56. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE. The ACTIVE VOICE represents the subject as the doer of the action; as, I tell, I see, He makes chairs. The PASSIVE VOICE represents the subject as the receiver of the action; as, I am told, I am seen, I have been seen, Chairs are made by me. Since only transitive verbs can have a receiver of the action, only transitive verbs can have both active and passive voice.

57. There are a few special verbs in which the failure to distinguish between the transitive and the intransitive verbs leads to frequent error. The most important of these verbs are the following: sit, set, awake, wake, lie, lay, rise, arise, raise, fell, and fall. Note again the principal parts of these verbs:

wake (to rouse another) woke, waked woke, waked awake (to cease to sleep) awoke, awaked awaked

fell (to strike down) felled felled fall (to topple over) fell fallen

lay (to place) laid laid lie (to recline) lay lain

raise (to cause to ascend) raised raised (a)rise (to ascend) (a)rose (a)risen

set (to place) set set sit (to rest) sat sat

The first of each pair of the above verbs is transitive, and the second is intransitive. Only the first, then, of each pair can have an object or can be used in the passive voice.

NOTES.—The following exceptions in the use of sit and set are, by reason of usage, regarded as correct: The sun sets, The moon sets, They sat themselves down to rest, and He set out for Chicago.

Lie, meaning to deceive, has for its principal parts, lie, lied, lied. Lie, however, with this meaning is seldom confused with lie meaning to recline. The present participle of lie is lying.

Compare the following sentences, and note the reasons why the second form in each case is the correct form.

WRONG RIGHT Awake me early to-morrow. Wake me early to-morrow. He was awoke by the noise. He was woke (waked) by the noise. He has fallen a tree. He has felled a tree. I have laid down. I have lain down. I lay the book down (past tense). I laid the book down. The river has raised. The river has risen. He raised in bed. He rose in bed. I set there. I sat there. I sat the chair there. I set the chair there.

EXERCISE 34

Form an original sentence showing the proper use of each of the following words:

Lie, lay (to place), sit, set, sat, sitting, setting, lie (to recline), lie (to deceive), lying, laying, rise, arose, raised, raise, fell (to topple over), fallen, felled, awake, wake, awaked, woke, falling, felling, rising, raising, waking, awaking, lain, laid, lied.

EXERCISE 35

Correct such of the following sentences as are wrong:

1. Let sleeping dogs lay. 2. The sun has sat in the golden west. 3. He has laid in bed all morning. 4. He will sit out on his journey this morning. 5. Let him sit there as long as he wishes. 6. He sat the chair by the table. 7. He awoke everybody at daylight. 8. He laid down to sleep. 9. Let him lie there until he wakes. 10. The shower has lain the dust. 11. The curtain raised because it was raised by his orders. 12. The river has risen four feet. 13. Falling trees is his amusement. 14. To have been awaked then would have been sad. 15. To have waked then would have been sad. 16. Waking at dawn, they renewed the journey. 17. He has set there all day. 18. He lay the papers before the judge. 19. The judge laid the papers aside. 20. Lieing in the shade is his most strenuous occupation.

EXERCISE 36

In the following sentences fill the blanks with the proper forms of the verbs indicated:

SIT AND SET

1. I —— in that seat all the evening. 2. Please —— here until I return. 3. He was still ——ting there on my return. 4. The sun —— in the west. 5. He —— out for home yesterday. 6. —— down and rest awhile. 7. James —— down and talked to me. 8. He was engaged in ——ting out flowers. 9. I —— the bucket on the rock above the bridge. 10. Last evening we —— at the table for more than an hour. 11. —— here until I call my mother. 12. —— the lamp on the table. 13. He has —— there all day. 14. The chair was —— by the desk. 15. I usually —— up until twelve. 16. She —— the hen on some eggs and she remained —— there. 17. She told me to —— there, and I —— down. 18. By whom has the lamp been —— there? 19. I —— my chair by the window and —— there all the afternoon. 20. How can she —— still for so long? 21. The moon —— at twelve.

LAY AND LIE

1. I —— down this afternoon to rest. 2. I —— in bed until late every morning. 3. I have frequently —— in bed until eleven. 4. He always —— his books on the desk. 5. He just now —— his books on the desk. 6. He has —— them there every morning. 7. His books have sometimes —— there all day. 8. His books have sometimes been ——ing there before I arrive. 9. After he —— down he remembered that he had left a letter on his desk. 10. Will it not be well for you to —— down for a while? 11. I —— on the grass yesterday for an hour or more. 12. I have —— down and feel much better. 13. Now I —— me down to sleep. 14. The scene of the play is —— in rural Pennsylvania. 15. The tramps —— behind the barn waiting for dawn. 16. I had —— down to rest before (set or sit) ting out on my journey. 17. The floor was —— by an expert carpenter. 18. She told me to —— the matter before the teacher. 19. —— down, Fido. 20. When we are weary, we —— down. 21. Who —— that on the table? 22. He has repeatedly —— about the matter. 23. He —— without the slightest hesitation. 24. ——ing down is a good way to rest. 25. ——ing is a sin. 26. He —— to his father, and his father knew it.

RAISE AND RISE (ARISE)

1. I will —— and go unto my father. 2. He has —— early to-day. 3. I do not know why he —— so early. 4. —— your hand if you know. 5. Everyone —— his hand. 6. They have all —— their hands. 7. All their hands were —— at once. 8. The price of meat has ——. 9. The bread would not ——. 10. I —— in order that I might see better. 11. The flag was very carefully ——. 12. He tried to —— himself from the condition into which he had fallen. 13. The curtain is to —— at eight. I myself shall see to ——ing it then. 14. The boy —— and answers. 15. He is —— rapidly to prominence. 16. Will you please —— the window? 17. The safe was —— by means of a rope. 18. It is like trying to —— one's self by one's boot-straps. 19. —— and march to the front of the room. 20. The river —— rapidly.

FELL AND FALL

1. Gladstone, when living, —— a tree each morning for exercise. 2. To —— an ox with one blow of the fist is a feat of wonderful strength. 3. He was —— to the earth by a blow from a club. 4. To —— often is to be expected in learning to skate. 5. ——ing down is a small matter to the young. 6. He has often —— from the roof of the porch. 7. After he —— once, he seemed to try to do so again. 8. I did not see him——. 9. Not a shot is fired but a bird ——. 10. Let the tree be —— across the road. 11. It is hard to avoid ——ing on the ice.

AWAKE AND WAKE

1. Have them —— me very early. 2. He went upstairs and —— his brother. 3. His brother did not wish to be —— so early. 4. This morning I —— at dawn. 5. It is unpleasant to —— so early. 6. You say that you have never —— after nine? 7. Who —— so early, this morning? 8. He would not say who —— him. 9. ——ing in the dead of night is unpleasant. 10. ——ing everybody up by their noise is an every night occurrence. 11. The sun —— me early. 12. The whole country-side seemed to —— at once. 13. He had himself —— at six o'clock.

58. MODE. Mode is that form of the verb which indicates the manner in which the action or state is to be regarded. There are several modes in English, but only between the indicative and subjunctive modes is the distinction important. Generally speaking, the INDICATIVE MODE is used when the statement is regarded as a fact or as truth, and the SUBJUNCTIVE MODE is used when the statement expresses uncertainty or implies some degree of doubt.

59. FORMS OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE. The places in which the subjunctive differs from the indicative are in the present and past tenses of the verb be, and in the present tense of active verbs. The following outline will show the difference between the indicative and the subjunctive of be:

INDICATIVE PRESENT OF BE INDICATIVE PAST OF BE I am we are I was we were thou art you are thou wert or wast you were he (she, it) is they are he (she, it) was they were

SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT OF BE SUBJUNCTIVE PAST OF BE If I be If we be If I were If we were If thou be If you be If thou were If you were If he (she, it) be If they be If he (she, it) were If they were

If is used only as an example of the conjunctions on which the subjunctive depends. Other conjunctions may be used, or the verb may precede the subject.

NOTE.—It will be noticed that thou art and thou wast, etc., have been used in the second person singular. Strictly speaking, these are the proper forms to be used here, even though you are and you were, etc., are customarily used in addressing a single person.

In the subjunctive of be, it will be noted that the form be is used throughout the present tense; and the form were throughout the past tense.

In other verbs the subjunctive, instead of having the s-form in the third person singular of the present tense, has the name-form, or the same form as all the other forms of the present tense; as, indicative, he runs, she sees, it seems, he has; subjunctive, if he run, though she see, lest it seem, if he have.

NOTE.—An examination of the model conjugations under Sec.77 will give a further understanding of the forms of the subjunctive.

60. USE OF INDICATIVE AND SUBJUNCTIVE. The indicative mode would be properly used in the following sentence, when the statement is regarded as true: If that evidence is true, then he is a criminal. Similarly: If he is rich, he ought to be charitable. Most directly declarative statements are put in the indicative mode.

But when the sense of the statement shows uncertainty in the speaker's mind, or shows that the condition stated is regarded as contrary to fact or as untrue, the subjunctive is used. Note the two sentences following, in which the conditions are properly in the subjunctive: If those statements be true, then all statements are true, Were I rich, I might be charitable.

The subjunctive is usually preceded by the conjunctions, if, though, lest, although, or the verb precedes the subject. But it must be borne in mind that these do not always indicate the subjunctive mode. THE USE OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE DEPENDS ON WHETHER THE CONDITION IS REGARDED AS A FACT OR AS CONTRARY TO FACT, CERTAIN OR UNCERTAIN.

It should be added that the subjunctive is perhaps going out of use; some of the best writers no longer use its forms. This passing of the subjunctive is to be regretted and to be discouraged, since its forms give opportunity for many fine shades of meaning.

EXERCISE 37

Write five sentences which illustrate the correct use of BE in the third person singular without an auxiliary, and five which illustrate the correct use of WERE in the third person singular.

EXERCISE 38

Choose the preferable form in the following sentences, and be able to give a definite reason for your choice. In some of the sentences either form may be used correctly:

1. He acts as if it were was possible always to escape death. 2. If it was were near enough, I should walk. 3. If I was were only wealthy! 4. If I were was in his place, I should study medicine. 5. If you are be right, then the book is wrong. 6. If he was were I, he would come. 7. Though he was were very economical, he remained poor. 8. Though she was were an angel, I should dislike her. 9. If he be is there, ask him to pay the bill. 10. If he be is there, he makes no sign of his presence. 11. If this be is wrong, then all love of country is wrong. 12. If it rains rain, I stay at school. 13. Take care lest you are be deceived by appearances. 14. Would that I was were a bird. 15. If it snow snows, I can't come. 16. If your father comes come, bring him to dinner. 17. If your father was were here, you would act differently. 18. Though he were was king over all the earth I should despise him. 19. If he come comes, he will find me at home. 20. Was were it necessary, I should jump. 21. If to-morrow be is pleasant, we shall go driving. 22. If my mother was were here, she would say I might go. 23. If she was were at home, I did not hear of it. 24. If that is be his motive, he is unworthy. 25. Though this seem seems improbable, it is true. 26. If a speech is be praised by none but literary men, it is bad. 27. If the father pays pay the debt, he will be released. 28. Though Mary be is young, she is a writer of note. 29. Unless he takes take better care of his health, he will die. 30. If he be is honest, he has not shown it. 31. If he be is honest, he will insist on paying me. 32. If he ever tell tells the truth, he conceals the fact.

61. AGREEMENT OF VERB WITH ITS SUBJECT. THE VERB SHOULD AGREE WITH ITS SUBJECT IN PERSON AND NUMBER. The most frequent error is the failure of the verb to agree in number with its subject. Singular subjects are used with plural verbs, and plural subjects with singular verbs. These errors arise chiefly from a misapprehension of the true number of the subject.

The s-form of the verb is the only distinct singular form, and occurs only in the third person, singular, present indicative; as, He runs, she goes, it moves. Is, was, and has are the singular forms of the auxiliaries. Am is used only with a subject in the first person, and is not a source of confusion. The other auxiliaries have no singular forms.

Failure of the verb and its subject to agree in person seldom occurs, and so can cause little confusion.

Examine the following correct forms of agreement of verb and subject:

A barrel of clothes WAS shipped (not were shipped).

A man and a woman HAVE been here (not has been here).

Boxes ARE scarce (not is scarce).

When WERE the brothers here (not when was)?

62. AGREEMENT OF SUBJECT AND VERB IN NUMBER. The general rule to be borne in mind in regard to number, is that IT IS THE MEANING AND NOT THE FORM OF THE SUBJECT THAT DETERMINES WHETHER TO USE THE SINGULAR OR THE PLURAL FORM OF THE VERB. This rule also applies to the use of singular or plural pronouns.

Many nouns plural in form are singular in meaning; as, politics, measles, news, etc.

Many, also, are treated as plurals, though in meaning they are singular; as, forceps, tongs, trousers.

Some nouns, singular in form, are, according to the sense in which, they are used, either singular or plural in meaning; as, committee, family, pair, jury, assembly, means. The following sentences are all correct: The assembly has closed its meeting, The assembly are all total abstainers, The whole family is a famous one, The whole family are sick.

In the use of the adjective pronouns, some, each, etc., the noun is often omitted. When this is done, error is often made by using the wrong number of the verb. Each, either, neither, this, that, and one, when used alone as subjects, require singular verbs. All, those, these, few, many, always require plural verbs. Any, none, and some may take either singular or plural verbs. In most of these cases, as is true throughout the subject of agreement in number, reason will determine the form to be used.

Some nouns in a plural form express quantity rather than number. When quantity is plainly intended the singular verb should be used. Examine the following sentences; each is correct: Three drops of medicine is a dose, Ten thousand tons of coal was purchased by the firm, Two hundred dollars was the amount of the collection, Two hundred silver dollars were in the collection.

EXERCISE 39

In each of the following sentences, by giving a reason, justify the correctness of the agreement in number of the verb and the noun:

1. The jury have agreed. 2. The jury has been sent out to reconsider its verdict. 3. The committee has presented its report, but they have differed in regard to one matter. 4. The whole tribe was destroyed. 5. The tribe were scattered through the different states. 6. The regiment were almost all sick. 7. A variety of persons was there. 8. The society meets each month. 9. The society is divided in its opinion. 10. A number were unable to be present. 11. A great number was present. 12. The number present was great. 13. What means were used to gain his vote? 14. That means of gaining votes is corrupt. 15. Seventeen pounds was the cat's weight. 16. Twenty years of his life was spent in prison. 17. Two hundred pounds was his weight. 18. The family are all at home. 19. The family is large. 20. A pair of gloves has been lost. 21. A pair of twins were sitting in the doorway. 22. The army was defeated.

EXERCISE 40

Construct sentences in which each of the words named below is used correctly as the subject of some one of the verbs, IS, WAS, HAS, HAVE, ARE, WAS, HAVE, GO, GOES, RUN, RUNS, COME, COMES:

One, none, nobody, everybody, this, that, these, those, former, latter, few, some, many, other, any, all, such, news, pains, measles, gallows, ashes, dregs, goods, pincers, thanks, victuals, vitals, mumps, flock, crowd, fleet, group, choir, class, army, mob, tribe, herd, committee, tons, dollars, bushels, carloads, gallons, days, months.

EXERCISE 41

Go over each of the above sentences and determine whether IT or THEY should be used in referring to the subject.

63. THE FOLLOWING RULES GOVERN THE AGREEMENT OF THE VERB WITH A COMPOUND SUBJECT:

1. When a singular noun is modified by two adjectives so as to mean two distinct things, the verb should be in the plural; as, French and German literature ARE studied.

2. When the verb applies to the different parts of the compound subject, the plural form of the verb should be used; as, John and Harry ARE still to come.

3. When the verb applies to one subject and not to the others, it should agree with that subject to which it applies; as, The employee, and not the employers, WAS to blame, The employers, and not the employee, WERE to blame, The boy, as well as his sisters, DESERVES praise.

4. When the verb applies separately to several subjects, each in the singular, the verb should be singular; as, Each book and each paper WAS in its place, No help and no hope IS found for him, Either one or the other IS he, Neither one nor the other IS he.

5. When the verb applies separately to several subjects, some of which are singular and some plural, it should agree with the subject nearest to it; as, Neither the boy, nor his sisters DESERVE praise, Neither the sisters nor the boy DESERVES praise.

6. When a verb separates its subjects, it should agree with the first; as, The leader WAS slain and all his men, The men WERE slain, and also the leader.

EXERCISE 42

Choose the proper form of the verb in the following sentences:

1. Hard and soft coal is are used. 2. The boy and the girl have has come. 3. Neither James nor I are is to go. 4. Neither James nor they are is to go. 5. Henry, and not his sister, is are sure to be invited. 6. The children and their father was were on the train. 7. Each man and each woman was were present. 8. Either Tennyson or Wordsworth was were the author of that poem. 9. Either the man or his children was were lost. 10. Either the children or their father was were lost. 11. Bread and milk are is frugal but wholesome fare. 12. The teacher was were cut off by the fire, and also her pupils. 13. The pupils was were cut off by the fire, and also the teacher. 14. Dogs and cats is are useless animals. 15. Neither the daughters nor their mother is are at home. 16. Either the soldier or his officers is are mistaken. 17. The cat and all her kittens was were at the door. 18. Tennyson, not Wordsworth, were was the author. 19. Each of the trustees has have a vote. 20. Our success or our failure is are due solely to ourselves. 21. Neither sincerity nor cordiality characterize characterizes him. 22. Everyone of these chairs is are mine. 23. Each day and each hour bring brings new questions. 24. The car and all its passengers was were blown up. 25. The ambition and activity of the man has have been the cause causes of his success. 26. Old and new hay is are equally good for horses. 27. Matthew or Paul are is responsible for that belief. 28. A man, a woman, and a child is are comprised in the group. 29. The pupils and also the teacher were was embarrassed. 30. The teacher and also the pupils were was embarrassed. 31. Neither he nor I are is am going. 32. Book after book was were taken from the shelves. 33. Either Aunt Mary or her daughters is are coming. 34. Either the daughters or Aunt Mary is are coming. 35. Aunt Mary, but not her daughters, is are coming. 36. The daughters, but not Aunt Mary, is are coming. 37. Both Aunt Mary and her daughter is are coming. 38. Mary, and not her mother, is are coming. 39. No preacher and no woman is are allowed to enter. 40. Every adult man and woman has have a vote. 41. Money, if not culture, gains gain a way. 42. Brain power, as well as money, talk talks. 43. Each boy and girl bring brings books.

64. SOME MISCELLANEOUS CAUTIONS IN REGARD TO AGREEMENT IN NUMBER:

1. Do not use a plural verb after a singular subject modified by an adjective phrase; as, The thief, with all his booty, was captured.

2. Do not use a singular form of the verb after you and they. Say: You were, they are, they were, etc., not, you was, they was, etc.

3. Do not mistake a noun modifier for the noun subject. In the sentence, The SALE of boxes was increased, sale, not boxes, is the subject of the verb.

4. When the subject is a relative pronoun, the number and the person of the antecedent determine the number and the person of the verb. Both of the following sentences are correct: He is the only one of the men THAT IS to be trusted, He is one of those men THAT ARE to be trusted. It is to be remembered that the singulars and the plurals of the relative pronouns are alike in form; that, who, etc., may refer to one or more than one.

5. Do not use incorrect contractions of the verb with not. Don't cannot be used with he or she or it, or with any other singular subject in the third person. One should say, He doesn't, not he don't; it doesn't, not it don't; man doesn't, not man don't. The proper form of the verb that is being contracted in these instances is does, not do. Ain't and hain't are always wrong; no such contractions are recognized. Such colloquial contractions as don't, can't, etc., should not be used at all in formal composition.

EXERCISE 43

Correct such of the following sentences as are wrong:

1. The ship, with all her crew, were lost. 2. You was there, John, was you not? 3. They was never known to do that before. 4. A barrel of apples were sold. 5. How many were there who was there? 6. This is one of the books that is always read. 7. He don't know his own relatives. 8. I ain't coming to-night. 9. The art gallery, with all its pictures, was destroyed. 10. John, when was you in the city? 11. The book, with all its errors, is valuable. 12. Who they was, I couldn't tell. 13. This is one of the mountains which are called "The Triplets." 14. This is one of the eleven pictures that has gained prizes. 15. The hands of the clock is wrong. 16. The gallery of pictures are splendid. 17. This is one of those four metals that is valuable. 18. This is the one of those four metals that are valuable. 19. That answer, as you will see, hain't right. 20. The whole box of books were shipped.

EXERCISE 44

In the following sentences correct such as are wrong:

1. "Cows" are a common noun. 2. Such crises seldom occurs. 3. Fifty dollars were given him as a present. 4. There were four men, each of which were sent by a different bank. 5. At that time the morals of men were very low. 6. Mathematics are my most interesting study. 7. There was once two boys who was imprisoned in the Tower. 8. The jury is delivering its verdict. 9. The "Virginians" is a famous book. 10. Ten minutes were given him in which to answer. 11. Everyone of these farms are mine. 12. Lee, with his whole army, surrender. 13. Farm after farm were passed by the train. 14. He is one of the greatest men that has ever been president. 15. Three hundred miles of wires were cut down. 16. Three fourths of his time are wasted. 17. Three quarts of oats is all that is needed. 18. A variety of sounds charms the ear. 19. A variety of recitations were given. 20. The committee have adjourned. 21. Washington was one of the greatest generals that has ever lived. 22. Take one of the books that is lying on the table. 23. The house is one of those that overlooks the bay. 24. Question after question were propounded to him. 25. He was one of the best orators that has been produced by the school. 26. He is one of those persons who are quick to learn. 27. A black and white horse were in the ring. 28. A black and a white horse was in the ring. 29. The committee disagree on some points. 30. Mary, where was you yesterday? 31. The end and aim of his life are to get money. 32. All the crop were lost. 33. One of them are gone. 34. There comes the children. 35. Were either of these men elected? 36. The alumni of this school is not very loyal. 37. There seem to be few here. 38. There seems to be a few here. 39. Neither of the letters were received. 40. In all those songs there are a sprightliness and charm. 41. The Association of Engineers are still flourishing. 42. Neither John nor Henry have come. 43. Either this book or that are wrong. 44. This book and that is wrong. 45. This book, not that, is wrong. 46. Either this book or those students is wrong. 47. Either those students, or this book is wrong. 48. This chemical with its compounds were the agents used in tanning.

65. USE OF SHALL AND WILL. The use of the auxiliaries, shall and will, with their past tenses, is a source of very many errors. The following outline will show the correct use of shall and will, except in dependent clauses and questions:

To indicate simple futurity or probability:

Use shall with I and we; use will with all other subjects.

To indicate promise, determination, threat, or command on the part of the speaker; i. e., action which the speaker means to control;

Use will with I and we; use shall with all other subjects.

Examine the following examples of the correct use of shall and will:

Statements as to probable future events:

We shall probably be there. I think you will want to be there. It will rain before night.

Statements of determination on the part of the speaker:

I will come in spite of his command. You shall go home. It shall not happen again, I promise you.

66. SHALL AND WILL IN QUESTIONS. In interrogative sentences shall should always be used with the first person. In the second and third persons that auxiliary should be used which is logically expected in the answer.

Examine the agreement in the use of shall and will in the following questions and answers:

QUESTIONS. ANSWERS. Shall I miss the car? You will miss it. Shall you be there? I think I shall (probability). Will he do it? I think he will (assertion). Shall your son obey the teacher? He shall (determination). Will you promise to come? We will come (promise).

67. SHALL AND WILL IN DEPENDENT CLAUSES. In dependent clauses which are introduced by that, expressed or understood, the auxiliary should be used which would be proper if the dependent clause were a principal clause. The sentence, They assure us that they SHALL come, is wrong. The direct assurance would be, We WILL come. The auxiliary, then, in a principal clause would be will. Will should, therefore, be the auxiliary in the dependent construction, and the sentence should read, They assure us that they WILL come. Further examples:

I suppose we shall have to pay. He thinks that you will be able to do it. He has decided that John shall replace the book.

In all dependent clauses expressing a condition or contingency use shall with all subjects. Examples;

If he shall go to Europe, it will be his tenth trip abroad. If you shall go away, who will run the farm? If I shall die, I shall die as an honest man.

EXERCISE 45

Justify the correct use of SHALL and WILL in the following sentences:

1. I will go if you wish. 2. I shall probably go if you wish. 3. I will have it in spite of all you can do. 4. We shall return by way of Dover. 5. We will fight it out on this line if it takes all summer. 6. I feel that I shall not live long. 7. We think we shall come to-morrow. 8. I promise you, the money shall be raised. 9. You will then go to Philadelphia. 10. You shall never hear from me again. 11. He will surely come to-morrow. 12. How shall you answer him? 13. I think I shall ride. 14. He is sure they will come. 15. He is sure that I will come. 16. Shall you be there? 17. Will he who fails be allowed to have a reexamination? 18. Will you be there? 19. Will all be there? 20. He says he shall be there. 21. He has promised that he will be there. 22. I fear that he will fail to pass. 23. We think she will soon be well. 24. We are determined that they shall pay. 25. We expect that they will bring their books. 26. I doubt that he will pay. 27. We have promised that we will do it. 28. If he shall ask, shall I refer him to you?

EXERCISE 46

Fill the blanks in the following sentences with SHALL or WILL:

1. I think I —— find the work easy. 2. I —— probably be refused, but I —— go anyway. 3. —— you be busy to-night? Yes, I —— be in class until ten. 4. I —— probably fail to pass the examination. 5. If no one assists me, I —— drown. 6. No. I —— never sell my library. 7. If I fail I —— be obliged to take an examination. 8. —— my men begin work to-day? 9. —— you stop at Chicago on your way West? No, I don't, think I ——. 10. —— you promise me to sing at the concert to-night? Yes, I —— sing to-night. 11. —— I put more wood on the fire? 12. I —— be lost; no one —— help me. 13. It —— be there when you need it. 14. It is demanded that the pupils —— be orderly and attentive. 15. I think it —— rain soon. 16. We —— be disappointed. 17. —— we be permitted to go? 18. We —— do it for you. 19. —— I go or remain at home? 20. I —— be very grateful to you if you —— do this. 21. If you —— ask her, she —— go with you. 22. If you —— stop, I —— go with you. 23. Where —— we join you? 24. I think we —— be there in time. 25. I —— go to the river for a boat ride. 26. When —— you be twenty years of age? 27. —— we ever see you again? 28. Perhaps we —— return next year. 29. We promise, we —— return. 30. You —— probably suffer for it. 31. I —— not impose on you in that way. 32. —— I ask for your mail? 33. I hope that we —— be there before the curtain rises. 34. —— they probably be there? 35. —— you please fetch me a paper? 36. —— we stop for you on our way downtown? 37. When —— I find you in your office? 38. They —— never do it if I can help. 39. You —— do as I say. 40. I —— never, never, go there again. 41. We —— decide what to do about that at our next meeting which —— be in October. 42. —— it make any difference to you? 43. —— I go with you? 44. No, you —— please stay here. 45. He —— never enter this house again. 46. It is believed that they —— probably be present. 47. He fears that he —— die. 48. He requests that you —— come to-day at seven o'clock. 49. She asks that it —— be sent at once. 50. It is thought that his death —— not seriously change things. 51. It is believed that the emperor —— have to retract. 52. A story is told that —— gain little credence. 53. I fear that I —— take cold. 54. She says that I —— take cold. 55. They say that they —— do it in spite of anything done to prevent. 56. He is determined that he —— go away. 57. She is determined that he —— go to school. 58. They say they —— probably not go. 59. John thinks he —— probably live to be past sixty. 60. He tells me that he thinks that he —— be elected. 61. They say that they —— meet you. 62. They assure us that we —— find good stores in Berlin. 63. He says he fears he —— miss his train. 64. Wright says his father —— become famous. 65. He writes that he —— be here to-day. 66. Do you say that you —— be present? 67. The book says that —— be wrong. 68. Does she say that she —— come? 69. I told you that I —— not come. 70. I tell you that she —— not come. 71. He says that he —— go as a matter of duty. 72. John says that —— not happen anyway. 73. Does he say that he —— surely come? 74. Does John write what he —— promise to do in the matter? 75. —— you be sure to be there?

EXERCISE 47

Write five sentences in which SHALL is used in an independent clause, and five in which SHALL is used in a dependent clause.

Write five sentences in which WILL is used in an independent clause, and five in which WILL is used in a dependent clause.

Write five interrogative sentences in which SHALL is used and five in which WILL is used.

68. SHOULD AND WOULD. Should and would are the past tenses of shall and will, and have corresponding uses. Should is used with I and we, and would with other subjects, to express mere futurity or probability. Would is used with I and we, and should with other subjects, to express conditional promise or determination on the part of the speaker. Examples:

Futurity:

I should be sorry to lose this book. If we should be afraid of the storm, we should be foolish. It was expected that they would be here.

Volition or determination:

If it should occur, we would not come. It was promised that it should not occur again. He decided that it should be done.

Should is sometimes used in the sense of ought, to imply duty; as, He should have gone to her aid.

Would is often used to indicate habitual action; as, This would often occur when he was preaching.

EXERCISE 48

Justify the correct use of SHOULD and WOULD in the following sentences:

1. I feared that they would not come. 2. He should know his duty better than that. 3. I should be displeased if he would act that way. 4. We should be ruined if we did that. 5. You should have seen his face. 6. We would often take that road. 7. He said that he would come at once. 8. If that should happen, we should not come. 9. If you were I, what should you do? 10. I should see the president of the class. 11. We should have been at the meeting. 12. He said that we should have been at the meeting. 13. He promised that he would be at the meeting. 14. If I should say so, he would dislike me. 15. Should he come, I would go with him. 16. They would usually stop at the new hotel. 17. What would they do in the city? 18. She asked if she should write the letter. 19. She said they would write the letter. 20. She agreed that it would be right. 21. She assured us that she would attend to it.

EXERCISE 49

Fill in the blanks with SHOULD or WOULD in the following sentences:

1. I fear I —— be drowned if I —— go swimming. 2. I —— be much pleased to meet him. 3. It was feared that they —— not accept. 4. If it —— storm, we —— not start. 5. She —— often come to class with no books. 6. I believed that he —— come late. 7. He —— never have been invited. 8. If that had become known, we —— surely have been ruined. 9. To think that he —— do such a thing! 10. I —— like to see the game. 11. You —— not enjoy it. 12. —— you like to see the game? 13. —— I bring my opera glasses? 14. Mary —— never have known it. 15. He —— have easily deceived her. 16. They were anxious that we —— not miss the train. 17. If we —— come late, —— it make any difference? 18. If they had proposed it, we —— have voted it down. 19. On what date —— that come? 20. I suppose I —— have done it; but, it —— have inconvenienced me. 21. Had Lee known that, he —— never have surrendered. 22. I —— never have believed she —— do such a thing. 23. We —— never have come. 24. —— you think him capable of such a trick? 25. I knew I —— not be here on time. 26. —— they dare to attempt opposition? 27. How —— you go about it? 28. Lincoln, under those circumstances, —— probable not have been elected. 29. It —— have changed our whole history. 30. He said that it —— have changed our whole history. 31. He said he —— come. 32. She thinks they —— not do it. 33. We believe that we —— like to go at once. 34. They say it —— be done now. 35. I think I —— like to go.

EXERCISE 50

Write five sentences in which SHOULD is used independently, and five in which SHOULD is used dependently.

Write five sentences in which WOULD is used independently, and five in which WOULD is used dependently.

Write five sentences in which SHOULD is used in questions, and five in which WOULD is used in questions.

69. USE OF MAY AND MIGHT, CAN AND COULD. May, with its past tense, might, is properly used to denote permission. Can, with its past tense, could, refers to the ability or possibility to do a thing. These two words are often confused.

EXERCISE 51

Fill the blanks in the following sentences:

1. —— I go home? 2. —— we get tickets at that store? 3. —— the mountain be climbed? 4. —— we come into your office? 5. You —— stay as long as you wish. 6. —— you finish the work in an hour? 7. How —— you say such a thing? 8. Several people —— use the same book. 9. We —— afford to delay a while. 10. —— John go with me? 11. You —— often hear the noise. 12. What —— not be done in a week? 13. That —— be true, but it —— not be relied on. 14. What —— he do to prevent it? 15. When —— we hand in the work?

70. PARTICIPLES AND GERUNDS. The past participle has already been mentioned as one of the principal parts of the verb. Generally, the PARTICIPLES are those forms of the verb that ARE USED ADJECTIVELY; as, seeing, having seen, being seen, having been seen, seen, playing, having played, etc. In the following sentences note that the verb form in each case modifies a substantive: He, HAVING BEEN INVITED TO DINE, came early, John, BEING SICK, could not come. The verb form in all these cases is called a participle, and must be used in connection with either a nominative or objective case of a noun or pronoun.

The GERUND is the same as the participle in its forms, but differs in that, while the participle is always used adjectively, the GERUND IS ALWAYS USED SUBSTANTIVELY; as, I told OF HIS WINNING the race, AFTER HIS ASSERTING it, I believe the statement.

71. MISUSES OF PARTICIPLES AND GERUNDS.

1. A participle should not be used unless it stands in a grammatical and logical relation to some substantive that is present in the sentence. Failure to follow this rule leads to the error known as the "dangling participle." It is wrong to say, The dish was broken, RESULTING from its fall, because resulting does not stand in grammatical relation to any word in the sentence. But it would be right to say, The dish was broken as a result of its fall. Examine, also, the following examples:

Wrong: I spent a week in Virginia, followed by a week at Atlantic City.

Right: I spent a week in Virginia, following it by a week at Atlantic City.

Right: I spent a week in Virginia, and then a week at Atlantic City.

2. A participle should not stand at the beginning of a sentence or principal clause unless it belongs to the subject of that sentence or clause. Compare the following:

Wrong: Having been sick, it was decided to remain at home.

Right: Having been sick, I decided to remain at home.

3. A participle preceded by thus should not be used unless it modifies the subject of the preceding verb. Compare the following:

Wrong: He had to rewrite several pages, thus causing him a great deal of trouble.

Right: He had to rewrite several pages, and was thus caused a great deal of trouble.

Right: He had to rewrite several pages, thus experiencing a great deal of trouble.

4. The gerund is often used as the object of a preposition, and frequently has a noun or pronoun modifier. Owing to confusion between the gerund and the participle, and to the failure to realize that the gerund can only be used substantively, the objective case of a modifying noun or pronoun is often wrongly used before the gerund. A substantive used with the gerund should always be in the possessive case. Say, I heard OF JOHN'S COMING, not, I heard OF JOHN COMING.

5. When a gerund and a preposition are used, the phrase should be in logical and immediate connection with the substantive it modifies, and the phrase should never introduce a sentence unless it logically belongs to the subject of that sentence. Exception: When the gerund phrase denotes a general action, it may be used without grammatical connection to the sentence; as, In traveling, good drinking water is essential. Compare the following wrong and right forms:

Wrong: After seeing his mistake, a new start was made.

Right: After seeing his mistake, he made a new start.

Wrong: By writing rapidly, the work can be finished.

Right: By writing rapidly, you can finish the work.

Wrong: In copying the exercise, a mistake was made.

Right: In copying the exercise, I made a mistake.

EXERCISE 52

In the following sentences, choose the proper form of the substantive from those italicized:

1. He spoke of John John's coming down. 2. The idea of his him singing is absurd. 3. Do you remember me my speaking about it? 4. What is the use of you your reading that? 5. He his him being arrested was a sufficient disgrace. 6. He him his being now of age, sold the farm. 7. He him his selling it was very unexpected. 8. You should have heard him his telling the story. 9. You should have heard his him telling of the story. 10. To think of them they their having been seen there! 11. What is the object of Mary Mary's studying French? 12. It its being John was a great surprise. 13. What is the use of them they their talking so much? 14. John John's going to school takes all his evenings. 15. The beauty of James James's writing got him the position. 16. He had heard about me my coming to-day. 17. John John's coming was a surprise.

EXERCISE 53

Wherever participles or gerunds are improperly used in the following sentences, correct the sentences so as to avoid such impropriety. See Sec.107 for rule as to punctuation:

1. Having assented to your plan, you try to hold me responsible. 2. He asked him to make the plans, owing to the need of an experienced architect. 3. It was decided to send his son abroad being anxious for his health. 4. On hearing that, a new plan was made. 5. Moving slowly past our window, we saw a great load of lumber. 6. Intending to go to the theater, the whole afternoon was spent in town. 7. He was taken into the firm, thus gaining an increased income. 8. Not having the lesson prepared, he told John to stay after class. 9. No letter was written for more than a week, causing considerable anxiety. 10. Expecting us to come, we disappointed him. 11. After telling me the story, I left him. 12. By reading aloud to the class, they do not gain much. 13. He had to wait several hours for the train, thus causing him to lose a great deal of valuable time. 14. After listening to his lecture for an hour he became tiresome. 15. We listened attentively to his lecture, thus showing our interest.

72. INFINITIVES. The Infinitives are formed by the word to and some part of the verb or of the verb and auxiliary. For see and play as model verbs, the infinitives are as follows:

PRESENT ACTIVE PRESENT PASSIVE to see to be seen to play to be played

PRESENT PERFECT ACTIVE PRESENT PERFECT PASSIVE to have seen to have been seen to have played to have been played

The word to is frequently omitted. In general, other verbs follow the same endings and forms as do the infinitives above.

It is necessary to know the difference between the two tenses, since the misuse of tenses leads to a certain class of errors.

73. SEQUENCE OF INFINITIVE TENSES. The wrong tense of the infinitive is frequently used. The following rules should be observed:

1. If the action referred to by the infinitive is of the same time or of later time than that indicated by the predicate verb, the PRESENT INFINITIVE should be used.

2. When the action referred to by the infinitive is regarded as completed at the time indicated by the predicate verb, the PERFECT INFINITIVE should be used.

Examine the following examples:

Wrong: I should have liked to have gone.

Right: I should have liked to go (same or later time).

Right: I should like to have gone (earlier time).

Wrong: It was bad to have been discovered.

Right: It is bad to have been discovered (earlier time).

Right: It was bad to be discovered (same or later time).

Right: She did not believe her son to have committed the crime (earlier time).

Right: When he died, he believed himself to have been defeated for the office (earlier time.)

EXERCISE 54

In the following sentences choose the proper form from those italicized:

1. I was sorry to have heard to hear of John's death. 2. Should you have been willing to go to have gone with us? 3. The game was intended to be played to have been played yesterday. 4. I intended to write to have written long ago. 5. He wished to have met to meet you. 6. I should have liked to meet to have met you. 7. Mary was eager to have gone to go. 8. Nero was seen to have fiddled to fiddle while Rome burned. 9. Nero is said to have fiddled to fiddle while Rome burned. 10. This was to be done to have been done yesterday. 11. They agreed to finish to have finished it yesterday. 12. He was willing to sing to have sung alone. 13. He expected to have spoken to speak here to-morrow. 14. The Civil War is said to cause to have caused more loss of life than any other war. 15. Blackstone is said to have failed to fail at the practice of law. 16. It would have been hard to accomplish to have accomplished that result. 17. He was foolish enough to have spoiled to spoil six negatives. 18. I wanted to have attended to attend the convention. 19. It would be terrible to be lost to have been lost in the forest. 20. We were asked to have waited to wait. 21. I am eager to have seen to see it. 22. I am pleased to meet to have met you.

74. SPLIT INFINITIVES. In the sentence, care should be taken to avoid as much as possible the inserting of an adverb or an adverbial modifier between the parts of the infinitive. This error is called the "split infinitive." Compare the following:

Bad: He seemed to easily learn. Good: He seemed to learn easily.

Bad: He is said to have rapidly run along the street. Good: He is said to have run rapidly along the street.

EXERCISE 55

Correct the following split infinitives:

1. She is known to have hurriedly read the note. 2. Mary tried to quickly call help. 3. He was asked to slowly read the next paragraph. 4. John attempted to rudely break into the conversation. 5. The plan was to secretly destroy the documents. 6. His policy was to never offend. 7. He wished to in this way gain friends. 8. He proposed to greatly decrease his son's allowance.

75. AGREEMENT OF VERB IN CLAUSES. In a compound predicate, the parts of the predicate should agree in tense; PAST TENSE SHOULD FOLLOW PAST TENSE, AND PERFECT TENSE FOLLOW PERFECT TENSE. Examine the following:

Wrong: He has tried to do, and really did everything possible to stop his son.

Right: He has tried to do, and really has done everything possible to stop his son.

Right: He tried to do, and really did everything possible to stop his son.

Wrong: I hoped and have worked to gain this recognition.

Right: I hoped and worked to gain this recognition.

Right: I have hoped and have worked to gain this recognition.

EXERCISE 56

Correct the following sentences:

1. I went last week and have gone again this week. 2. I have heard of his being here, but not saw him. 3. I saw John, but I have not seen Henry. 4. He desired to see John, but has not wished to see Henry. 5. John was sent for, but has not yet arrived. 6. I endeavored to find a way of avoiding that, but have not succeeded. 7. I have never seen its superior, and, in fact, never saw its equal. 8. She has succeeded in getting his promise, but did not succeed in getting his money. 9. I hoped and have prayed for your coming. 10. I have believed and usually taught that theory. 11. I intended to and have endeavored to finish the work. 12. No one has wished to see so much and saw so little of the world as I. 13. He has gained the favor of the king and was sent to Italy. 14. We have needed you and did our best to find you.

76. OMISSION OF THE VERB OR PARTS OF THE VERB. The verb or some of its parts are often omitted. This omission sometimes makes the sentence ungrammatical or doubtful in its meaning.

I like him better than John. This sentence may have the meaning shown in either of its following corrected forms: I like him better than John DOES, or I like him better than I LIKE John.

As a matter of good usage, the verb or any other part of speech should be repeated wherever its omission either makes the sentence ambiguous or gives it an incomplete sound.

Bad: He was told to go where he ought not. Good: He was told to go where he ought not to go. Good: He was told to go where he should not go.

EXERCISE 57

Correct the following sentences:

1. I admire Mary more than John. 2. I think she is older than John. 3. He should have succeeded in gaining the end he tried. 4. I asked him to do what I should not have. 5. I did what I ought not. 6. We wish him better luck than Mary. 7. We want to see him more than Henry. 8. I should hate him worse than you. 9. He wanted me to do what I didn't care to. 10. You may, as you please, do it or not. 11. She may go if she wishes or not. 12. We think of you oftener than mother.

77. MODEL CONJUGATIONS OF THE VERBS TO BE AND TO SEE.

CONJUGATION OF TO BE

PRINCIPAL PARTS: AM, WAS, BEEN

INDICATIVE MODE

PRESENT TENSE

Person Singular Number Plural Number 1. I am We are 2. [*]Thou art (you are) You are 3. He is They are

[Footnote *: The forms, thou art, thou wast, thou hast, etc., are the proper forms in the second person singular, but customarily the forms of the second person plural, you are, you were, you have, etc., are used also in the second person singular. These distinct second person singular forms will be used throughout the model conjugations.]

PAST TENSE

1. I was We were 2. Thou wast or wert You were 3. He was They were

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

(Have with the past participle, been.)

1. I have been We have been 2. Thou hast been You have been 3. He has been They have been

PAST PERFECT TENSE

(Had with the past participle, been.)

1. I had been We had been 2. Thou hadst been You had been 3. He had been They had been

FUTURE TENSE

(Shall or will with the present infinitive, be.[*])

Person Singular Number Plural Number 1. I shall be We shall be 2. Thou shalt be You shall be 3. He shall be They shall be

[Footnote *: To determine when to use shall and when to use will in the future and future perfect tenses, see Sec.Sec. 65, 66, and 67. In these model conjugations the forms of shall are given with the future and the forms of will with the future perfect.]

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE

(Shall or will with the perfect infinitive, have been.[*])

1. I will have been We will have been 2. Thou wilt have been You will have been 3. He will have been They will have been

[Footnote *: See Note under Future Tense.]

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE

(Generally follows if, though, lest, although, etc. See Sec.59.)

PRESENT TENSE

1. (If) I be (If) we be 2. (If) thou be (If) you be 3. (If) he be (If) they be

PAST TENSE

1. (If) I were (If) we were 2. (If) thou were (If) you were 3. (If) he were (If) they were

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

(Have, unchanged, with the past participle, been.)

1. (If) I have been (If) we have been 2. (If) thou have been (If) you have been 3. (If) he have been (If) they have been

PAST PERFECT TENSE

(Had, unchanged, with the past participle, been.)

Person Singular Number Plural Number 1. (If) I had been (If) we had been 2. (If) thou had been (If) you had been 3. (If) he had been (If) they had been

FUTURE TENSE

(Shall or will, unchanged, with present infinitive be.[*])

[Footnote *: See Note to Future Indicative.]

1. (If) I shall be (If) we shall be 2. (If) thou shall be (If) you shall be 3. (If) he shall be (If) they shall be

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE

(Shall or will, unchanged, with the perfect infinitive, have been.*)

1. (If) I shall have been (If) we shall have been 2. (If) thou shall have been (If) you shall have been 3. (If) he shall have been (If) they shall have been

POTENTIAL MODE[*]

[Footnote *: The distinct potential mode is no longer used by many authorities on grammar, and the potential forms are regarded as of the indicative mode. It has, however, been thought best to use it in these model conjugations.

As to when to use the different auxiliaries of the potential mode see Sec.Sec. 68 and 69. The conjugation with must (or ought to) is sometimes called the OBLIGATIVE MODE. The conjugation with should or would is sometimes called the CONDITIONAL MODE.]

PRESENT TENSE

(May, can, or must, with the present infinitive, be.)

1. I may, can, or must be We may, can, or must be 2. Thou mayst, canst, or must be You may, can, or must be 3. He may, can, or must be They may, can, or must be

PAST TENSE

(Might, could, would, or should, with the present infinitive, be.)

Person Singular Number Plural Number 1. I might, could, would, or We might, could, would, or should be should be 2. Thou mightst, couldst, You might, could, would, or wouldst, or shouldst be should be 3. He might, could, would, They might, could, would, or or should be should be

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

(May, can, or must, with the perfect infinitive, have been. For forms substitute have been for be in the present potential.)

PAST PERFECT TENSE

(Might, could, would, or should, with the perfect infinitive have been. For forms substitute have been for be in the past potential.)

IMPERATIVE MODE[*]

[Footnote *: The imperative is the same in both singular and plural.]

Be

INFINITIVE MODE

PRESENT TENSE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE To be To have been

PARTICIPLES

PRESENT TENSE PERFECT TENSE Being Having been

GERUNDS

(Same as participles)

CONJUGATION OF TO SEE

PRINCIPAL PARTS: SEE, SAW, SEEN

INDICATIVE MODE

PRESENT TENSE—ACTIVE VOICE

Simple

Person Singular Number Plural Number 1. I see We see 2. Thou seest You see 3. He sees They see

Emphatic

1. I do see We do see 2. Thou dost see You do see 3. He does see They do see

Progressive

1. I am seeing We are seeing 2. Thou art seeing You are seeing 3. He is seeing They are seeing

PRESENT TENSE—PASSIVE VOICE

Simple

1. I am seen We are seen 2. Thou art seen You are seen 3. He is seen They are seen

Progressive

1. I am being seen We are being seen 2. Thou art being seen You are being seen 3. He is being seen They are being seen

PAST TENSE—ACTIVE VOICE

Simple

1. I saw We saw 2. Thou sawest You saw 3. He saw They saw

Emphatic

Person Singular Number Plural Number 1. I did see We did see 2. Thou didst see You did see 3. He did see They did see

Progressive

1. I was seeing We were seeing 2. Thou wast or wert seeing You were seeing 3. He was seeing They were seeing

PAST TENSE—PASSIVE VOICE

Simple

1. I was seen We were seen 2. Thou wast or wert seen You were seen 3. He was seen They were seen

Progressive

1. I was being seen We were being seen 2. Thou wert or wast being seen You were being seen 3. He was being seen They were being seen

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE—ACTIVE VOICE

Simple

(Substitute seen for been in the present perfect indicative of to be.)

Progressive

(Substitute been seeing for been in the present perfect indicative of to be.)

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE—PASSIVE VOICE

(Substitute been seen for been in the present perfect indicative of to be.)

PAST PERFECT TENSE—ACTIVE VOICE

Simple

(Substitute seen for been in the past perfect indicative of to be.)

Progressive

(Substitute been seeing for been in the past perfect indicative of to be.)

PAST PERFECT TENSE—PASSIVE VOICE

(Substitute been seen for been in the past perfect indicative of to be.)

FUTURE TENSE—ACTIVE VOICE

Simple

(Substitute see for be in the future indicative of to be.)

Progressive

(Substitute be seeing for be in the future indicative of to be.)

FUTURE TENSE—PASSIVE VOICE

(Substitute be seen for be in the future indicative of to be.)

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE—ACTIVE VOICE

Simple

(Substitute have seen for have been in the future perfect indicative of to be.)

Progressive

(Substitute have been seeing for have been in the future perfect indicative of to be.)

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE—PASSIVE VOICE

(Substitute have been seen for have been in the future perfect indicative of to be.)

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE

PRESENT TENSE—ACTIVE VOICE

Simple

Person Singular Number Plural Number 1. (If) I see (If) we see 2. (If) thou see (If) you see 3. (If) he see (If) they see

Emphatic

Person Singular Number Plural Number 1. (If) I do see (If) we do see 2. (If) thou do see (If) you do see 3. (If) he do see (If) they do see

Progressive

1. (If) I be seeing (If) we be seeing 2. (If) thou be seeing (If) you be seeing 3. (If) he be seeing (If) they be seeing

PRESENT TENSE—PASSIVE VOICE

1. (If) I be seen (If) we be seen 2. (If) thou be seen (If) you be seen 3. (If) he be seen (If) they be seen

PAST TENSE—ACTIVE VOICE

Simple

1. (If) I saw (If) we saw 2. (If) thou saw (If) you saw 3. (If) he saw (If) they saw

Emphatic

1. (If) I did see (If) we did see 2. (If) thou did see (If) you did see 3. (If) he did see (If) they did see

Progressive

1. (If) I were seeing (If) we were seeing 2. (If) thou were seeing (If) you were seeing 3. (If) he were seeing (If) they were seeing

PAST TENSE—PASSIVE VOICE

1. (If) I were seen (If) we were seen 2. (If) thou were seen (If) you were seen 3. (If) he were seen (If) they were seen

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE—ACTIVE VOICE

Simple

(Substitute seen for been in the present perfect subjunctive of to be.)

Progressive

(Substitute been seeing for been in the present perfect subjunctive of to be.)

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE—PASSIVE VOICE

(Substitute been seen for been in the present perfect subjunctive of to be.)

PAST PERFECT TENSE—ACTIVE VOICE

Simple

(Substitute seen for been in the past perfect subjunctive of to be.)

Progressive

(Substitute been seeing for been in the past perfect subjunctive of to be.)

PAST PERFECT TENSE—PASSIVE VOICE

(Substitute been seen for been in the past perfect subjunctive of to be.)

FUTURE TENSE—ACTIVE VOICE

Simple

(Substitute see for be in the future subjunctive of to be.)

Progressive

(Substitute be seeing for be in the future subjunctive of to be.)

FUTURE TENSE—PASSIVE VOICE

(Substitute be seen for be in the future subjunctive of to be.)

FUTURE PERFECT—ACTIVE VOICE

Simple

(Substitute seen for been in the future perfect subjunctive of to be.)

Progressive

(Substitute been seeing for been in the future perfect subjunctive of to be.)

FUTURE PERFECT—PASSIVE VOICE

(Substitute been seen for the future perfect subjunctive of to be.)

POTENTIAL MODE

PRESENT TENSE—ACTIVE VOICE

Simple

(Substitute see for be in the present potential of to be.)

Progressive

(Substitute be seeing for be in the present potential of to be.)

PRESENT TENSE—PASSIVE VOICE

Simple

(Substitute be seen for be in the present potential of to be.)

PAST TENSE—ACTIVE VOICE

Simple

(Substitute see for be in the past potential of to be.)

Progressive

(Substitute be seeing for be in the past potential of to be.)

PAST TENSE—PASSIVE VOICE

(Substitute be seen for be in the past potential of to be.)

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE—ACTIVE VOICE

Simple

(Substitute have seen for be in the present potential of to be.)

Progressive

(Substitute have been seeing for be in the present potential of to be.)

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE—PASSIVE VOICE

(Substitute have been seen for be in the present potential of to be.)

PAST PERFECT TENSE—ACTIVE VOICE

Simple

(Substitute have seen for be in the past potential of to be.)

Progressive

(Substitute have been seeing for be in the past potential of to be.)

PAST PERFECT TENSE—PASSIVE VOICE

(Substitute have been seen for be in the past potential of to be.)

IMPERATIVE MODE

ACTIVE VOICE

Simple

see.

Emphatic

do see.

Progressive

be seeing.

PASSIVE VOICE

be seen

INFINITIVE MODE

PRESENT TENSE—ACTIVE VOICE

Simple

to see.

Progressive

to be seeing.

PRESENT TENSE—PASSIVE VOICE

Simple

to be seen

PERFECT TENSE—ACTIVE VOICE

Simple

to have seen.

Progressive

to have been seeing.

PERFECT TENSE—PASSIVE VOICE

Simple

to have been seen.

PARTICIPLES

PRESENT TENSE—ACTIVE VOICE

seeing

PRESENT TENSE—PASSIVE VOICE

being seen

PAST TENSE—PASSIVE VOICE[*]

seen

[Footnote *: There is no past participle in the active voice.]

PERFECT TENSE—ACTIVE VOICE

Simple

having seen

Progressive

having been seeing

PERFECT TENSE—PASSIVE VOICE

having been seen

GERUNDS

PRESENT TENSE—ACTIVE VOICE

seeing

PRESENT TENSE—PASSIVE VOICE

being seen

PERFECT TENSE—ACTIVE VOICE

having seen

PERFECT TENSE—PASSIVE VOICE

having been seen



CHAPTER VI

CONNECTIVES: RELATIVE PRONOUNS, RELATIVE ADVERBS, CONJUNCTIONS, AND PREPOSITIONS

78. INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT CLAUSES. A sentence may consist of two or more independent clauses, or it may consist of one principal clause and one or more dependent clauses.

INDEPENDENT CLAUSES are joined by conjunctions; such as, hence, but, and, although, etc.

DEPENDENT CLAUSES are joined to the sentence by relative adverbs; such as, where, when, etc., or by relative pronouns; as, who, what, etc. These dependent clauses may have the same office in the sentence as nouns, pronouns, adjectives, or adverbs. (See Sec.7.)

79. CASE AND NUMBER OF RELATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. Failure to use the proper case and number of the relative pronouns has already been touched upon (see Sec.29), but a further mention of this fault may well be made here.

The relative pronoun has other offices in the sentence than that of connecting the dependent and principal clauses. It may serve as a subject or an object in the clause. The sentence, I wonder WHOM will be chosen, is wrong, because the relative here is the subject of will be chosen, not the object of wonder, and should have the nominative form who. Corrected, it reads, I wonder WHO will be chosen. Examine the following sentences:

Wrong: We know who we mean.

Right: We know whom we mean.

Wrong: You may give it to whoever you wish.

Right: You may give it to whomever you wish.

Wrong: Do you know whom it is?

Right: Do you know who it is? (Attribute complement.)

Wrong: Everybody who were there were disappointed. (Disagreement in number.)

Right: Everybody who was there was disappointed.

The relative pronoun takes the case required by the clause it introduces, not the case required by any word preceding it. Thus, the sentence, He gave it to WHO had the clearest right, is correct, because who is the subject of the verb had, and therefore in the nominative case. Give it to WHOMEVER they name, is right, because whomever is the object of they name.

Errors in the use of interrogative pronouns are made in the same way as in the use of the relatives. The interrogative pronoun has other functions besides making an interrogation. It serves also as the subject or object in the sentence. Care must be taken, then, to use the proper case. Say, Whom are you looking for? not, Who are you looking for?

NOTE. Some writers justify the use of who in sentences like the last one on the ground that it is an idiom. When, as in this book, the object is training in grammar, it is deemed better to adhere to the strictly grammatical form.

EXERCISE 58

In the following sentences, choose the proper forms from those italicized:

1. Who whom do you wish to see? 2. You will please write out the name of whoever whomever you want. 3. I saw who whom was there. 4. Who whom was it you saw? 5. Who whom did you see? 6. John did not know whom who to ask. 7. Why did he not ask whomever whoever was there? 8. Who whom can tell the difference? 9. Give it to whoever whomever you please. 10. None of those who were was wanted was were there. 11. The one of those who were was wanted was not there. 12. He is one of those fellows who are is always joking. 13. Whom who was called "The Rail Splitter?" 14. Do you not know whom who it was? 15. That is one of the birds that is are very rare. 16. One of the books which was were brought was one hundred years old. 17. I am not among those who whom were was there. 18. Only one of the men who were was on board survived. 19. Everyone else who was were there was were lost. 20. I am the one of the three men who is am are guilty. 21. He was chosen one of the four speakers who was were to speak on Commencement Day. 22. It was one of the books which were was being sought by the librarian. 23. Give it to one of the men who whom is found there. 24. To who whom did you give it? 25. It was for whomever whoever was present. 26. Ask whomever whoever is nearest the door.

80. CONJUNCTIVE OR RELATIVE ADVERBS. It is better to use a WHEN CLAUSE only in the subordinate part of the sentence, to state the time of an event. Compare the following:

Bad: He was turning the corner, when suddenly he saw a car approaching. Good: When he was turning the corner, he suddenly saw a car approaching.

Bad: When the news of the fire came, it was still in the early morning. Good: The news of the fire came when it was still in the early morning.

81. Do not use a WHEN or a WHERE CLAUSE in defining a subject or in place of a predicate noun.

Bad: Commencement is when one formally completes his school course. Good: Commencement is the formal completion of one's school course.

Bad: Astronomy is where one studies about the stars. Good: Astronomy is the study of the stars.

82. So, then, and also, the conjunctive adverbs, should not be used to unite cooerdinate verbs in a sentence unless and or but be used in addition to the adverb.

Bad: The boys' grades are low, so they indicate lack of application. Good: The boys' grades are low, and so indicate lack of application.

Bad: He read for a while, then fell asleep. Good: He read for a while, and then fell asleep.

Bad: I'll be down next week; also I shall bring Jack along. Good: I'll be down next week; and also I shall bring Jack along.

EXERCISE 59

Correct the following sentences:

1. Anarchism is when one believes in no government. 2. I am studying German, also French. 3. The clock had just struck five when the cab came. 4. I shall work until nine o'clock, then I shall retire. 5. I was sick all day, so I couldn't come to the office. 6. I was going up street yesterday when unexpectedly I met Jones. 7. Death is when one ceases to live. 8. Dinner is ready, so I shall have to cease work. 9. He told half of the story, then he suddenly stopped. 10. He loves good music, also good pictures. 11. A restaurant is where meals are served.

83. CONJUNCTIONS. There are certain conjunctions, and also certain pairs of conjunctions that frequently cause trouble.

AND or BUT should not be used to join a dependent clause to an independent clause; as, It was a new valise AND differing much from his old one. Say instead, It was a new valise, differing much from his old one, or It was a new valise, and differed very much from his old one. Similarly, It was a new book WHICH (not and which) interested him very much. This "and which" construction is a frequent error; and which should never be used unless there is more than one relative clause, and then never with the first one.

BUT or FOR should not be used to introduce both of two succeeding statements. Both of the following sentences are bad by reason of this error: He likes geometry, BUT fails in algebra, BUT studies it hard, He read all night, FOR the book interested him, FOR it was along the line of his ambition.

THAN and AS should not be followed by objective pronouns in sentences like this: I am as large AS HIM. The verb in these sentences is omitted. If it is supplied, the error will be apparent. The sentence would then read, I am as large as HIM (is large). The correct form is, I am as large as he (is large). Similarly, He is taller than I (am tall), She is brighter than HE (is bright).

AS may be used as either a conjunction or an adverb. He is AS tall AS I. The first as is an adverb, the second as is a conjunction. As is properly used as an adverb when the equality is asserted, but, when the equality is denied, so should be used in its place. He is AS old AS I, is correct, but the denial should be, He is NOT SO old AS I. After not do not use as when as is an adverb.

NEITHER, when used as a conjunction, should be followed by NOR; as, Neither he NOR (not or) I can come. Neither should never be followed by or.

EITHER, when used as a conjunction, should be followed by OR.

84. PLACING OF CORRELATIVES. The correlatives, such as neither—nor, either—or, not only—but also, should be placed in clear relation to similar parts of speech or similar parts of the sentence. One should not be directed toward a verb and the other toward some other part of speech.

Bad: He not only brought a book, but also a pencil. Good: He brought not only a book but also a pencil.

Bad: He would offer neither reparation nor would he apologize. Good: Neither would he offer reparation nor would he apologize. Good: He would offer neither reparation nor apology.

85. The prepositions without, except, like, and the adverb directly should not be used as conjunctions.

Wrong: Without (unless) you attend to class-room work, you cannot pass.

Wrong: This she would not do except (unless) we promised to pay at once.

Wrong: I acted just like (as) all the others (did).

Wrong: Directly (as soon as) he came, we harnessed the horses.

EXERCISE 60

Correct the following sentences:

1. Mary is as old as her. 2. I read as much as him. 3. He either wore his coat or a sort of vest. 4. He walked to the next town, but did not come back, but stayed all night. 5. We are better players than them. 6. He became thoroughly under the influence of the hypnotist and doing many absurd things. 7. There we met a man named Harmon and whom we found very entertaining. 8. They work harder than us. 9. John is not as tall as you. 10. Neither John or James is as tall as you. 11. I admire Mary more than she. 12. That can't be done without you get permission from the principal. 13. He dresses just like I do. 14. Directly he came we launched the canoes. 15. This cannot be done except you are a senior. 16. Neither she nor I was present. 17. He not only had a trained pig but also a goose. 18. Mary is not as pretty as Helen. 19. The men neither interested him nor the places. 20. He has traveled more than me. 21. We like him very much, for he is very interesting, for he has traveled so much. 22. It is a good book and which has much valuable information. 23. It was a rough town and harboring many criminals. 24. He took an interest neither in studies, nor did he care for athletics. 25. He neither took an interest in studies nor athletics.

EXERCISE 61

Construct sentences in which the following words are correctly used:

When, where, than, as—as, so—as, neither—nor, not only—but also, either—or, except, like, without, directly.

86. PREPOSITIONS. Some mistakes are made in the use of prepositions. Note the following brief list of words with the appropriate prepositions to be used with each:

agree with a person differ from (person or thing) agree to a proposition differ from or with an opinion bestow upon different from compare with (to determine value) glad of compare to (because of similarity) need of comply with part from (a person) confide in (to trust in) part with (a thing) confide to (to intrust to) profit by confer on (to give) prohibit from confer with (to talk with) reconcile to (a person) convenient to (a place) reconcile with (a statement) convenient for (a purpose) scared by dependent on think of or about

Do not use prepositions where they are unnecessary. Note the following improper expressions in which the preposition should be omitted:

continue on down until covered over inside of off of outside of started out where to? wish for to come remember of more than you think for

Do not omit any preposition that is necessary to the completeness of the sentence.

Bad: He is a dealer and shipper of coal.

Good: He is a dealer in and shipper of coal.

EXERCISE 62

Illustrate in sentences the correct use of each of the expressions listed under the first paragraph of Sec.86.

Form sentences in which correct expressions are used in place of each of the incorrect expressions listed under the second paragraph of Sec.86.



QUESTIONS FOR THE REVIEW OF GRAMMAR

SENTENCES, PARTS OF SPEECH, AND SENTENCE ELEMENTS. What are the four kinds of sentences? What are the different parts of speech? Define each. What is the difference between a clause and a phrase? What is the difference between a principal clause and a subordinate clause? Illustrate. Illustrate an adverbial clause. An adjective clause. Illustrate an adverbial phrase. An adjective phrase. What is an attribute complement? Illustrate. What is an object complement? Illustrate. Illustrate and explain the difference between simple, complex, and compound sentences.

NOUNS. What is the difference between singular and plural number? How is the plural of most nouns formed? Of nouns ending in s, ch, sh, x, or z? In y? In f or fe? In o? Of letters, figures, etc.? Of compound nouns? Of proper names and titles? How is the possessive case of most nouns formed? Of nouns ending in s or in an s sound? Of a compound noun or of a group of words? What is gender? How is the feminine gender formed from the masculine? What is the difference between common and proper nouns?

PRONOUNS. What is a pronoun? What is the antecedent of a pronoun? What is the rule for their agreement? What is meant by "person" in pronouns? Name five pronouns of each person. Name the pronouns that indicate masculine gender. Feminine. Neuter. What pronouns may be used to refer to antecedents that stand for persons of either sex? To antecedents that are collective nouns of unity? To animals? What are nouns of common gender? By what pronouns are they referred to? Should a singular or a plural pronoun be used after everybody? After some one? After some people? After two nouns connected by or? By nor? By and? What are relative pronouns? Name them. With what kind of antecedents may each be used? What is the difference between the explanatory relative and the restrictive relative? Illustrate. What is an interrogative pronoun? What pronouns may be used only in the nominative case? In the objective case? When should the nominative case be used? The objective? The possessive? May thou and you be used in the same sentence? When should but that be used, and when but what? May them be used adjectively? May which be used with a clause as an antecedent? May which and that, or who and that be used in the same sentence with the same antecedent?

ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. Distinguish between adjectives and adverbs. Illustrate. What is comparison? What is the positive degree, the comparative, the superlative? Illustrate each. May one say, He is the largest of the two? Reason? He is the larger of the three? Reason? He is the largest of all? Reason? Name three adjectives which cannot be compared. May one say, Paris is larger than any city? Reason? Paris is larger than all cities? Reason? Paris is the largest of any other city? Reason? Is a singular or plural noun demanded by every? By two? By various? By each? With how many objects may either be used? Neither? Where should the adjective or adverb be placed in the sentence? What is meant by a double negative? Illustrate. What is its effect? What is the definite article?

VERBS. What is a verb? What is a principal verb? An auxiliary? Illustrate. What are the principal parts of a verb? Name each. With what is the s-form used? With which form can no auxiliary be used? Make a sentence using each of the principal parts of the verbs, go, see, begin, come, drink, write. What is a transitive verb? Illustrate. An intransitive verb? Illustrate. What is the difference between active and passive voice? Does a transitive or does an intransitive verb have both voices? Illustrate the passive voice. Distinguish between the use of sit and set. Of lay and lie. Of rise and raise. What is the general rule for the use of the subjunctive mode? In what way and where does the subjunctive of be differ from the indicative in its forms? How do other verbs differ in the form of the subjunctive? In what respects should a verb agree with its subject? Does the form of the subject always determine its number? What should be the guide in determining whether to use a singular or plural verb? What class of subjects may not be used with don't, can't, etc.? What determines whether to use a singular or a plural verb after who, which, and that? What form of the verb is used after you? After they? When are shall and should used with I and we? When with other subjects? What rule governs their use in questions. What form is used in dependent clauses introduced by that, expressed or understood? In contingent clauses? Distinguish the use of may and might from can and could. What is a "dangling participle"? Is it an error? May the gerund be correctly used without any grammatical connection to the rest of the sentence? As the object of a preposition is a participle or gerund used? Which is used adjectively? Which may be used in connection with a possessive substantive as a modifier? When it is dependent on another verb, in what case should the present infinitive be used? When the perfect infinitive? What is a "split infinitive"? Need the parts of a compound predicate agree in tense?

CONNECTIVES. By what are independent clauses connected? Dependent clauses? Name two conjunctive adverbs. Should a when clause be used in a subordinate or in the principal part of the sentence? May so, then, or also be used alone as conjunctive adverbs? May and or but be used to join a dependent clause to a principal clause? What case should follow than or as? Should neither be followed by nor or or?



A GENERAL EXERCISE ON GRAMMAR

EXERCISE 63

Correct such of the following sentences as are wrong. After each sentence, in parenthesis, is placed the number of the paragraph in which is discussed the question involved:

1. He likes to boast of Mary cooking. (71.) 2. It is an error and which can't be corrected. (83.) 3. He said he should come if he could. (68.) 4. Can I use your pencil? (69.) 5. If you were I, what would you do? (68.) 6. We would like to go. (68.) 7. Neither the members of the committee nor the chairman is present. (63-5.) 8. He only spoke of history, not of art. (45.) 9. Socialists don't have no use for trusts. (46.) 10. This is John's book. (13.) 11. I feared that they should not come. (68.) 12. Mother's and father's death. (15-4.) 13. Mary was eager to have gone. (73.) 14. The boys, as well as their teacher, is to be praised. (64-1.) 15. The members of Congress watch each other. (44.) 16. I fear that I will take cold. (67.) 17. Some one has forgotten their umbrella. (20.) 18. Neither of the three is well. (43.) 19. Whom do you consider to be the brighter man in the class? (29) (41.) 20. He is determined that he shall go away. (67.) 21. Neither John nor James brought their books. (22.) 22. Whom did the man say he was? (29.) 23. His clothes look prettily. (38.) 24. The play progressed smooth until the last act. (38.) 25. Henry and William is to come to-morrow. (22.) 26. This is the lesser of the two evils. (40.) 27. Do you think you will stop at Chicago? (66.) 28. I am believed to be him. (29.) 29. He sings very illy. (40.) 30. When they come to build the bridge the stream was too deep for them to work. (54.) 31. She is very discontented. (48.) 32. Iron is the most useful of all other metals. (41-3.) 33. The barrel bursted from the pressure. (54.) 34. Shall my work soon begin? (66.) 35. He is six foot tall. (42.) 36. Seeing his mistake, I was not urged further by him. (71.) 37. Will the dog bite? (66.) 38. I am believed to be he. (29.) 39. I am eager to have seen it. (73.) 40. I think it shall rain soon. (67.) 41. She showed the dish to Mary and I. (29.) 42. Mary asked her mother to wash her face. (34-4.) 43. Who did the man say he was? (29.) 44. He deserved the place, for he is well educated, for he has been through Oxford University. (83.) 45. Choose who you please. (29.) 46. It don't make any difference about that. (64-5.) 47. The pump was froze fast. (54.) 48. A boat load of fishes was the days catch. (13-12.) 49. Wagner was never too rattled to play. (48.) 50. It is him. (29.) 51. He did it hisself. (31.) 52. He eat all there was on the table. (54.) 53. He sent a chest of tea, and it was made of tin. (34-4.) 54. The murderer was hung at noon. (54.) 55. It is a queer kind of a book. (47.) 56. You may give it to whoever you wish. (32.) 57. Whoever is nominated, will you vote for him? (32.) 58. I think I will find the work easy. (67.) 59. He sent his son abroad, being anxious for his health. (71.) 60. Neither they nor Mary was there. (22.) 61. Brewer's the blacksmith's shop. (15-6.) 62. Goliath was slew by David. (54.) 63. Myself and mother are sick. (30.) 64. John is as good, if not better than she. (41-4.) 65. If anybody creates a disturbance, have the police put them out. (21.) 66. The paper was addressed to John and herself. (30.) 67. John's and William's dog. (15-4.) 68. Tell the boy and girl to come here. (47.) 69. Everybody's else mail has came. (15, 54.) 70. He knows nothing about it but that he has read in the paper. (34-6.) 71. Awake me early in the morning. (57.) 72. If he be honest, he has not shown it. (60.) 73. Either Adams or Monroe were president. (63-4.) 74. Washington, the general and the president, was born on February 22d. (47.) 75. Horne's and Company's Store. (15-4.) 76. A hole had been tore in the ships' side. (54.) 77. I sat my chair by the window. (57.) 78. I sat myself down to rest. (57.) 79. I can't hardly see to write. (46.) 80. John is one of the people who comes each night. (64-4.) 81. He laid on the couch all day. (57.) 82. Death is when one ceases to live. (81.) 83. I was told to set here. (57.) 84. Iron is more useful than any other metal. (41-3.) 85. I not only told him, but also Morton. (84.) 86. McKinley was nowhere near so strenuous as Roosevelt. (40.) 87. It weighs several ton. (42.) 88. John is not as bright as Henry. (83.) 89. Germany and France's ships. (15-4.) 90. John's employer's wife's friend. (15-5.) 91. You had ought to go home. (54.) 92. This is the man who wants the ticket. (26.) 93. Which is the larger of the three? (41-1.) 94. An axe is the tool which they use. (26.) 95. It is that characteristic that makes him so disagreeable. (26.) 96. The horse which we drove, and the horse which you had last week are the same. (26, 34-5.) 97. I don't like those kind of people. (42.) 98. I do not question but what he is right. (34-6.) 99. Let him lay there. (57.) 100. My friend and me drove to Hughesville. (29.) 101. American and English grammar is alike. (63-1.) 102. William and Mary has to go to the city. (63-2.) 103. The boy, and not his parents, were wrong. (63-3.) 104. The price of meat has raised. (57.) 105. This train runs slow. (38.) 106. Which is the best of the two? (41-1.) 107. Iron is the most useful of all other metals. (41-3.) 108. Without the safety catch is raised, the gun can't be discharged. (85.) 109. The family is all at home. (62.) 110. The horse run the mile in two minutes. (54.) 111. This suit hasn't hardly been wore. (46, 54.) 112. The knife has laid there all day. (57.) 113. The noise of the street was very loud, which kept me awake. (34-9.) 114. The jury has agreed. (62.) 115. Such things make him terrible nervous. (38.) 116. Whom do you think is the brightest man? (29.) 117. The army were defeated. (62.) 118. If I was you, I should go at once. (60.) 119. She may go if she wishes or not. (76.) 120. Everybody whom was there was given a vote. (79.) 121. I like her better than you. (76.) 122. Who do you want? (79.) 123. Knox is one of the alumnuses of the college. (13-13.) 124. By law, no one is allowed to kill more than two deers. (13.) 125. The clock had just struck five when the cab came. (80.) 126. When was you there? (64-2.) 127. He is as tall as me. (83.) 128. Neither John nor her will come. (29.) 129. You hear such statements everywheres. (34-8, 40.) 130. You never can tell whom you will meet on the train. (79.) 131. I wish you were more like she. (29.) 132. Winter, with her frost, destroyed them all. (20.) 133. Tell everybody to cast their vote for Jones. (21.) 134. He is the only one of the members who pay dues. (64-4.) 135. Was it necessary, I should jump? (60.) 136. The production of oranges were encouraged. (64-3.) 137. The ship, with all its passengers, were lost. (64-1.) 138. He has fell from his chair. (57.) 139. I will raise and go to my father. (57.) 140. The policeman failed the ruffian with his club. (57.) 141. They make pottery in Trenton. (34-8.) 142. Iron is more useful than all metals. (41-3.) 143. I intended to and have endeavored to finish the work. (75.) 144. He won't come, except we pay his expenses. (85.) 145. Neither German or French is taught there. (83.) 146. We have needed you and did our best to find you. (75.) 147. He awoke at nine. (57.) 148. I wish I was a bird. (60.) 149. If it rains, I stay at school. (60.) 150. Thou shouldst pray when you are in trouble. (34-2.) 151. The Indians, they hid behind trees. (34-3.) 152. We started out for the city at noon. (86.) 153. The king, he said they should kill him. (34-3.) 154. Outside of the house stood a large moving van. (86.)



CHAPTER VII

SENTENCES

87. Classified as to their rhetorical construction, sentences are considered as loose, periodic, and balanced.

The LOOSE SENTENCE is so constructed that it may be closed at two or more places and yet make complete sense; as,

Napoleon felt his weakness, and tried to win back popular favor by concession after concession, until, at his fall, he had nearly restored parliamentary government.

Note that this sentence could be closed after the words. weakness, favor, and concession, as well as after government.

88. The PERIODIC SENTENCE holds the complete thought in suspense until the close of the sentence. Compare the following periodic sentence with the loose sentence under Sec.87:

Napoleon, feeling his weakness, and trying to win back popular favor by concession after concession, had, at his fall, nearly restored parliamentary government.

Both loose and periodic sentences are proper to use, but, since periodic sentences demand more careful and definite thought, the untrained writer should try to use them as much as possible.

89. The BALANCED SENTENCE is made up of parts similar in form, but often contrasted in meaning; as, He is a man; Jones is a gentleman.

90. SENTENCE LENGTH. As to the length of the sentence there is no fixed rule. Frequently, sentences are too long, and are, in their thought, involved and hard to follow. On the other hand, if there is a succession of short sentences, choppiness and roughness are the result. One should carefully examine sentences which contain more than thirty or thirty-five words to see that they are clear in their meaning and accurate in their construction.

EXERCISE 64

Compose, or search out in your reading, five loose sentences, five periodic sentences, and five balanced sentences.

EXERCISE 65

In the following sentences, determine whether each sentence is loose, periodic, or balanced. Change all loose sentences to the periodic form:

1. At the same time the discontent of the artisans made the lower class fear a revolution, and that class turned to Napoleon, because they felt him to be the sole hope for order and stable government.

2. The members of the council were appointed by the king, and held office only at his pleasure.

3. A society and institutions that had been growing up for years was overturned and swept away by the French Revolution.

4. Galileo was summoned to Rome, imprisoned, and forced publicly to adjure his teaching that the earth moved around the sun.

5. He draws and sketches with tolerable skill, but paints abominably.

6. Loose sentences may be clear; periodic sentences may not be clear.

7. He rode up the mountains as far as he could before dismounting and continuing the ascent on foot.

8. They visited the town where their father had lived, and while there, procured the key to the house in which he had been born.

9. His death caused great grief and extreme financial distress in the family.

10. There stands the Tower of London in all its grimness and centuries of age, holding within its walls the scene of many a stirring tragedy.

11. Few men dislike him, but many would gladly see him overthrown merely as an example.

12. Germany is moving in the same direction, although the reformers find it a hard task to influence public opinion, and a far harder one to change the various laws prevalent in the many German states.

13. Is this thing we call life, with all its troubles, pains, and woes, after all, worth living?

14. He read much, but advanced little intellectually, for all the facts and philosophy of his reading found no permanent lodgment in his mind.

15. His coming home was very unexpected, because he had started on a trip that usually took ten days, and that he had said would take longer this time.

16. It was during the time of the National Convention that Napoleon first became very prominent by defending the convention against a mob.

EXERCISE 66

Combine each of the following groups of sentences into one well constructed long sentence:

1. In highly developed commercial communities banks cannot afford space in their vaults for valuables. Especially, they cannot afford it merely to accommodate their patrons. Hence, in such communities the furnishing of places for safe deposit has become a separate business.

2. History should be a part of the course in all schools. It develops the memory. It furnishes the explanation of many social phenomena. It broadens the intellectual view. It gives culture as no other study can give it.

3. He never desired a higher education. This was possible because of the money bequeathed to him by his father. It had left him no need for a great earning capacity. More likely, it was because of the inborn dulness and lethargy of his mind.

4. New York is the pivotal state in all national elections. Its great number of electors makes it always possible for it to throw the election either way. Therefore, until one knows to which party New York will fall, he cannot tell how the election will result.