we were taught grammar and something of composition was taken up.

28. Taking all precautions, a watchman is on duty every night.

29. We tried to study, but didn't do any.

30. I do not care either to see you or Henry.

31. He has a number of kennels with many dogs scattered over the farm.

32. Mrs. X. wants a picture of her children painted very badly.

33. One of the drawbacks to the work is that time is very scarce, in this way limiting what can be done.

34. The bicycle was easy to learn to ride, which I did.

35. Rails are placed along the sides of the bridges, and horses are forbidden to trot over them.

36. John told Henry that he thought he needed help.

37. He has to stop for rest, and to avoid getting too far ahead.

38. Board, room, clothes, laundry, and amusements, are higher there than here.

39. Mathematics is not only necessary, but also languages.

40. After having read the proof, it is rolled up, and you mail it back to the printer.

41. The baskets were unpacked and the girls waited upon them.

42. They knew all that was to be learned, including John.

43. We could say that the greater part of us had both seen the Niagara Falls and Canada.

44. Let him wear a loose shoe that has sore feet.

45. Being out of work, and as I did not wish to loaf, I started to school.

46. He tried to study unsuccessfully, and in the end failed.

47. He built a house for his wife with seven windows.

48. He sent her an invitation to go for a ride on the back of his business card.

49. I saw five automobiles the other night sitting on our front door step.

50. Mrs. Smith was killed last night while cooking in a dreadful manner.

51. Post cards are both increasing in variety and beauty.

52. He neither told John nor his father.

53. Mary told her mother, if she were needed, she would be called.

54. He bought a horse when ten years old.

55. The child the parent often rebuked.

56. Sitting on a chair the entire house could be watched.

57. Coming along the road a peculiar noise was heard by us.

58. Under the enforced sanitary laws people ceased to die gradually.

59. I knew him as a physician when a boy.

60. He came leading his dog on a bicycle.

61. When wanted he sent me a letter.

93. EMPHASIS. Emphasis demands that the sentence be so arranged that the principal idea shall be brought into prominence and the minor details subordinated.

1. Avoid weak beginnings and weak endings in the sentence.

Bad: He was a student who did nothing right as a rule. Good: He was a student, who, as a rule, did nothing right.

2. A change from the normal order often makes a great change in emphasis.

Normal: A lonely owl shrieked from a thick tree not far back of our camp.

Changed: From a thick tree not far back of our camp a lonely owl shrieked.

3. Where it is suitable, arrange words and clauses so as to produce a climax; i. e., have the most important come last.

Bad: Human beings, dogs, cats, horses, all living things were destroyed. Good: Cats, dogs, horses, human beings, all living things were destroyed.

4. Avoid all words which add nothing to the thought.

Bad: He is universally praised by all people. Good: He is universally praised.

Bad: The darkness was absolutely impenetrable, and not a thing could be seen. Good: The darkness was absolutely impenetrable.

Bad: Mr. Smith bids me say that he regrets that a slight indisposition in health precludes his granting himself the pleasure of accepting your invitation to come to your house to dine. Good: Mr. Smith bids me say that he regrets that sickness prevents his accepting your invitation to dine.

EXERCISE 69

Reconstruct all of the following sentences that violate the principles of emphasis:

1. Children, women, and men were slain without pity.

2. I'll prove his guilt by means of marked money, if I can.

3. Most of the students have done good work, although some have not.

4. Will you please start up the machine.

5. Where ignorance leads to a condition of blissful happiness, it would be folly to seek a condition of great wisdom.

6. A man having foolishly tried to board a moving train yesterday, was killed by being run over.

7. As a maker of violins he has never had an equal before nor since.

8. All his friends were collected together.

9. The field was so wet that we could not play on it, except occasionally.

10. Few were superior to him as a sculptor.

11. Railway companies, trolley companies, cable companies, and even hack lines were affected by the change.

12. Books were his constant companions, and he was with them always.

13. That great, gaunt mass of stones, rock, and earth, which falls upon your vision at the edge of the horizon of your view, is known by the appellation of Maxon Mountain.

14. The noise of trains is heard ceaselessly from morning till night, without stopping at all.

15. He tried to do right so far as we know.

16. That knowledge is the important thing to gain beyond all else.

94. EUPHONY. Euphony demands that the sentence be of pleasing sound.

1. Avoid repeating the same word in a sentence.

Bad: He commanded his son to obey his commands.

2. Avoid words and combinations of words that are hard to pronounce.

Bad: He seized quickly a thick stick.

3. Avoid a rhyme and the repetition of a similar syllable.

Bad: They went for a walk in order to talk.

EXERCISE 70

Correct such of the following sentences as lack euphony:

1. In the problems, he solved one once.

2. Most of the time he does the most he can.

3. She worries about what to wear wherever she goes.

4. It is impossible for one to believe that one so changeable can be capable of such work.

5. Those are our books.

6. Every time there was a chance for error, error was made.

7. It is true that the man spoke truly when he said, "Truth is stranger than fiction."

8. The well must have been well made, else it would not have served so well.

9. Everything he said was audible throughout the auditorium.

10. He acted very sillily.

11. He is still worried over the ill fulfillment of John's promise.

12. In his letters there is something fine in every line.

13. They ordered the members of the order to pay their dues.

EXERCISE 71. A GENERAL EXERCISE ON SENTENCES

Revise the following sentences. In parentheses after each sentence is the number of the paragraph in which the error involved is set forth:

1. Not only should we go to church, but also prayer-meeting. (92-4.)

2. In the East, just above the horizon, Mars may be readily seen in the evenings. (93-1.)

3. There is nothing distinctive about the style of the book, and it tells the story of a young Russian couple. (91-1.)

4. The nasal noise in his enunciation was displeasing. (94-2.)

5. Books, papers, records, money, checks, and receipts, were burned. (92-6.)

6. I tried to learn to write plainly, and have failed. (92-7.)

7. He has not and never will succeed in doing that. (92-5.)

8. He is sick as a result of the picnic, it may be. (91-2.)

9. Finally they stepped from the boat into the water, and tried to move it by all of them pushing. (92-2.)

10. One is sure to become dull in mind, and ill in health, if you fail to exercise. (93-1.)

11. The trip was comparatively quickly and easily made. (94-1.)

12. She was of ordinary family, but he didn't think of criticizing that, since his own parents were of the German peasantry. (91-4.)

13. The man was sentenced to either be hanged or life-imprisonment. (92-7.)

14. People of wealth (and it is by no means an exception to the rule) fail to notice the misery about them. (91-1-b.)

15. There one can see miles and miles. For there are no mountains. (91-3-a.)

16. She told her that she thought that she had come too soon. (92-2.)

17. By the judge's mistake, he was made a free man, and started on a career of crime again. (93-1.)

18. Flora Macdonald was a genuine heroine. (94-3.)

19. No criticism was made of the object, but of the means. (92-5.)

20. If you observe the relation of spelling to pronunciation, you will have little trouble in pronunciation. (94-1.)

21. He threw the stone at the window. And then he ran. (91-3.)

22. The reading of Poe's stories at least is entertaining, if not elevating. (92-3-b.)

23. John the lion killed. (92-3-b.)

24. He arose suddenly upsetting the table. (92-3-b.)

25. Bridget was a faithful servant, she never failed in her duties for more than five years. (91-1-a.)

26. Instead of six, now four years only are to be spent in college. (92-3-a.)

27. We started down the river toward Harrisburg. But we did not get very far. For a storm soon came upon us. (91-3.)

28. He says that he has the book at his home which belongs to Anderson. (92-2).

29. I secured a horse and went for a ride, and after my return, we had supper. (91-4.)

30. Two of the company were killed in the battle. The others escaped without a scratch. (91-3.)

31. Different from most persons, he will not mention to any one his faults. (92-2.)

32. Not only is the book interesting, but it is instructive also. (93-1.)

33. May not only he be satisfied with the result, but delighted. (92-4.)

34. Main Street is very long, and the hotels are on Market Street. (91-1.)

35. He saw the money passing the store which had been lost. (92-2.)



CHAPTER VIII

CAPITALIZATION AND PUNCTUATION

RULES FOR CAPITALIZATION

95. Capitalize all proper nouns and adjectives derived from proper nouns.

France, French, Paris, Parisian, John, etc.

96. Capitalize all titles when used with proper nouns. Capitalize, also, the titles of governmental officers of high rank even when used separately. Do not capitalize other titles when used separately.

Uncle Sam, Bishop Anselm, Professor Morton, the Postmaster General, Postmaster Smith of Kelley Cross Roads, the postmaster of Kelley Cross Roads.

97. Capitalize the important words in titles of books.

The Master of Ballantrae, The Trail of the Lonesome Pine, The Discovery of America.

98. Capitalize the first word of every sentence, of every line of poetry, and of every complete sentence that is quoted.

He said, "Is it I whom you seek?"

He said she was a "perfect woman, nobly planned."

99. Capitalize the words, mother, father, etc., when used with proper names of persons, or when used without a possessive pronoun to refer to some definite person. Capitalize also, common nouns in phrases used as proper nouns.

Father John, my Uncle John, my uncle, if Uncle writes, if my uncle writes, along the river, along the Hudson River, Madison Square.

100. Capitalize the names, North, South, East, and West, when referring to parts of the country; words used to name the Deity; the words, Bible and Scriptures; and the words I and O, but not oh unless it is at the beginning of a sentence.

EXERCISE 72

Secure five examples under each of the above rules, except the last.

RULES FOR PUNCTUATION

101. Punctuation should not be done for its own sake, but simply to make the meaning clearer; never punctuate where no punctuation is needed.

The following rules of punctuation are generally accepted:

The Period (.)

102. Use the period after (1) every complete sentence that is not interrogative nor exclamatory; (2) after every abbreviation; and (3) after Yes and No when used alone.

The Interrogation Point (?)

103. Use the interrogation point after every direct question.

The Exclamation Point (!)

104. Use the exclamation point after every exclamatory sentence or expression.

Alas! It is too late.

Fire if you dare!

The Comma (,)

105. Use the comma after each word of a series of words that all have the same grammatical relation to the rest of the sentence, unless conjunctions are used between all of those words.

Ours is a red, white, and blue flag.

He talked, smoked, and read.

He talked and smoked and read.

Do not, however, precede the series by a comma.

Wrong: He lectures on, Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Fridays.

Right: He lectures on Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Fridays.

106. Use the comma to separate two adjectives modifying the same noun, but not if one modifies both the other adjective and the noun.

An honest, upright man.

An old colored man.

A soiled red dress.

107. Use the comma to set off non-emphatic introductory words or phrases, and participial phrases.

John, come here.

By the way, did you see Mary?

After having done this, Caesar crossed the Rubicon.

Caesar crossed the Rubicon, thus taking a decisive step.

108. Use the comma to set off appositive expression (see Sec.29, Note 1), or a geographical name that limits a preceding name.

He was told to see Dr. Morton, the principal of the school.

Muncy, Pennsylvania, is not spelled the same as Muncie, Indiana.

109. Use the comma to set off any sentence element that is placed out of its natural order.

If it is possible, he will do it.

To most people, this will seem absurd.

110. Use the comma to set off slightly parenthetical remarks that are thrown into the sentence. If the break is very marked, use the dash or parenthesis.

That, if you will permit me to explain, cannot be done without permission from the police.

Two men, Chase and Arnold, were injured.

He, himself, said it.

111. Use the comma to set off explanatory or non-restrictive clauses, but not to set off restrictive clauses. (See Sec.Sec. 25 and 26.)

Mr. Gardner, who has been working in the bank, sang at the church.

But: The Mr. Gardner whom you know is his brother.

112. Use the comma to separate cooerdinate clauses that are united by a simple conjunction.

He can sing well, but he seldom will sing in public.

He doesn't wish to sing, and I do not like to urge him.

113. Use the comma to separate the members of a compound sentence when those members are short and closely connected in their thought.

John carried the suit-case, I the hat box, and William the umbrella.

114. Use the comma to separate dependent and conditional clauses introduced by such words as if, when, though, unless the connection be close.

He did not stop, though I called repeatedly.

Your solution is right in method, even if you have made a mistake in the work.

But: You are wrong when you say that.

115. Use the comma to set off short, informal quotations, unless such quotation is a word or phrase closely woven into the sentence.

William said, "Good morning"; but, "Hello," was Henry's greeting.

But: He introduced the man as "my distinguished friend."

116. Use the comma to set off adverbs and adverbial phrases; such as, however, then, also, for example, so to speak, etc.

Such a man, however, can seldom be found.

This sentence, for example, can be improved by changing the order.

117. Use the comma whenever for any reason there is any distinct pause in the sentence that is not otherwise indicated by punctuation, or whenever something clearly is omitted.

We want students, not boys who simply come to school.

Caesar had his Brutus; Charles the First, his Cromwell; ...

The Semicolon (;)

118. Use the semicolon to separate the clauses of a compound sentence that are long or that are not joined by conjunctions.

He says that he shall teach for two more years; then he shall probably return to college.

119. Use a semicolon to separate the clauses of a compound sentence that are joined by a conjunction, only when it is desirable to indicate a very definite pause.

I have told you of the theft; but I have yet to tell you of the reason for it.

120. Use a semicolon to separate the parts of a compound or a complex sentence, when some of those parts are punctuated by commas.

As men, we admire the man that succeeds; but, as honest men, we cannot admire the man that succeeds by dishonesty.

Wrong: He spends his money for theatres, and dinners, and wine, and for his family he has not a cent.

Right: He spends his money for theatres, and dinners, and wine; and for his family he has not a cent.

121. Use a semicolon before certain adverbs and adverbial expressions, when they occur in the body of the sentence and are used conjunctively; such as, accordingly, besides, hence, thus, therefore, etc.

I do not care to see the game; besides, it is too cold.

John is sick; however, I think he will be here.

122. Use the semicolon before the expressions, namely, as, that is, etc., or before their abbreviations, viz., i.e., etc., when they are used to introduce a series of particular terms, simple in form, which are in apposition with a general term.

At present there are four prominent political parties; namely, the Republican, the Democratic, the Prohibition, and the Socialist.

The Colon (:)

123. Use the colon after an introduction to a long or formal quotation, before an enumeration, or after a word, phrase, or sentence that constitutes an introduction to something that follows.

Mr. Royer says in his letter: "You will remember that I promised to send you a copy of my latest musical composition. I am mailing it to you to-day."

There are four essentials of a legal contract: competent parties, consideration, agreement, and legal subject matter.

124. Use the colon after the salutation of a formal letter. (See Sec.161.)

The Dash (—)

125. Use the dash to indicate any sudden break in thought or construction.

I am pleased to meet you, Captain—what did you say your name is?

The man I met—I refer to Captain Jones—was in the naval service.

126. Use the dash in the place of the comma to set off more definitely some part of a sentence.

I was always lacking what I needed most—money.

127. Use the dash preceded by a comma before a word which sums up the preceding part of a sentence.

Democrats, Republicans, Prohibitionists, Socialists, and Populists,—all were there.

128. Do not use dashes where not required or in place of some other mark of punctuation.

The Parenthesis Marks ( )

129. Use the parenthesis marks only to enclose a statement that is thrown into the sentence, but is grammatically independent of it.

He belongs (at least so it is said) to every secret society in town.

130. Do not use a comma or other punctuation mark with the parenthesis marks unless it would be required even if there were no parenthesis. When other punctuation is used it should follow the parenthesis.

They sent us (as they had agreed to do) all the papers in the case.

We expect John to bring his roommate home with him (he has been very anxious to do so); but we expect no one else.

Modern usage is to avoid entirely the use of the parentheses.

The Bracket [ ]

131. Use the bracket to enclose some statement or word of the writer that is thrown into a quotation by way of explanation or otherwise.

His letter reads: "We have decided to get Mr. Howard [his cousin] to deliver the address..."

The Quotation Marks (" ")

132. Use quotation marks to enclose quotations of the exact language of another.

The Bible says, "Charity suffereth long."

133. Use single quotation marks (' ') to enclose a quotation within a quotation.

The speaker in closing said: "I can imagine no more inspiring words than those of Nelson at Trafalgar, 'England expects every man to do his duty.'"

134. If a quotation consists of several paragraphs, quotation marks should precede each paragraph and follow the last.

135. Do not use quotation marks to enclose each separate sentence of a single continuous quotation.

136. Do not use quotation marks to enclose well-known nicknames, titles of books, proverbial phrases, or to indicate one's own literary invention.

137. Examine the location of quotation marks and other punctuation in the following sentences:

Wrong: "You may do as you wish, he said, if you only wish to do right."

Right: "You may do as you wish," he said, "if you only wish to do right."

Wrong: "Can you come," she asked?

Right: "Can you come?" she asked.

The Apostrophe (')

138. Use the apostrophe to mark certain plurals and possessives. See Sec.Sec. 13 and 15.

Use the apostrophe to indicate the omission of letters.

Doesn't, Can't, What's the matter?

The Hyphen (-)

139. Use the hyphen when a word must be divided at the end of a line.

Never divide words of one syllable, nor short words; such as, though, through, also, besides, over, etc.

Never divide words except at the end of a syllable, and always put the hyphen at the end of the first line, not at the beginning of the second.

Wrong division: int-end, prop-ose, superint-endent, expre-ssion.

Proper division: in-tend, pro-pose, superin-tendent, expres-sion.

In writing it is good usage not to divide a word like expression by placing ex on one line and the rest of the word on the next line.

140. Use the hyphen to divide certain compound words. No rule can be given by which to determine when compounded words demand the hyphen. Only custom determines.

Always use a hyphen with to-day, to-morrow, and to-night.

EXERCISE 73

Punctuate and capitalize the following selections. For instructions as to paragraphing and the arrangement of conversation, see Sec.Sec. 143 and 144:

1. however father had told us not to expect good accommodations because it is a very small town

2. tomorrow if it is a clear day we will go to pittsburgh

3. will that be satisfactory was his question

4. it doesnt make any difference said she whether you come or not

5. whats the matter with you john

6. john replied i mean that poem that begins the curfew tolls the knell of parting day

7. and that day i was only a child then I travelled all alone to new york city

8. he is a member at least he claims to be of the presbyterian church

9. the author says that the hero of waterloo wellington was a general of great military training

10. buddhist brahmin mohammedan christian jewish every religion was represented

11. his letter will tell what he wants or will attempt to do so

12. you will please hand in the following sentences one three seven and nine

13. four presidents have been unitarians namely the two adams fillmore and taft

14. the verse to which you refer is as follows the boast of heraldry the pomp of power all that beauty all that wealth eer gave await alike the inevitable hour the paths of glory lead but to the grave

15. a noun is the name of something as william france book cat

16. the train leaves at eight therefore we shall have to rise at seven at latest

17. the different points discussed are these first the history of the divine right theory second the exponents of the theory and third the result of the theory

18. in the first problem divide in the second multiply

19. if the break is slight use a comma if it is more perceptible use a semicolon if it is very sharp use a period

20. william if you gear me answer

21. he told mother that he must go home at least that is what she understood

22. as noise it is an undoubted success as music it is a flat failure

23. that may be true but i still doubt it

24. separate the clauses by a comma unless the connection be close

25. even though that be true it does not prove what we want proved

26. mary said yes but helen said no

27. he is called the peerless leader

28. such a man for example was lincoln

29. if as you say it ought to be done why dont you do it

30. that too is a mistake

31. that is wool not cotton as you seem to think

32. the english are stolid the french lively

33. in that case let us have war

34. such an opinion i may say is absurd

35. alas when i had noticed my mistake it was too late

36. the house which was built by smith is on the corner of a large lot

37. he means the house that has green shutters

38. those are all good books but none of them will do

39. dickens wrote nicholas nickleby hugo les miserables thackeray henry esmond

40. he is a good student and also a great athlete

41. he gave me a red silk handkerchief

42. having assigned the lesson he left the room

43. royers address is danville illinois

44. you will find it discussed in paragraphs one two and three

45. i had classes under the president dr harris

46. moreover naxon the cashier has fled

47. oh that is what you mean is it

48. for this you will need a piece of clean white paper

49. the bible says the lord thy god is a jealous god

50. the boundary of uncle sams lands is the rio grande river

51. theodore roosevelt is not the only strenuous man in history

52. the north quickly recovered from the civil war

53. he told mother to write to my uncle about it

54. he said then why are you here

55. in that army old young and middle aged men served for their country could no longer raise a picked army 56. he was told to ask the principal professor morton

57. in the same town muncy lives smith now a respected man

58. a peasant named ali according to a good old oriental story needing badly a donkey for some urgent work decided to apply to his neighbor mehmed whose donkey ali knew to be idle in the stable that day i am sorry my dear neighbor said mehmed in reply to alis request but i cannot please you my son took the donkey this morning to the next village i assure you insisted ali i shall take the very best care of him my dear neighbor can you not take my word demanded mehmed with a show of anger i tell you the donkey is out but at this point the donkey began to bray loudly there that is the donkey braying now well said the justly indignant mehmed if you would rather take my donkeys word than my word we can be friends no longer and under no circumstances can i lend you anything.

59. a coroner was called upon to hold an inquest over the body of an italian the only witness was a small boy of the same nationality who spoke no english the examination proceeded thus where do you live my boy the boy shook his head do you speak english another shake of the head do you speak french another shake do you speak german still no answer how old are you no reply have you father and mother no reply do you speak italian the boy gave no sign well said the coroner i have questioned the witness in four languages and can get no answer it is useless to proceed the court is adjourned.

NOTE. Further exercise in punctuation may be had by copying without the marks of punctuation selections from books, and afterwards inserting the proper marks.



CHAPTER IX

THE PARAGRAPH

141. The PARAGRAPH is a connected series of sentences all dealing with the development of a single topic. Where the general subject under discussion is very narrow, the paragraph may constitute the whole composition; but usually, it forms one of a number of subtopics, each dealing with some subdivision of the general subject. For each one of these subtopics a separate paragraph should be made.

The purpose of the paragraph is to aid the reader to comprehend the thought to be expressed. The paragraph groups in a logical way the different ideas to be communicated. It gives rest to the eye of the reader, and makes clearer the fact that there is a change of topic at each new paragraph.

142. PARAGRAPH LENGTH. There is no fixed rule governing the proper length of the paragraph, but, probably, no paragraph need be more than three hundred words in length. If the whole composition is not more than two hundred and fifty words in length, it will not often need to be subdivided into paragraphs. In a letter, paragraphing should be more frequent than in other compositions.

Paragraphing should not be too frequent. If paragraphing is too frequent, by making each minute subdivision of equal importance, it defeats its purpose of grouping ideas about some general topic.

143. Sometimes a sentence or even a part of a sentence may be set off as a separate paragraph in order to secure greater emphasis. This, however, is only using the paragraph for a proper purpose—to aid in gaining clearness.

144. PARAGRAPHING OF SPEECH. In a narrative, each direct quotation, together with the rest of the sentence of which it is a part, should constitute a separate paragraph. This rule should be always followed in writing a conversation. Examine the following:

A certain Scotch family cherishes this anecdote of a trip which Dr. Samuel Johnson made to Scotland. He had stopped at the house of this family for a meal, and was helped to the national dish. During the meal the hostess asked:

"Dr. Johnson, what do you think of our Scotch broth?"

"Madam," was the answer, "in my opinion it is fit only for pigs."

"Then have some more," said the woman.

The only case in which the quoted words can be detached from the remainder of the sentence is where they form the end of the sentence after some introductory words, as in the second paragraph of the example just given.

145. INDENTATION OF THE PARAGRAPH. The first sentence of each new paragraph should be indented. See example under Sec.144. No other sentence should be so indented.

146. The essential qualities which each paragraph should have are: Unity, Coherence, and Emphasis.

UNITY. Unity requires that the paragraph should deal with only one subject, and should include nothing which does not have a direct bearing on that subject. Thus, in the following paragraph, the italicized sentence violates the principle of Unity, because, very obviously it belongs to some other paragraph:

Never did any race receive the Gospel with more ardent enthusiasm than the Irish. St. Patrick, a zealous priest, was thought to have banished the snakes from the island. So enthusiastic were the Irish, that, not content with the religious work in Ireland, the Irish Church sent out its missionaries to Scotland, to Germany, and to the Alps and Apennines. It founded religious houses and monasteries....

Separate paragraphs should not be made of matter which belongs together. If the ideas can all be fairly included under one general topic, unity demands that they be grouped in one paragraph. Thus, in describing the route followed in a certain journey, one should not use a separate paragraph for each step in the journey.

Wrong:

In returning to the University, I went from Pittsburgh to Cleveland.

Then I took a berth for the night on one of the lake steamers running from Cleveland to Detroit.

From Detroit I completed the journey to Ann Arbor on an early train the next morning.

If unity is to be secured, not only must all the ideas brought out in the paragraph deal with the same topic, but also, they must be developed in some consistent, systematic order. A certain point of view should be generally maintained as to tense, subject, and manner of expression.

147. HOW TO GAIN UNITY. Careful thought before beginning the paragraph is necessary if unity is to be gained. The topic of the paragraph should be determined, and should be clearly indicated by a topic sentence. Usually this topic sentence should be placed near the beginning of the paragraph. The first sentence is the clearest and best place for it. The topic sentence need not be a formal statement of the subject to be discussed, but may be any sentence that shows what is to be the central idea of the paragraph.

With the topic determined, there are various ways of developing it. It may be developed by repetition; by adding details and specific instances to the general statement; by presenting proof; by illustration; or by showing cause or effect.

148. Examine the following paragraphs. Each possesses the quality of unity. The topic sentence in each case is italicized.

To rule was not enough for Bonaparte. He wanted to amaze, to dazzle, to overpower men's souls, by striking, bold, magnificent, and unanticipated results. To govern ever so absolutely would not have satisfied him, if he must have governed silently. He wanted to reign through wonder and awe, by the grandeur and terror of his name, by displays of power which would rivet on him every eye, and make him the theme of every tongue. Power was his supreme object; but power which should be gazed at as well as felt, which should strike men as a prodigy, which should shake old thrones as an earthquake, and, by the suddenness of its new creations, should awaken something of the submissive wonder which miraculous agency inspires.

From The Character of Napoleon Bonaparte, by Channing.

There is something in the very season of the year that gives a charm to the festivity of Christmas. At other times we derive a great portion of our pleasures from the mere beauties of Nature. Our feelings sally forth and dissipate themselves over the sunny landscape and we "live abroad and everywhere." The song of the bird, the murmur of the stream, the breathing fragrance of spring, the soft voluptuousness of summer, the golden pomp of autumn; earth with its mantle of refreshing green, and heaven with its deep delicious blue and its cloudy magnificence—all fill us with mute but exquisite delight, and we revel in the luxury of mere sensation. But in the depth of winter, when Nature lies despoiled of every charm, and wrapped in her shroud of sheeted snow, we turn our gratifications to moral sources. The dreariness and desolation of the landscape, the short gloomy days and darksome nights, while they circumscribe our wanderings, shut in also our feelings from rambling abroad, and make us more keenly disposed for the pleasures of the social circle. Our thoughts are more concentrated; our friendly sympathies more aroused. We feel more sensibly the charm of each other's society, and are brought more closely together by dependence on each other for enjoyment. Heart calleth unto heart, and we draw our pleasures from the deep wells of living kindness which lie in the quiet recesses of our bosoms; and which, where resorted to, furnish forth the pure element of domestic felicity.

From Christmas, by Washington Irving.

149. COHERENCE. Coherence demands that each paragraph shall be perfectly clear in its meaning, and that it be so constructed that it may be readily grasped by the reader. The relation of sentence to sentence, of idea to idea, must be clearly brought out. The whole fabric of the paragraph must be woven together—it must not consist of disconnected pieces.

150. HOW TO GAIN COHERENCE. Where vividness or some other quality does not gain coherence in the sentence, it is usually gained by the use of words or phrases which refer to or help to keep in mind the effect of the preceding sentences, or which show the bearing of the sentence on the paragraph topic. These words may be of various sorts; as, it, this view, however, in this way, etc. Sometimes the subject is repeated occasionally throughout the paragraph, or is directly or indirectly indicated again at the end of the paragraph.

Examine carefully the following selections. Note the italicized words of coherence, and note in each case how they aid the flow of thought from sentence to sentence, and help to keep in mind the paragraph topic.

I will give you my opinion and advice in regard to the two books you have named. The first is interesting and easy to read. It is, also, by no means lacking in the value of the information it presents. But the second, while it is no less interesting and equally valuable in its contents, seems to me far more logical and scholarly in its construction. In addition to this I think you will find it cheaper in price, by reason of its not being so profusely illustrated. Therefore, I should advise you to procure the second for your study. Either, indeed, will do, but since you have a choice, take the better one.

A Husbandman who had a quarrelsome family, after having tried in vain to reconcile them by words, thought he might more readily prevail by an example. So he called his sons and bade them lay a bundle of sticks before him. Then having tied them up into a fagot, he told the lads, one after another, to take it up and break it. They all tried, but tried in vain. Then, untying the fagot, he gave them the sticks to break one by one. This they did with the greatest ease. Then said the father: "Thus, my sons, as long as you remain united, you are a match for all your enemies; but differ and separate, and you are undone." AEsop's Fables.

Examine also the selections under Sec.Sec. 205 and 206.

151. EMPHASIS. The third quality which a paragraph should possess is emphasis. The paragraph should be so constituted as to bring into prominence the topic or the point it is intended to present. The places of greatest emphasis are usually at the beginning and at the end of the paragraph. In short paragraphs sufficient emphasis is generally gained by having a topic sentence at the beginning. In longer paragraphs it is often well to indicate again the topic at the end by way of summary in order to impress thoroughly on the reader the effect of the paragraph.

EXERCISE 74

The few following suggestions for practice in paragraph construction are given by way of outline. Additional subjects and exercises will readily suggest themselves to teacher or student.

These topics are intended to apply only to isolated paragraphs—"paragraph themes." As has been suggested, more latitude in the matter of unity is allowed in compositions so brief that more than one paragraph is unnecessary.

Write paragraphs:

1. Stating the refusal of a position that has been offered to you, and giving your reasons for the refusal.

2. Describing the appearance of some building. Give the general appearance and then the details.

3. Explaining how to tie a four-in-hand necktie.

4. Stating your reasons for liking or not liking some book or play.

5. Describing the personal appearance of some one of your acquaintance.

6. To prove that the world is round.

7. To prove that it pays to buy good shoes. (Develop by illustration.)

8. Showing by comparison that there are more advantages in city life than in country life.

Write paragraphs on the following subjects:

9. My Earliest Recollection.

10. The Sort of Books I Like Best.

11. Why I Like to Study X Branch.

12. My Opinion of My Relatives.

13. The Man I Room With.

14. Why I Was Late to Class.

15. What I Do on Sundays.

16. How to Prevent Taking Cold.

17. How to Cure a Cold.

18. My Best Teacher.

19. My Favorite Town.

20. Why I Go Fishing.

21. My Favorite Month.

22. What Becomes of My Matches.

23. Baseball is a Better Game than Football.

24. The View from X Building.

25. Why I Go to School.

26. My Opinion of Rainy Days.

27. My Most Useful Friend.

28. Why I Dislike Surprise Parties.

29. Why I Like to Visit at X's.

30. The Police Service of X Town.



CHAPTER X

LETTER-WRITING

NOTE TO TEACHER.—For the purpose of training in composition, in the more elementary work, letter-writing affords probably the most feasible and successful means. Letter-writing does not demand any gathering of material, gains much interest, and affords much latitude for individual tastes in topics and expression. Besides, letter-writing is the field in which almost all written composition will be done after leaving school; and so all training in school will be thoroughly useful. For this reason, it is suggested that letter-writing be made one of the chief fields for composition work.

In Exercise 75, are given a number of suggestions for letter-writing. Others will readily occur to the teacher.

THE HEADING

152. POSITION OF HEADING. In all business letters the writer's address and the date of writing should precede the letter and be placed at the upper right hand side of the sheet not less than an inch from the top. This address and date is called the HEADING. In friendly letters the parts of the heading are sometimes placed at the end of the letter on the left side a short distance below the body of the letter. This is permissible, but to place it at the beginning in all letters is more logical and customary. Never write part of the heading at the beginning and part at the end of the letter.

153. ORDER OF HEADING. The parts of the heading should be sufficient to enable the accurate addressing of a reply, and should be in the following order: (1) the street address, (2) the town or the city address, (3) the date. If all cannot be easily placed on one line, two or even three lines should be used; but, in no case, should the above order be varied. Examples:

Wrong: March 31, 1910, Red Oaks, Iowa, 210 Semple Street.

Right: 210 Semple Street, Red Oaks, Iowa, March 31, 1910.

Right: 210 Semple Street, Red Oaks, Iowa, March 31, 1910.

Right: 210 Semple Street, Red Oaks, Iowa, March 31, 1910.

If only two lines are used, put the writer's address on the first line and the date on the second.

Wrong: January 19, 1910, Sharon, Pennsylvania, The Hotel Lafayette.

Right: The Hotel Lafayette, Sharon, Pennsylvania, January 19, 1910.

154. PUNCTUATION OF HEADING. Place a period after each abbreviation that is used. In addition to this, place commas after the street address, after the town address, after the state address, and after the number of the day of the month. Place a period after the number of the year. Examine the correct address under Sec.153.

155. FAULTS TO BE AVOIDED IN HEADINGS. Avoid the use of abbreviations in the friendly letter, and avoid their too frequent use in the business letter.

It is better to avoid abbreviating any but the longer names of states.

Avoid all such abbreviations as the following: St. for Street; Ave. for Avenue; Apart. for Apartments; Chi. for Chicago; Phila. for Philadelphia.

Wrong: Hardie Apart., Pbg., Pa.

Right: Hardie Apartments, Pittsburg, Pa.

Do not use the sign # before the street number.

Do not omit the word Street.

Wrong: 229 Market.

Right: 229 Market Street.

Do not write the date thus: 9/10/10. Represent the numbers by figures, not words. See Sec.Sec. 75 and 76. Do not use st., rd., etc., after the number of the day.

Wrong: 9/8/09.

Right: September 8, 1909.

Wrong: September the Ninth, Nineteen Hundred and Nine.

Right: September 9, 1909.

Wrong: March 10th, 1910.

Right: March 10, 1910.

THE INSIDE ADDRESS

156. POSITION OF INSIDE ADDRESS. In strictly commercial letters the name and the address of the person to whom the letter is being sent should come at the beginning of the letter, and should begin flush with the margin at the left side of the page, and a little below the level of the heading. The second line of the inside address should be set in a little from the margin. See model letters under Sec.174.

In formal friendly letters and in letters of a non-commercial nature, the inside address should stand a little below the bottom of the letter at the left side of the page. In informal friendly letters the inside address may be omitted.

157. PUNCTUATION OF INSIDE ADDRESS. In punctuating the inside address, place a period after each abbreviation that is used. In addition to this, place a comma after the name of the addressee, a comma after the street address, if one be given, and after the name of the town or city. Place a period after the name of the state or country. Examine the correct inside address under Sec.174.

158. FAULTS TO BE AVOIDED IN THE INSIDE ADDRESS. Do not omit the town, city, or state address from the inside address.

Wrong: Mr. E. P. Griffith, My dear Sir:

Right: Mr. E. P. Griffith. Muskogee, Oklahoma. My dear Sir:

Right: Mr. E. P. Griffith, 221 Fiji Avenue, Muskogee, Oklahoma. My dear Sir:

Do not omit proper titles.

Wrong: R. R. Stolz, Muncy, Pennsylvania.

Right: Mr. R. R. Stolz, Muncy, Pennsylvania.

When two or more men are addressed, do not omit the title Mr., before the name of each of the men, unless their names constitute a partnership or trading name.

Right: Jones & Smith, (firm name) New York City. Gentlemen:

Right: Mr. Jones and Mr. Smith, (not a firm name) New York City. Gentlemen:

Avoid all abbreviations of titles preceding the name except Mr., Mrs., Messrs., and Dr. Abbreviations of titles placed after the name, such as, Esq., D.D., A.M., etc., are proper.

Do not use Mr. and Esq. with the same name.

Avoid all other abbreviations except in case of a state with a very long name. In this case it is permissible to abbreviate, but it is better form to write the name in full. United States of America may be abbreviated to U. S. A.

Wrong: Merch. Mfg. Co., N. Y. C. Gentlemen:

Right: The Merchants' Manufacturing Company. New York City. Gentlemen:

Wrong: Mr. William Shipp, Bangor, Me. Dear Sir:

Right: Mr. William Shipp, Bangor, Maine. Dear Sir:

Do not place a period after the title Miss. Miss is not an abbreviation.

THE SALUTATION

159. POSITION OF SALUTATION. The salutation should begin flush with the margin and on the line next below the inside address. See correctly written letters under Sec.174.

160. FORM OF SALUTATION. The salutation varies with the form of the letter and the relations between the writer and receiver of the letter. Where the parties are strangers or mere business acquaintances the most common salutations for individuals are, Dear Sir, Dear Madam, or My dear Sir, My dear Madam. For a group of persons, or for a company or a partnership, Gentlemen, Dear Sirs, Dear Madams or Mesdames are used. In less formal business letters such salutations as, My dear Mr. Smith, or Dear Miss Jaekel may be used.

In the case of informal and friendly letters, as in business and formal letters, the salutation to be used is largely a matter of taste. The following are illustrations of proper salutations for friendly letters: My dear Doctor, Dear Cousin, Dear Cousin Albert, Dear Miss Jaekel, Dear Major, My dear Miss Smith, Dear William, Dear Friend, etc.

It is considered more formal to prefix My to the salutation.

It is over formal to use simply Sir or Madam in any letter, or to use Dear Sir or Dear Madam when writing to a familiar friend.

If one uses a very familiar salutation, such as Dear Brown, Dear John, etc., it is better to put the inside address at the close of the letter, or to omit it.

161. PUNCTUATION OF SALUTATION. Punctuate the salutation with a colon, except in informal letters, when a comma may be used.

162. FAULTS TO BE AVOIDED IN THE SALUTATION. Use no abbreviations except Dr., Mr., Mrs. Do not use the abbreviation Dr., when that title is used as a final word in a salutation.

Wrong: My dear Maj. Wren:

Right: My dear Major Wren:

Wrong: My dear Dr.:

Right: My dear Doctor:

Do not use a name alone as a salutation.

Wrong: Mr. W. W. Braker: Will you please inform ...

Right: Mr. W. W. Braker, Muncy, Pennsylvania. Dear Sir: Will you please inform ...

In the salutation capitalize only the important nouns and the first word of the salutation.

Wrong: My Dear Sir:

Right: My dear Sir:

Wrong: My very Dear Friend:

Right: My very dear Friend:

Wrong: Dear sir:

Right: Dear Sir:

THE BODY OF THE LETTER

163. THE SUBJECT MATTER OF THE LETTER. In friendly letters much latitude is allowed in the body of the letter, but business letters should be brief and to the point. No letter, however, should be lacking in the courteous forms or in completeness.

164. FORM OF BODY. The body of the letter usually begins on the line below the salutation and is indented the same distance from the margin as any other paragraph would be indented. See model letters under Sec.174.

In commercial letters paragraph divisions are made more frequently than in other composition. Each separate point should be made the subject of a separate paragraph.

165. FAULTS IN BODY OF THE LETTER. In letters that are intended to be complete and formal, avoid the omission of articles, pronouns, and prepositions. Avoid also expressions that are grammatically incomplete. Only in extremely familiar and hasty letters should the "telegraph style" be adopted.

Bad: Received yours of the 10th. Have had no chance to look up man. Will do so soon.

Good: I have received your letter of the tenth. I have had no chance as yet to look up the man, but I will do so soon.

Bad: Address c/o John Smith, Mgr. Penna. Tele.

Good: Address in care of John Smith, Manager of the Pennsylvania Telegraph.

Bad: In reply will say ...

Good: In reply I wish to say ...

Bad: Yours of the 10th at hand.

Good: Your letter of the 10th is at hand.

Bad: Your favor received ...

Good: We have received your letter ...

Bad: Enclose P. O. money order for $2.

Good: We enclose post office money order for two dollars, ($2).

Bad: We have read your plan. Same is satisfactory.

Good: We have read your plan, and it is satisfactory.

Avoid the use of abbreviations in the letter.

It is well to avoid the too frequent use of the pronoun I in the letter, though care must be taken not to carry this caution to extremes. I, however, should not be omitted when necessary to the completeness of the sentence. Do not try to avoid its use by omitting it from the sentence, but by substituting a different form of sentence.

There is no objection to beginning a letter with I.

Punctuate the letter just as carefully as any other composition.

Excepting in letters of a formal nature, there is no objection to the use of colloquial expressions such as can't, don't, etc.

Unless you have some clear reason to the contrary, avoid the use of expressions that have been used so much that they are worn out and often almost meaningless. Such expressions as the following ones are not wrong, but are often used when they are both inappropriate and unnecessary.

Your esteemed favor is at hand.

In reply permit me to say ...

We beg leave to advise ...

We beg to suggest ...

Thanking you for the favor, we are ...

Please find enclosed ...

In answer to your favor of the tenth ...

We take pleasure in informing you ...

In reply would say ...

We beg to acknowledge receipt of your favor ...

Awaiting your further orders, we are ...

THE CLOSE

166. FINAL WORDS. Business letters frequently close with some final words, such as, Thanking you again for your kind assistance, I am ..., A waiting your further orders, we are ..., etc. These expressions are not wrong, but are often used when not at all necessary.

167. THE COMPLIMENTARY CLOSE. The complimentary close should be written on a separate line near the middle of the page, and should begin with a capital letter. Appropriateness is the only guide to the choice of a complimentary close.

The following complimentary closes are proper for business letters:

Yours respectfully, Yours very truly, Yours truly, Very truly yours,

The following complimentary closes are proper for friendly letters:

Yours sincerely, Very truly yours, Yours very truly, Your loving son, Yours cordially, Affectionately yours,

168. FAULTS IN THE CLOSE. Do not use abbreviations, such as, Yrs. respy., yrs. try., etc.

169. THE SIGNATURE OF THE WRITER. The letter should be so signed as to cause no doubt or embarrassment to any one addressing a reply. The signature should show whether the writer is a man or a woman; and, if a woman, it should indicate whether she is to be addressed as Miss or Mrs. In formal letters it is customary for a woman to indicate how she is to be addressed by signing her name in the following manner:

Sincerely yours, Caroline Jones. (Mrs. William Jones).

Very truly yours, (Miss) Matilda Stephens.

In signing a company name write first the name of the company, and after it the name of the writer. Example:

D. Appleton & Company, per J. W. Miller.

MISCELLANEOUS DIRECTIONS

170. In beginning the letter, place the address and date an inch and a half or two inches below the top of the page.

Leave a margin of about a half inch or more on the left side of the page. Indent the beginning of each paragraph about an inch or more beyond the margin.

In using a four-page sheet, write on the pages in their order, 1, 2, 3, 4.

In the correctly written forms of letters under Sec.174 observe the indentation of the lines. The first line of the inside address should be flush with the margin, the second somewhat set in. The salutation should begin flush with the margin. The body of the letter should begin on the line below the salutation, and some distance in from the margin.

THE OUTSIDE ADDRESS

171. POSITION OF OUTSIDE ADDRESS. Place the address on the envelope so that it balances well. Do not have it too far toward the top, too close to the bottom, nor too far to one side. See addressed envelope under Sec.173. Place the stamp squarely in the upper right-hand corner, not obliquely to the sides of the envelope.

172. PUNCTUATION OF OUTSIDE ADDRESS. Punctuation may be omitted at the end of the lines of the address. If it is used, place a period at the end of the last line, and a comma after each preceding line.

Within the lines punctuate just as you would in the inside address.

If an abbreviation ends the line, always place a period after it, whether the other lines are punctuated or not.

173. FAULTS IN THE OUTSIDE ADDRESS. Avoid the use of abbreviations except those that would be proper in the inside address or in the heading. See Sec.Sec. 155 and 158.

Do not use the sign # before the number of the street address. No letters or sign at all should be used there. See Sec.155.

Compare the following forms of addresses:

Bad: Col. Wm. Point, #200 John St., Trenton, N. J.

Good: Colonel William Point, 200 John Street, Trenton, New Jersey.

Good: Colonel William Point 200 John Street Trenton, New Jersey

Bad: Chas. Jones, c/o Edward Furrey, Wilkinsburg, Pa.

Good: Mr. Charles Jones In care of Mr. Edward Furrey Wilkinsburg Pennsylvania

Bad: Rev. Walter Bertin

Good: The Reverend Walter Bertin

Bad: Pres. of Bucknell Univ.

Good: For the President of Bucknell University.

A properly arranged address:



174. CORRECTLY WRITTEN LETTERS

200 Mead Avenue, Wilkinsburg, Pennsylvania, January 12, 1909. Mr. A. M. Weaver, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

My dear Sir:

I have received your letter of inquiry about the sale of my law books. I will say in answer that at present I have no intention of selling them.

You may, however, be able to secure what you want from H. B. Wassel, Esquire, Commonwealth Building, Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. He has advertised the sale of a rather extensive list of books.

Very truly yours, Charles M. Howell.

Muncy, New York, January 12, 1909. My dear Professor Morton:

We are trying to establish in the school here some permanent system of keeping students' records. I have been told that you have worked out a card method that operates successfully. If you can give me any information in regard to your method, I shall consider it a very great favor. I enclose a stamped envelope for your reply.

Very sincerely yours, Harris A. Plotts.

Professor E. A. Morton, Braddock, Pennsylvania.

Braddock, Pennsylvania, January 12, 1909. My dear Mrs. Hagon:

I wish to thank you for your kind aid in securing Captain Howard to deliver one of the lectures in our course. Only your influence enabled us to get so good a man at so Iowa price.

Very sincerely, Sylvester D. Dunlop.

173 State Street, Detroit, Michigan, January 23, 1910. To whom it may concern:

It gives me great pleasure to testify to the character, ability and attainments of Mr. E. J. Heidenreich. He has been a trusted personal associate of mine for more than twenty years. He may be counted upon to do successfully anything that he is willing to undertake.

Harry B. Hutchins.

My dear Walter:

I am to be in the city only a few more weeks before leaving permanently. Before I go, I should like to have you come out and take dinner with me some evening. How would next Wednesday at six o'clock suit you? If you can come at that time, will you please write or telephone to me sometime before Tuesday?

Very cordially yours, Paul B. Vandine.

6556 Broad Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, March 30, 1909.

The Lafayette, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, March 31, 1909. My dear Paul:

I shall be very glad to accept your invitation to take dinner with you before you take final leave of the city. The time you mention, next Wednesday evening, is entirely satisfactory to me.

I was more than pleased to receive your invitation, for the prospect of talking over old times with you is delightful.

Sincerely yours, Walter Powell.

Napoleon, Ohio, February 28, 1908. The American Stove Company, Alverton, Pennsylvania.

Gentlemen:

With this letter I enclose a check for ten dollars, for which please send me one of your small cook stoves, of the sort listed in your catalogue on page two hundred thirty-eight.

It will be a great favor if you will hasten the shipment of this stove as much as possible, since it is urgently needed in a summer cottage that I have for rent.

Very truly yours, Ernest Burrows.

223 Siegel Street, New York City, June 5, 1910. The Acme Tapestry Company, Syracuse, New York.

Dear Sirs:

Will you please send me a price list and descriptive catalogue of your tapestries and carpets?

I have been commissioned to purchase all the tapestries and carpets that may be needed for the new Young Women's Christian Association Building, on Arlington Avenue, this city. I understand that institutions of this sort are allowed a ten per cent discount by you. Will you please tell me if this is true?

Very truly yours, Anna R. Fleegor. (Mrs. C. C. Fleegor.)

Lewisburg, Pennsylvania, May 10, 1910. The Merchant's Electric Wiring Company, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

Gentlemen:

I am writing to ask if you can give me employment in your work for about ten weeks beginning June 15th. I am at present taking a course in electrical engineering at Bucknell University, and am in my sophomore year., It is my plan to gain some practical experience in various sorts of electrical work during the vacations occurring in my course. This summer I want to secure practical experience in electric wiring.

If you wish references as to my character and ability, I would refer you to Mr. William R. Stevenson, Lewisburg, Pennsylvania, and to Mr. Harry E. McCormick, Superintendent of the Street Railways Company, Danville, Illinois.

Salary is a very slight object to me in this work, and I shall be willing to accept whatever compensation you may see fit to offer me.

Respectfully yours, Harvey H. Wilkins.

Drawsburg, Ohio, May 21, 1910. My dear Norman:

I have just heard of your good fortune and hasten to assure you of my sincere pleasure in the news. May you find happiness and prosperity in your new location. But do not forget that your old friends are still living and will always be interested in your welfare.

Your affectionate cousin, Mary E. Johnston.

223 Holbrook Avenue, Wilkinsburg, Indiana. November 10, 1908. The Jefferson Life Insurance Company, Norfolk, Virginia.

Gentlemen:

I am the holder of Policy Number 2919 in your company. In that Policy, which was taken out about ten years ago, my occupation is stated to be carpenter. Lately I have changed occupations, and am now engaged in conducting a store. If, in order to maintain the validity of my policy, the change of occupation should be recorded on your books, will you please have the proper entry made.

I should like to know if at the present time my policy has any cash surrender value, and if so, what that value is.

Very truly yours, Arthur J. Pearse.

Bunnell Building, Scranton, Pennsylvania, April 20, 1909. Mr. James R. Elliot, Germantown, Colorado.

My dear Elliot:

Will you please send me, as soon as you conveniently can, the addresses of George English, Ira S. Shepherd, and G. N. Wilkinson.

This request for addresses may lead you to think that wedding invitations are to be looked for. Your conclusion, I am happy to say, is a correct one; I expect to be married sometime in June.

Cordially your friend, Charles R. Harris.

The Anglo-American Hotel, Vienna, Austria, March 19, 1907. Dear Aunt Emily:

You will no doubt be surprised when you read the heading of this letter and learn that we are now in Vienna. We had really intended, as I wrote to you, to spend the entire months of March and April in Berlin, but a sudden whim sent us on to this city.

Until we came to Vienna I had but a very vague idea of the city, and thought it a place of little interest. I was surprised to find it a place of so many beautiful buildings and beautiful streets. Still more was I surprised to find what a festive, stylish place it is. Paris may have the reputation for fashion and frivolity, but Vienna lacks only the reputation; it certainly does not lack the fashionable and frivolous air.

The other day in one of the shops here, I discovered, as I thought, a very fine miniature. I purchased it to present to you, and have already sent it by post. It ought to reach you as soon as this letter.

We have not received the usual letter from you this week, but suppose it is because we so suddenly changed our address. The necessity of forwarding it from Berlin has probably caused the delay.

Father and Mother join in sending their love to you.

Your affectionate niece, Mary.

NOTES IN THE THIRD PERSON

175. It is customary and desirable to write certain kinds of notes in the third person. Such a note contains nothing but the body of the note, followed at the left side of the paper, by the time and the place of writing.

Use no pronoun but that of the third person. Never use any heading, salutation, or signature. Use no abbreviations except Mr., Mrs., or Dr. Spell out all dates.

176. CORRECTLY WRITTEN NOTES IN THE THIRD PERSON.

Mrs. Harry Moore requests the pleasure of Mr. Leighou's company at dinner on Sunday, June the first, at two o'clock.

1020 Highland Street, Washington, Pennsylvania, May the twenty-fifth.

The Senior Class of Bucknell University requests the pleasure of Professor and Mrs. Morton's company on Tuesday evening, June the tenth, at a reception in honor of Governor Edwin S. Stuart.

Bucknell University, June the fifth.

Mr. Leighou regrets that a previous engagement prevents his acceptance of Mrs. Moore's kind invitation for Sunday, June the first.

110 Braddock Avenue, May the twenty-seventh.

EXERCISE 75

Make use of some of the following suggestions for letters. Have every letter complete in all its formal parts. Fill in details according to your own fancy:

1. A letter to the X Express Company of your town, complaining of their delay in delivering a package to you.

2. A letter to a friend, thanking him for the entertainment afforded you on a recent visit to his house.

3. A letter to the X Book Company, inquiring what dictionary they publish, the prices, etc.

4. A letter to Mr. X, asking him for a position in his office, and stating your qualifications.

5. A letter congratulating a friend on some good fortune that has befallen him.

6. A letter asking a friend his opinion of some business venture that you are thinking of entering upon. Explain the venture.

7. A letter to your home, describing to your parents your school.

8. A letter to a friend, telling him of the chance meeting with some friend.

9. A letter to the X store ordering from them material for covering a canoe that you are building. Explain your needs.

10. A letter describing experiences which you had on your vacation.

11. A letter arranging to meet a friend at a certain place, time, etc.

12. A letter explaining how to reach your home from the railway station. Leave no doubt.

13. A letter describing some new acquaintance.

14. A letter telling some humorous story that you have recently heard.

15. A letter to a relative telling him the recent occurrences in your town.

16. A letter detailing your plans for the succeeding year.

17. A letter describing some play which you have recently attended.

18. A letter to your parents explaining to them why you failed in an examination.

19. A letter inviting a friend to visit you at a certain time.

20. A letter accepting an invitation to visit a friend.

21. A letter stating your opinions on some public question; as, prohibition, woman suffrage, etc.

22. A letter discussing the baseball prospects in your town or school.

23. A letter to the X school, inquiring about courses of study given, prices, etc.

24. A formal third person invitation to a reception given to some organization to which you belong.

25. A formal third person acceptance of such invitation.

26. A travel letter describing your visit to various places of interest.

27. A letter describing a day's outing to a friend who was unable to go with you.

28. A letter describing a house to a man who wishes to purchase it.

29. A letter to a schoolmate describing to him various events which happened at school during his absence.

30. A letter in reply to an inquiry from a friend as to what outfit he will need to take along on a prospective camping trip.

31. A letter describing to a friend the appearance and characteristics of a dog which you have lately bought.

32. A letter to your parents telling them of your boarding place, your recent visit to the theater, your meeting an old friend, your work, your new acquaintances. Arrange the topics and make the transition as smooth as possible.

33. A letter telling about an intended celebration by the school of some national holiday.

34. A letter about a lecture that you recently attended. Describe the place, occasion, lecturer, address, etc.

35. A letter telling a friend the first impression you formed of your school.



CHAPTER XI

THE WHOLE COMPOSITION

177. By the term WHOLE COMPOSITION or THEME is meant a composition consisting of a number of related paragraphs all dealing with one general subject, whether the composition be a narration, a description, or an exposition.

The following general principles applying to the construction of the whole composition are stated for the guidance of the inexperienced writer.

178. STATEMENT OF SUBJECT. Care should be used in the statement of the subject. It should not be so stated as to be more comprehensive than the composition, but should be limited to cover only what is discussed. For a small essay, instead of a big subject, take some limited phase of that subject:

Too broad: College, Photography, Picnics.

Properly limited: A College Education as an Aid to Earning Power, Does College Life Make Loafers? Photography as a Recreation, How Picnics Help the Doctor.

179. THE OUTLINE. Just as in the building of a house or of a machine, if anything creditable is to be attained, a carefully made plan is necessary before entering on the construction; so in the writing of an essay or theme, there should be made some plan or outline, which will determine what different things are to be discussed, and what is to be the method of developing the discussion. By the inexperienced writer, at least, a composition should never be begun until an outline has been formed for its development. As soon as the material for the composition is in hand, the outline should be made. It should be an aid in the construction of the composition, not a thing to be derived after the composition is completed. Only by the previous making of an outline can a logical arrangement be gained, topics properly subordinated, and a suitable proportion secured in their discussion.

In the previous chapter on the paragraph the following different subtopics, were discussed:

Definition of Paragraph. How to Secure Unity. Length of Paragraph. How to Secure Coherence. The Topic Sentence. Too Frequent Paragraphing. Unity in the Paragraph. Paragraphing of Speech. Coherence in the Paragraph. Paragraphing for Emphasis. Examples of Unity. Examples showing how Unity is Purpose of the Paragraph. Destroyed. Emphasis in the Paragraph. The Paragraph Theme.

If the topics had been taken up in the above irregular order, a sorry result would have been obtained. Compare the above list of topics with the following arrangement of the same topics in a logical outline.

THE PARAGRAPH

1. Its definition and purpose. 2. Its length. Paragraphing of speech. Paragraphing for emphasis. Too frequent paragraphing. 3. Its essential qualities. A. Unity. Definition. Examples showing how unity is destroyed. How to secure unity. The topic sentence. Development of topic sentence. Examples showing unity. B. Coherence. Definition. How to secure coherence. Examples showing coherence. C. Emphasis. Places of emphasis in the paragraph. 4. Practical construction of the paragraph. 5. The paragraph theme.

180. USE AND QUALITIES OF THE OUTLINE. The use of the outline is not restricted to an expository composition, as above, but is also necessary in narration and description. Usually, in a narration, the order of time in which events occurred, is the best order in which to present them, though other arrangements may frequently be followed with very good reason.

In a description different methods may be followed. Often a general description is given, and then followed by a statement of various details. Thus, in describing a building, one might first describe in a general way its size, its general style of architecture, and the impression it makes on the observer. Then more particular description might be made of its details of arrangement and peculiarities of architecture and ornamentation.

The whole object of the outline is to secure clearness of statement and to avoid confusion and repetition. To secure this end the outline should present a few main topics to which all others either lead up or upon which they depend. These topics or subtopics should all bear some apparent and logical relation to one another. The relation may be that of chronology; that of general statement followed by details; that of cause and effect; or any other relation, so long as it is a logical and natural one.

The outline should not be too minute and detailed. It should be sufficient only to cover the various divisions of the subject-matter, and to prevent the confusion of subtopics. A too detailed outline tends to make the composition stiff and formal.

The outline should have proportion. The essential features of the subject should be the main topics. Minor subjects should not be given too great prominence, but should be subordinated to the main topics.

181. THE BEGINNING OF THE COMPOSITION. To choose a method of beginning a composition often causes trouble. Usually a simple, direct beginning is the best. But sometimes an introductory paragraph is necessary in order to explain the writer's point of view, or to indicate to what phases of the subject attention is to be given. Examine the following methods of beginning.

THE INDUSTRY OF LAWYER

Oddly enough, hardly any notice is taken of an industry in which the United States towers in unapproachable supremacy above all other nations of the earth. The census does not say a word about it, nor does there exist more than the merest word about it in all the literature of American self-praise.

MY CHILDHOOD FEAR OF GHOSTS

Nothing stands out more keenly in the recollection of my childhood, than the feelings of terror which I experienced when forced to go to bed without the protecting light of a lamp. Then it was that dread, indefinite ghosts lurked behind every door, hid in every clothes-press, or lay in wait beneath every bed.

THE USES OF IRON

No other metal is put to so many uses and is so indispensable as iron.

The opening sentences of a composition should be able to stand alone; their meaning or clearness should not depend upon reference to the title.

Bad:

THE VALUE OF LATIN IN THE HIGH SCHOOL

There is a rapidly growing belief that this study has too large a place in our high-school courses of study.

Good:

THE VALUE OF LATIN IN THE HIGH SCHOOL

There is a rapidly growing belief that Latin has too large a place in our high school courses of study.

182. UNITY IN THE COMPOSITION. Unity is an essential element of the whole composition as well as of the paragraph, and its demands here are in general the same. Nothing must be brought into the composition which does not fall well within the limits of the subject. In the different subdivisions, also, nothing must be discussed which properly belongs to some other division of the topic.

As in the paragraph, a definite point of view should be adopted and adhered to. There must not be a continual changing of relation of parts of the composition to the subject, nor of the writer's relation to the subject.

A consistent point of view is especially necessary in a narrative. If the writer is telling of events within his own experience, care must be taken not to bring in any conversation or occurrence, at which, by his own story, he could not have been present. A continual changing back and forth between present and past tenses must also be avoided. One or the other should be adopted consistently.

183. COHERENCE IN THE COMPOSITION. A composition must also be coherent. Its different parts must be closely knit together and the whole closely knit to the subject. Just as in the paragraph, words of reference and transition are needed, so in the composition, words, or sentences of reference and transition are needed, in order to bind the whole together and show the relation of its parts.

For this purpose, the beginning of a new division or any definite change of topic should be closely marked, so as to prevent confusion. There should be transition sentences, or sentences which show the change of topic from paragraph to paragraph, and yet at the same time bridge the thought from paragraph to paragraph. These transition sentences may come at the end of a preceding paragraph, or at the beginning of a following one, or at both of these places.

Examine the following parts of paragraphs in which the words or phrases showing transition from part to part are italicized:

(Last sentence of first paragraph)

... The American War was pregnant with misery of every kind.

(Second paragraph)

The mischief, however, recoiled on the unhappy people of this country, who were made the instruments by which the wicked purposes of the authors were effected. The nation was drained of its best blood, and of its vital resources of men and money. The expense of the war was enormous—much beyond any former experience.

(Third paragraph)

And yet, what has the British nation received in return for this expense....

... I was now enabled to see the extent and aspect of my prison. In its size I had been greatly mistaken....

(Beginning of paragraph following one on Unity in the paragraph)

The second of the essentials of the paragraph, coherence, demands that....

Frequently, in the longer compositions, a separate paragraph is devoted to accomplishing the transition from part to part. Observe the following:

(Paragraph 7)

... The only other law bearing on this matter is the Act of Assembly of last year authorizing the receipts from the automobile taxes to be used in the construction of roads. This then completes the enumeration of what has already been done toward building good roads.

(Paragraph 8. Transitional paragraph)

There are, however, several promising plans for the securing of this important result, which are now being seriously discussed.

(Paragraph 9)

The first of these plans is ...

The following are a few of the words and phrases often used to indicate transition and to show relation between the paragraphs: So much for, It remains to mention, In the next place, Again, An additional reason, Therefore, Hence, Moreover, As a result of this, By way of exception.

Examine the selection under Sec.187.

184. THE ENDING OF THE COMPOSITION. In a longer composition, the ending should neither be too abrupt, nor, on the other hand, should it be too long drawn out. It should be in proportion to the length of the composition. Usually, except in the case of a story, it should consist of a paragraph or two by way of summary or inference. In a story, however, the ending may be abrupt or not. The kind of ending depends entirely upon the nature and the scheme of development of the story. Examine the following endings: