PRONOUNS BEFORE VERBAL NOUNS.[52]—Grammarians distinguish three kinds of words formed from verbs by the adding of "-ing."

1. "We found Katharine singing a merry song." In this sentence "singing"—equivalent to "who was singing"—describes Katharine, and is therefore used as an adjective; but it also partakes of the nature of a verb, for it has a direct object, "song." Such words, partaking of the nature of both adjective and verb, are called PARTICIPLES. 2. "Blithely singing pretty songs keeps one's spirits up."

Here "singing" is a noun, the subject of the sentence; yet it has a direct object, "songs," and is modified by the adverb "blithely." Such words, partaking of the nature of both noun and verb, are called GERUNDS.

A noun or a pronoun used before a gerund to denote the subject of the action should be put in the possessive case. The reason for this becomes evident if, in the sentence "Do you remember Katharine (Katharine's) singing?" we substitute for the noun "singing" another noun, "song;" thus, "Do you remember Katharine (Katharine's) song?" The direct object of "remember" is "singing," which is described by the possessive "Katharine's."

3. "Katharine's blithe singing of merry songs helps to make home happy." Here, too, "singing" is a noun; but now its verbal character has disappeared, for it is modified by an adjective "blithe," and instead of a direct object we have the prepositional phrase "of merry songs." Such words derived from verbs are ABSTRACT VERBAL NOUNS.

When a word in "-ing" is modified by "the" or some other adjective, it is an abstract verbal noun, and cannot have an object. Conversely, if it, is followed by "of" and a noun instead of by a direct object, it should be modified by "the" or some other adjective.

[51] In the first of these sentences the pronoun to be supplied is the subject of "is honest," and "I know" is parenthetical. In the second sentence, the pronoun to be supplied is the subject of "to be honest," which is the complement of "I know." [52] "Foundations," pp. 62-64.

EXERCISE XXVIII.

Which of the following forms is preferable? Give the reason:—

1. I heard of him (his) coming home. 2. What do you think of Marguerite (Marguerite's) studying Latin? 3. Have you any doubt of Kathleen (Kathleen's) being happy? 4. We saw the lady (lady's) crossing the street. 5. Do you remember my (me) speaking to you about your penmanship? 6. We saw the old miser (miser's) sitting alone in front of his hut. 7. What is the good of your (you) going now? 8. There was no doubt of him (his) being promoted. 9. Trust to me (my) being on time. 10. Are you surprised at it (its) being him (he)? 11. No doubt his example will be followed by others, with the consequence of the country (country's) being overrun by tramps. 12. Look at him (his) reading a book. 13. The delay was caused by us (our) missing the train. 14. I found him (his) reading Idyls of the King. 15. This may lead to Harry (Harry's) getting a position. 16. We did not see the house (house's) burning. 17. You (your) writing the letter so neatly secured for you the position. 18. The man's (man) breaking jail is evidence of his guilt. 19. What do you think about this cloth (cloth's) wearing well? 20. We must insist upon every man (man's) doing his duty. 21. Mr. R.'s (Mr. R.) having come to town will soon be known. 22. There is prospect of the Senate (Senate's) passing the tariff bill. 23. What use is there in a man (man's) swearing? 24. His parents are opposed to him (his) playing football. 25. No one ever saw fat men (men's) heading a riot. 26. A fierce struggle ensued, ending in the intruder (intruder's) being worsted. 27. Professor C. relies on us (our) passing our examinations. 28. I felt my heart (heart's) beating faster. 29. There is no use in me (my) trying to learn Hebrew. 30. I enjoy nothing more than the sight of a yacht (yacht's) sailing in a stiff breeze. 31. Brown (Brown's) being a manufacturer prevented his election.

EXERCISE XXIX.

Distinguish in meaning between the following sentences:—

1. The man (man's) asking to be allowed to vote started a quarrel. 2. Did you see him (his) riding? 3. I had to laugh at John (John's) riding a bicycle. 4. Think of me (my) eating frogs' legs. 5. Much depends on the teacher (teacher's) correcting the papers. 6. Did you watch him (his) entering the room? 7. Did you hear Ruth (Ruth's) singing? 8. No one ever heard of that man (man's) running for office.

EXERCISE XXX.

Explain the faults in the following sentences and correct them in several ways:—

1. He read the parable about the sowing the seed. 2. Good writing depends on reading of good books. 3. Youth is the time for the forming the character. 4. "In building of chaises, I tell you what, There is always somewhere a weakest spot." 5. He would not aid me so much as by the lifting a hand. 6. Groaning of prisoners and clanking of chains were heard. 7. By the obtaining wisdom you will command esteem. 8. By reading of good books his style was improved. 9. The taking things by force is apt to make trouble. 10. A more careful guarding the prisoners would have prevented this accident.

CHOICE OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS.[53]—Who is now used only of persons; which, of things; that, of either persons or things. As a rule, euphony decides between who or which and that.

"Who is used chiefly of persons (though also often of the higher animals), which almost only of animals and things (in old English also of persons), and that indifferently of either, except after a preposition, where only who [whom] or which can stand. Some recent authorities teach that only that should be used when the relative clause is limiting or defining: as, the man that runs fastest wins the race; but who or which when it is descriptive or co-ordinating: as, this man, who ran fastest, won the race; but, though present usage is perhaps tending in the direction of such a distinction, it neither has been nor is a rule of English speech, nor is it likely to become one, especially on account of the impossibility of setting that after a preposition; for to turn all relative clauses into the form 'the house that Jack lived in' (instead of 'the house in which Jack lived') would be intolerable. In good punctuation the defining relative is distinguished (as in the examples above) by never taking a comma before it, whether it be who or which or that. Wherever that could be properly used, but only there, the relative may be, and very often is, omitted altogether; thus, the house Jack built or lived in; the man he built it for."[54]

When the antecedent includes both persons and things, that is preferable to who or which.

"When the antecedent is a neuter noun not personified, a writer should prefer of which to whose, unless euphony requires the latter."[55]

What, as a relative pronoun, is equivalent to "that which." It is never used with an antecedent, since the antecedent is included in the meaning of the word.

The word as is a relative pronoun only after "such" or "same." After "such" the proper relative is "as"; after "same" it is "as" or "that." "Same as usually expresses identity of kind, same that absolute identity, except in contracted sentences where same as is alone found: cf. 'he uses the same books as you do,' 'he uses the same books that you do,' he uses the same books as you.'"[56]

[53] "Foundations," pp. 60, 65, 67-69. [54] The Century Dictionary. [55] "Foundations," p. 68. [56] Murray's Dictionary.

EXERCISE XXXI.

Insert the proper relative pronoun in the blanks in the following sentences, giving the reason for your choice:—

1. Man is the only animal —— can talk. 2. There are many persons ——, though they be starving, will not beg. 3. This is the malt —— lay in the house —— Jack built. 4. I will have no such son-in-law —— thinks himself better than I (me).[57] 5. Tennyson, —— was the foremost poet of England, died in 1892. 6. Time —— is lost is never found again. 7. There are many —— saw him fall. 8. The soldiers and cannon —— you saw belong to the French army. 9. Who —— hears Professor C. read the court scene from "Pick wick" does not go away delighted? 10. She is the same girl since her marriage —— she was before it. 11. The dog dropped the bone, —— then fell into the water. 12. He —— does all —— he can does all —— can be expected. 13. Her hair, —— was dark brown, was gathered in a Grecian knot. 14. Tears, such —— angels weep, burst forth. 15. I have a water spaniel, —— follows me everywhere. 16. The horse —— ran away with Harry belonged to Mr. H. 17. Such —— I have I give you. 18. This is the same man —— I spoke of. 19. The diamond, —— is so highly prized, is pure carbon, —— in the form of charcoal is familiar to all. 20. All the men and horses —— were on the transports were drowned when the vessels sank. 21. The murdered innocents at Bethlehem were martyrs —— died for a king —— they had never seen. 22. What pleased me most, and —— has been most frequently mentioned by visitors to the fair, was the beauty of the buildings. 23. I trusted to my dog, —— knew the way better than I did. 24. Dr. A.'s report shows the same record of efficiency —— has always characterized his conduct. 25. Shakespeare was the greatest poet —— the English race has produced. 26. He spends all —— he earns. 27. The review of the National Guard of Pennsylvania by Sheridan was the largest military display —— I have seen. 28. Was it you or the wind —— made those noises? 29. We have invited the same girls —— were here yesterday. 30. It was the cat, not I or the wind, —— frightened you. 31. The dog —— my brother gave me ran away. 32. Do you know that man —— is just entering the car? 33. Such eloquence —— was heard in the Senate in those days! 34. He held the same political opinions —— his illustrious friend. 35. "Nature ever faithful is To such —— trust her faithfulness." 36. Is this a dagger —— I see before me? 37. We saw the men and arms —— were captured.

EITHER or ANY ONE, NEITHER or NO ONE.[58]—Either means "one of the two"; neither, "no one of the two." When more than two persons or things are spoken of, "any one" is preferable to "either," and "no one" to "neither."

[57] See note, p. 45. [58] "Foundations," pp. 69-70.

EXERCISE XXXII.

Insert the proper word or words ("either," "neither," "any one," "no one") in each blank in the following sentences:—

1. Only three persons saw the fight, and —— of them would testify. 2. Has —— of you two gentlemen a fountain-pen? 3. I defy any candid and clear thinker to deny in the name of inductive science —— of these six propositions. 4. When two persons disagree, it is not likely that —— is altogether wrong. 5. Has —— of you who have just come from the ball-field seen Julian? 6. I have several histories of France, —— of which will give you the information. 7. Here come Harry and Arthur; —— will go to get it for you. 8. Give it to the six successful students or to —— of them.

EACH or ALL.[59]—Each denotes every one of any number taken one by one; all denotes the entire number taken together.

[59] "Foundations," p. 70.

EXERCISE XXXIII.

Insert the proper word ("each," "all") in each blank:—

1. —— gave me his (their) hand(s). 2. —— of the workmen received two dollars a day. 3. —— of the children has (have) his (their) peculiar traits. 4. —— of the members is (are) entitled to a vote. 5. He gave an apple to —— of us. 6. Did your father bring the boat to Harry? No, he brought it to —— of us. 7. —— of them did his (their) duty.

CHANGE OF PRONOUN.[60]—In referring to the same person or thing a writer should not change from one pronoun to another.

The possessive of "one" is "one's" (not "his"), except in such expressions as "every one," "no one," "many a one." The reflexive is "one's self."

It is a common but serious fault to begin to write in the third person, and then to change to the first or second.

[60] Ibid., pp. 72-74.

EXERCISE XXXIV.

Fill the blanks with the proper pronouns:—

1. The Second Regiment of the National Guard, —— was sent to Pittsburg during the strike, and —— is now in camp at Gettysburg, has six hundred members. 2. John started to school last Monday; we wish —— success. 3. Proud damsel, —— shalt be proudly met. I withdraw my pretensions to —— hand until I return from the war. 4. As —— hast said, —— lands are not endangered. But hear me before I leave ——. 5. The cat was crouching on the piazza and we were watching ——. Suddenly —— tail twitched nervously and —— prepared to spring. 6. "Ere you remark another's sin, Bid —— conscience look within." 7. At first one is likely to wonder where the boats are, since on entering the grove —— is (are) able to see only a small cabin. 8. Dost —— talk of revenge? —— conscience, it seems, has grown dull. 9. As a Christian —— art obliged to forgive —— enemy. 10. Did you never bear false witness against —— neighbor? 11. The shepherd ran after a sheep and caught —— just as —— was jumping over a hedge. 12. The hen gathered —— brood under —— wing. 13. This is a book which I have never read, but one —— is recommended by Mrs. M.

EXERCISE XXXV.

1. Write the following note in clear and correct form, using the third person:—

"Mr. Smith presents his compliments to Mr. Jones, and finds he has a cap which isn't mine. So, if you have a cap which isn't his, no doubt they are the ones."[61]

2. Write a formal note in the third person, asking an acquaintance to dine with you at a certain hour in order that you may consult with him about some matter of importance.

3. Write a note in the third person accepting or declining this invitation.

4. Write a formal note in the third person to some gentleman to whom you have a letter of introduction, asking when it will be convenient to have you call.

5. Write a notice in the third person offering a reward for the recovery of a lost article.

SINGULAR or PLURAL PRONOUNS.[62]—The rule that a pronoun should be in the same number as its antecedent is violated most commonly in connection with such expressions as "any one," "each," "either," "every," "man after man," "neither," "nobody." Grammatically such expressions are singular.

"He" ("his," "him") may stand for mankind in general and include women as well as men.

[61] Quoted in "Foundations," p. 74. [62] "Foundations," pp. 75-76.

EXERCISE XXXVI.

Fill the blanks with the proper pronouns:—

1. Many a brave man met —— death in the war. 2. Has everybody finished —— exercise? 3. If any one has not finished let —— hold up —— hand. 4. It is true that this is a free country; but that does not mean that every one may do as —— please (pleases). 5. Either John or Harry will let you look on —— book. 6. Let each take —— turn. 7. If anybody but John had come, we would not have admitted ——. 8. Any one who wishes may have a ribbon to wear in —— button-hole. 9. Neither Bois-Guilbert nor Front de Boeuf found himself (them selves) a match for the unknown knight who challenged ——. 10. Every kind of animal has —— own proper food. 11. Not an officer, not a private escaped getting —— clothes wet. 12. The Senate has (have) instructed —— conferees to yield to the demand of the conferees of the House of Representatives. 13. Everybody has possessions of some kind which —— prize (prizes) highly. 14. It is a shame that each of the men, when —— draw (draws) —— pay, take (takes) it to the tavern. 15. Will either of you gentlemen lend me —— (third person) pencil? 16. Two men saw the deed; but neither would tell what —— saw. 17. Every one should be careful of the feelings of those around ——. 18. Each of the pupils has (have) —— own dictionary. 19. Nobody went out of —— way to make her feel at home. 20. Neither Charles nor his brother ate —— breakfast this morning. 21. Everybody goes to bed when —— please (pleases). 22. The committee has handed in —— report. 23. The senior class has elected —— class-day speakers. 24. If any one wishes to see me let —— call at my office. 25. Either Florence or Grace will lend you —— fan. 26. Every one must judge of —— own feelings. 27. Whoever loves —— school should do —— best to elevate the school tone. 28. A person who is rude in —— table manners will be disliked. 29. Nobody in —— senses ever thinks of doing that. 30. Each one as before will chase —— favorite phantom. 31. She laughs like one out of —— mind. 32. Everybody was on deck amusing ——self (selves) as best —— could. 33. No one should marry unless —— has (have) the means of supporting —— self (selves) and —— family. 34. Probably everybody is eloquent at least once in —— life. 35. Everybody rises early and goes on deck, where —— inhale (inhales) the fresh salt air. 36. Bach of the gentlemen offered —— assistance. 37. Nobody but a fool would have left —— money in such a place. 38. Anybody wishing to sell —— bicycle will please call at No. 267. 39. Franklin and Collins started off together, each with very little money in —— pockets. 40. In the time of Franklin's great-great-grandfather, if a person was caught using an English Bible —— was (were) treated as a heretic. 41. Nobody should praise ——self (selves). 42. Neither the merchant nor the lawyer made ——self (selves) rich. 43. Every man and every boy received —— wages. 44. When the carnival comes off everybody who owns a boat, or who can borrow one, decorates it as best —— can with lanterns and trimmings. 45. Every cowboy carries a pistol and knows how to use it very quickly; —— also has (have) a knife stuck in —— belt, in the use of which —— is (are) very expert. 46. Everybody's heart is open, you know, when —— has (have) recently escaped from severe pain.

OMITTED PRONOUNS.[63]—The omission of necessary pronouns—an omission especially common in business letters—cannot be justified on the ground of brevity.

[63] "Foundations," pp. 77, 78.

EXERCISE XXXVII.

Insert the omitted pronouns in—

1. After twenty-two years' experience announce the opening of my new store. Hope to serve the public better by presenting new ideas. Would invite inspection. 2. Have received manuscript, but not had time to examine. Will take up in a few days. If good, will publish. 3. Dr. Jones and wife occupy the front room. 4. My inability to get employment, and destitute condition, depressed me. 5. She didn't trouble to make any excuse to her husband. 6. Accept thanks for lovely present. Hope we may have the pleasure of using together in the near future.

REDUNDANT PRONOUNS.—A vulgarism not often seen in writing, but common in conversation, consists in the use of an unnecessary pronoun after the subject of a sentence. Thus,

Teacher: Who was Benjamin Franklin? Pupil: Benjamin Franklin, he was a great American philosopher and statesman.



CHAPTER V.

OF VERBS

CORRECT and INCORRECT FORMS.[64]—It is not enough to learn by heart the "principal parts" of a verb; the habit of using them correctly should be acquired. The following verb-forms are often misused:—

Present. Past Indicative. Past Participle.

awake (intransitive) awoke awaked begin began begun beseech besought besought blow blew blown bid ("to order," "to greet") bAefde bidden or bid bid (at auction) bid bidden or bid break broke broken[65] burst burst burst choose chose chosen come came come dive dived dived do did done drive drove driven eat ate eaten flee fled fled fly flew flown freeze froze frozen forget forgot forgotten get got got[66] go went gone hang hung, hanged[67] hung, hanged[67] lay ("to cause to lie") laid laid lie ("to recline") lay lain plead pleaded pleaded prove proved proved[68] ride rode ridden rise (intransitive) rose risen raise (transitive) raised raised run ran run see saw seen set ("to put"; of the sun, set set moon, etc., "to sink") sit sat sat shake shook shaken shoe shod shod show showed shown speak spoke spoken slay slew slain steal stole stolen take took taken throw threw thrown wake (transitive) woke waked write wrote written

In using the verbs drink, ring, shrink, sing, sink, spring, swim, it seems better to confine the forms in "a" to the preterite tense, and the forms in "u" to the past participle: as, "The bell rang five minutes ago"; "Yes, the bell has rung."[69]

The following forms also should be distinguished:—

Present. Past. Participle. alight ("to get down from," alighted alighted "to dismount") light ("to ignite," lighted[7] lighted[70] "to shed light on") light ("to settle down as lighted or lit lighted or lit a bird from flight," or "to come upon by chance")

[64] "Foundations," pp.78-81, 91-93. [65] "Broke," as a form of the past participle, is still found in verse. [66] "Gotten" is an old form not sanctioned by the best modern usage. [67] "Clothes are 'hung' on the line; men are 'hanged' on the gallows."—"Foundations," p. 79. [68] "'Proven' is borrowed from the Scotch legal dialect."—"Foundations," p.92 [69] Ibid., p. 91. [70] "'Lighted' seems preferable to 'lit'; but 'lit' is used by some writers of reputation."—Ibid., p. 92.

EXERCISE XXXVIII.

Change the italicized verbs in these sentences to the past tense

1. The guests begin to go home. 2. I beseech you to hear me. 3. The wind blows furiously. 4. The steward bids me say that supper is ready. 5. Mr. O. bids forty-two dollars for the picture. 6. George dives better than any other boy in the crowd. 7. I do it myself. 8. They eat their supper as if they were half starved.. 9. The enemy flee before us. 10. The door flies open. 11. The wild goose flies southward in the autumn. 12. He flees at the smell of powder. 13. The Susquehanna river overflows its banks. 14. The workmen lay the rails for the track with great care. 15. Obedient to the doctor's directions, she lies down an hour every day. 16. Our cat lies on the rug by the hour watching for mice. 17. The cows lie under the trees in the meadow. 18. Helen comes in and lays her coat on a chair. 19. The envoys plead with Caesar earnestly. 20. Both short-stop and pitcher run for the ball. 21. He runs up to Mr. C. as if to strike him. 22. I see two cannon and a company of infantry. 23. Harry sees me coming. 24. The negro women set their baskets on their heads. 25. They sit in the third pew from the front. 26. Mr. N. always shoes my pony. 27. The savages who live on this island slay their captives. 28. The catcher often throws the ball to the second base. 29. The sun wakes me early. 30. The bell rings at seven o'clock. 31. The stag drinks his fill. 32. She sings sweetly. 33. Armed men spring up on all sides. 34. Tom swims very well indeed. 35. The vessel sinks with all on board. 36. The colonel and his staff alight in front of the general's tent. 37. He lights the lamp with a splint. 38. On the trees a crested peacock lights.

EXERCISE XXXIX.

Change these sentences so that the italicized, verbs will be either in the perfect tense or in the passive voice:—

1. The sleeper awakes. 2. The Gauls beseech Caesar to be merciful. 3. The wind blows my papers off the table. 4. Ethel broke her arm. 5. His wrongdoing breaks my heart. 6. The pressure of the water breaks the pipes. 7. They choose Mr. W. to be their chairman. 8. The enemy come in force. 9. The boys dive three times. 10. John is driving the cows out of the corn. 11. The boys are eating their supper. 12. An absconding cashier flees to Canada. 13. A robin flies to the vines by my window. 14. The Ohio river overflows its banks. 15. The water in my pitcher froze. 16. I forget his name 17. He gets along fairly well. 18. They go by steamer. 19. The sheriff hangs the condemned man. 20. The maid hangs up my cloak. 21. I lie on the couch twenty minutes to rest. 22. Tramps lie by the road below the gate. 23. Boys lay traps for hares. 24. They lay burdens on me greater than I can bear. 25. They plead their cause well. 26. This proves the truth of my assertion. 27. He rides alone from Litchfield to Waterbury 28. A mist rises before my eye. 29. I see the President often. 30. I set the lamp on the table. 31. He sits by the hour talking politics. 32. Rab shakes the little dog by the neck. 33. He is shoeing my horse. 34. This fact clearly shows the prisoner's guilt. 35. He speaks his declamation well. 36. They slay their prisoners. 37. He stole my watch. 38. Some one takes my hat. 39. He throws cold water on my plan. 40. He writes home. 41. He wakes me every night by his restlessness.

NOTE.—If the teacher thinks that the class needs more drill of this kind, Exercises XXXVIII. and XXXIX. may be reversed, that is, the verbs in XXXVIII. may be changed to perfect or passive forms; the verbs in XXXIX. to the past tense. If this is done, some of the sentences will have to be slightly recast. In the next exercise drill on the same forms is continued in a different way.

EXERCISE XL.

Insert the proper form in each of the blanks in the following sentences:—

AWAKE, WAKE. 1. I—at six o'clock this morning; I have—at about the same time ever since I came to school. 2. Lord Byron one morning—to find himself famous. A certain Mr. Peck—one day last week to find that the Nation had made him notorious. 3. A few nights ago Mr. Michael Dixon was—by a burglar in his bedroom. 4. He—me an hour before time. 5. Have you—your brother? 6. He—as I opened the door.

BEGIN. 7. He had—his speech before we arrived. 8. The Senators—to ask him questions. Then he—to be confused.

BID. 9. When the Major passed us he—us good-morning very politely. 10. Father has for—us to go there.

BLOW. 11. Before the sunset gun was fired the bugler—a strain on his bugle. 12. The top-mast of the sloop was—away.

BREAK. 13. Did you hear that Waldo has—his leg? 14. The window was—by Jack.

BURST. 15. When the South Sea bubble—, thousands of families were made poor. 16. The cannon was—by an overcharge of powder.

CHOOSE. 17. If they had—him, they would have—more wisely. 18. A better day for a drive could not have been—.

COME. 19. Harry—running up to me and asked me to lend him my cap.

DIVE. 20. The loon saw the flash of my gun and—. 21. It had—several times before.

DO. 22. I know he—it; for it could not have been—by any one else. 23. Ask him why he—it.

DRIVE. 24. He was—out of town by his indignant neighbors. 25. This stake has been—in deep.

EAT. 26. The scraps were—up by the dog. 27. The men have—their dinner.

FLEE, FLY, FLOW. 28. During the night the river had over—its banks. 29. Benedict Arnold was forced to—the country. He—to England. 30. The birds have—away. 31. The guilty man has—. He—with his family to Mexico. 32. Our meadow was over—during the freshet. 33. The yacht—like a bird before the wind. 34. The lotus-eaters watched the gleaming river as it—seaward. 35. It had—through the same channel hundreds of years. 36. The terrified savages—to the mountains. 37. They shall—from the wrath to come. 38. The plantations along the Mississippi are over—.

FORGET. 39. Once Sydney Smith, being asked his name by a servant, found to his dismay that he had—his own name. 40. Maude is late; she must have—the time.

FREEZE. 41. I thought my ears were—. 42. He would have—to death if he had not been found by the St. Bernard dogs.

GET. 43. They have—home. 44. Whenever any milk was wanted it could be—from the magic pitcher. 45. Grace has—three seats for to-night. 46. Franklin asked the boy where he had—the bread.

GO. 47. The price of coal has—up since last year. 48. He would have—with us if he had been invited.

HANG. 49. Judas, overwhelmed with remorse, went and,—himself. 50. In olden times in England a man was—for stealing a sheep.

LAY, LIE. 51. Two men—under the hay-stack all yesterday morning. They must have—there all night. 52.—down and rest. 53. He came in and—his books on his desk. 54. After he—down he remembered that he had left his pocket-book—ing by the open window. 55. He played until he was so tired that he had to—down. 56. He has—himself at full length on the grass. 57. You had better—down for a while after dinner. 58. I have—down, and I feel rested. 59. I—down an hour ago to take a nap. 60. The scene of "The Lady of the Lake" is—in the lake region of Scotland. 61. The tired lambs—down to rest. 62. Darkness settled down while the soldiers—behind the breast-works. 63. Had you not better—down a while? 64. After they had been—ing silent for an hour, the command was given to prepare for a march; afterward the men —— down again and waited for the next order. 65. When Romeo saw Juliet —— ing in the casket, he —— down by her side and drank the poison. When Juliet awoke, seeing Romeo —— ing beside her dead, she took a sword which —— near and killed herself.

PLEAD. 66. He —— tearfully to be set free, but his captors were firm. 67. Yesterday he —— "not guilty."

PROVE. 68. It cannot be —— that Mars is inhabited. 69. He thinks that the prisoner's innocence has been ——.

RIDE. 70. We had —— only a short distance when rain began to fall. 71. Have you ever —— on a bicycle?

RISE, RAISE. 72. She could not get her bread to ——. 73. The price of corn has ——. 74. I —— so that I might look around. 75. The students —— him upon their shoulders.

RUN. 76. You look as if you had —— all the way home. 77. He —— up to me and asked what time it was. 78. He said some thief had taken his coat and had —— away with it.

SEE. 79. Charlie, who has just come in, says he —— two suspicious looking men near the barn. 80. Yes, I —— him an hour ago. 81. That is the best dog I ever ——.

SET, SIT. 82. Please —— still while I try to find her. 83. The old man was ——ting in his easy-chair. 84. He —— out for Boston day before yesterday. 85. —— down and talk awhile. 86. The sun ——s at six o'clock twice a year. 87. I —— the basket on a rock while I went to the spring. 88. We —— with our friends at the table for over an hour. 89. In which seat did you ——? 90. I am—ting in my study by the window. 91. The children are dreadfully sunburnt; yesterday they—in the sun on the beach all the morning. 92. Just—down, till I call her. 93. Annie, I have—the pitcher on the table. 94. He has—there all the evening. 95. We were all—ting round the fire. 96. I had to—up all night. 97. The farmer after felling the tree found that it had fell (fallen) on a—ting hen that had laid (lain) her eggs under its branches.

SHAKE. 98. All the restraints of home had been—off long before. 99. John—the tree; Lida picked up the nuts. 100. After they had—off the dust, they entered the house.

SHOE. 101. Go, ask Mr. N. whether he has—the horses yet. 102. He says he—them an hour ago.

SHOW. 103. They have—their good intention. 104. Has Edward—you his yacht? Yes, he—it to me this morning.

SPEAK. 105. English is—in many parts of the world. 106. After he had—a half-hour we had to leave.

SLAY. 107. David—Goliath with a pebble. 108. A brave man never boasts of having—his thousands.

STEAL. 109. He thinks the horse was—. 110. Some one has—my purse.

TAKE. 111. I found upon inquiry that I had mis—the house 112. Yesterday she—me home with her. 113. You look as if you had—root there.

THROW. 114. He—the ball to me and I—it back. 115. The Governor's son was—from his pony this morning.

WRITE. 116. I think he should have—and told us. 117. He—for the book two days ago. 118. She has—for samples.

* * * * *

DRINK. 119. The toast was—with great enthusiasm. 120. Then they—to the health of the President. 121. He had once—sour wine and slept in the secret chamber at Wolf's Crag.

RING. 122. The fire bell—twice last night. It had not—for two months before. 123. Has the last bell—?

SING. 124. The choir boys—the "Hallelujah Chorus" from "The Messiah." It seemed to me that they had never—so well.

SINK. 125. The steamer struck an iceberg and—with all on board. 126. They have—two wells, but have got (gotten) no water.

SPRING. 127. The grass—up like magic last night. 128. Homer describes a race of men who—from the gods.

SWIM. 129. I once—three-quarters of a mile without stopping. 130. Having—the river, the fugitives plunged into the forest.

EXERCISE XLI.

Illustrate by original sentences the proper use of the past indicative and the past participle of each of the following verbs, thus: A swallow FLEW into my room, but before I recovered from my surprise it had FLOWN out again. Give to the sentences variety:—

Awake, beat, begin, beseech, blow, bid (to order), bid (to offer), break, burst, choose, come, dive, do, drive, eat, flee, fly, flow, forget, freeze, get, go, hang, lay, lie (to recline), plead, prove, ride, rise, run, see, set, sit, shake, shoe, show, speak, slay, steal, take, throw, wake, write.

CONTRACTIONS.[71]—Some writers hold that in careful writing contracted forms should be avoided; but all are agreed that in conversation some contractions, if correctly used, are natural and proper. The conversation of a person who never said "can't" for "can not," "don't" for "do not," or "doesn't" for "does not," would seem stiff. Care should, however, be taken not to use plural contractions for singular, or singular for plural. Don't is a contraction of "do not," doesn't of "does not." The proper contraction of "is not" is isn't; of "are not," aren't. Daresn't, if used at all, should be used only when "dares not" might be substituted. Ain't is a gross vulgarism.

[71] "Foundations," pp. 81-82.

EXERCISE XLII.

Insert the proper contraction (doesn't, don't) in each of the blank places:—

1. It—- seem possible. 2. The captain—- know what it is to be afraid. 3. John says he—- understand the problem on page 266. 4. Why—- she come? 5.—- it seem strange that they—- come? 6. Waldo—- improve in penmanship as fast as he should. 7. It—- look like pure water. 8. Why—- he answer? 9. The boy will fail, but he—- seem to care much.

MAY (MIGHT) or CAN (COULD).[72]—Can and could, which denote "ability" or "possibility," are often wrongly used in the place of may and might, which are the proper words to denote "permission."

[72] Ibid., pp. 82-83.

EXERCISE XLIII.

Fill the blanks with the right words:—

1. —— I leave the room? 2. You —— go to the concert, but I doubt whether you —— get a seat. 3. —— we by searching find out God? 4. —— I have some more lemonade? 5. —— I have another piece of cake? 6. —— you tell me which is Mr. Ames's house? 7. Mother says I—invite the girls to tea. 8. A man who knows himself to be right —— afford to await the judgment of posterity. 9. —— I write at your desk? 10. You —— come to see me whenever you —— find time. 11. They asked whether they —— have a holiday. 12. They were wondering whether they —— be recognized in their disguises. 13. —— I have the use of your sled? 14. —— I trouble you to get me a glass of water?

WILL OR SHALL.[73]—Some grammarians teach that the future tense of "go" is: "I shall or will go," "You shall or will go," "He shall or will go," etc. The fact seems to be that there is only one form for the future; the other form, often given as an alternative, expresses something more than futurity, and is somewhat like a distinct mode.

A help to the proper use of shall and will is found in the original meaning of the words. At first shall and will were notional verbs,[74] shall meaning "to owe," "to be obliged," and will meaning "to wish:" as, "That faith I shall (owe) to God."[75] At present shall and will often retain some trace of their original meaning, will implying a reference to the will of the subject, and shall implying obligation or compulsion: as, "I will follow him to the end;" "He shall be brought to justice;" sometimes they are mere auxiliaries, with no trace of their original meaning: as, "It will rain to-day;" "I shall be glad."

[73] "Foundations," pp. 83-88. [74] By "notional verb" is meant a verb that has some distinct idea or notion of its own: as, "I have a ball." Here "have" expresses the idea of possession. In the sentence "I have lost my ball," the word "have" does not express a distinct idea; it only helps to form a tense of the verb "lose": that is, it is not notional, but auxiliary. [75] Chaucer.

For practical purposes the distinction between shall and will may be exhibited as follows:—

I. IN INDEPENDENT SENTENCES.

Simple Futurity. Volition, implying that the matter is within the control of the speaker. I (we) shall I (we) will you will[76] } go. you shall } go. he (they) will/ he (they) shall[77]/

[76] Sometimes used in a courteous command to a subordinate officer. [77] Also used in speaking of what is destined to take place, or of what is willed by some ruling power.

II. IN DEPENDENT SENTENCES.

In noun clauses introduced by "that," expressed or understood, if the noun clause and the principal clause have different subjects, the distinction between shall and will is the same as in independent sentences: as,

My sister says (that) Dorothy will be glad to go with us. (Futurity; the same as, "Dorothy will be glad to go with us.")

My sister says (that) Dorothy shall not be left behind. (Volition; the same as, "Dorothy shall not be left behind.")

In all other dependent clauses, shall is in all persons the proper auxiliary to express simple futurity; will in all persons implies an exercise of will on the part of the subject of the clause: as,

Dorothy says (that) she shall (futurity) be able to go with us. She says (that) she will (volition) meet us at the corner. If Bessie will come (volition), we will try to make her visit pleasant. When He shall appear (futurity) we shall be like Him.

REMARK.—It is worthy of notice that in noun clauses introduced by "that"—clauses which are really indirect quotations—the same auxiliary is generally used that would be used were the quotation in the direct form: as, "My sister says, 'Dorothy will be glad to go with you,'" "My sister says that Dorothy will be glad to go with us;" "Dorothy says, 'I shall be glad to go with you,'" "Dorothy says that she shall be glad to go with us." This remark, however, is not an adequate statement of the best usage, for it is not true of such sentences as 21, p. 76, and 8, 22, p. 77.

III. IN QUESTIONS.

In the first person "will" is never proper, except when it repeats a question asked by another person. "Will I go?" would mean, "Is it my intention to go?"—a useless question, since the speaker must know his own will without asking.

In the second and third persons the auxiliary which is expected in the answer should be used.

Will you dine with me to-morrow? I will. (Volition.) Shall you be glad to come? I shall. (Futurity.) Will your brother be there, too? He will. (Futurity.)

WOULD OR SHOULD.[78]—"Should and would follow the same rules as shall and will, but they have in addition certain meanings peculiarly their own.

"Should is sometimes used in its original sense of 'ought,' as in 'You should not do that.'

"Would is sometimes used to signify habitual action, as in 'The 'Squire would sometimes fall asleep in the most pathetic part of my sermon;' and to express a wish, as, 'Would God I had died for thee, O Absalom, my son, my son!'"[79]

[78] "Foundations," pp. 88-90. [79] A.S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p 63.

EXERCISE XLIV.

Distinguish in meaning between the following sentences:—

1. I will (shall) meet you in the village. 2. I will (shall) be obeyed. 3. Will he come? Shall he come? 4. You will (shall) repent of this. 5. He will (shall) not see me. 6. You will (shall) have a new suit to-morrow. 7. Shall (will) you stay at home to-night? 8. We will (shall) not be left alone. 9. She will (shall) have a reward if she continues faithful. 10. He would (should) start in spite of the danger. 11. Shall (will) you be a candidate? 12. He said he would (should) not go. 13. I shall (will) never see him again. 14. You will (shall) know to-morrow the result of the examination. 15. Will (shall) he who fails be allowed to try again? 16. Will (shall) the admission fee be twenty-five or fifty cents? 17. He thought there would (should) be a charge. 18. I will (shall) be the last to go. 19. He thought I would (should) wait. 20. He says that she will (shall) not eat watermelon. 21. If she disobeyed she would (should) be punished. 22. Do you think I should (would) go under the circumstances? 23. If they would (should) come, the danger would be averted. 24. If I would (should) say so, he would dislike me. 25. He says he will (shall) not come, since she forgot him at first. 26. We will (shall) come as soon as we can. 27. I will (shall) not endure his rudeness. 28. John says he will (shall) stay to see the game.

EXERCISE XLV.

Insert the proper auxiliary (will, shall) in each blank in the following sentences:—

1. I —— be drowned; nobody —— help me. 2. You —— have a wet day for your journey. 3. He says he —— not be able to come. 4. We —— not soon forget this picnic. 5. He —— repent of his folly when it is too late. 6. We —— be pleased to have you call. 7. The gathering —— be informal; therefore I —— not need my dress suit 8. We —— have occasion to test the wires to-night. 9. I —— be obliged to you for your autograph. 10. He —— be obliged to you. 11. The managers have agreed that the race —— be rowed again. 12. Do you think we —— have rain? 13. If the fire is not put out soon, we —— have the whole town to rebuild. 14. Do not fear; we —— be all right. 15. A prize is offered to whoever —— guess this conundrum. 16. We —— find ourselves much mistaken. 17. The time is coming when we —— have to go elsewhere for lumber. 18. Are you not afraid that you —— miss the train? 19. Yes, I fear that I —— miss the train. 20. He is afraid that he —— miss the train. 21. They say I —— find picture-galleries in every city. 22. Think what a happy life we —— live. 23. If you will call for me, I —— be glad to go with you. 24. I —— be sixteen in May. 25. John thinks he —— be sick to-morrow. 26. He says James —— be sick to-morrow. 27. Howard thinks he —— probably live to old age. 28. Howard thinks his brother —— probably live to old age. 29. He tells me that he—be ten next month. 30. We —— be all right if Congress will (shall) adjourn without tampering with the tariff. 31. If we examine the falling snow, we —— find that each flake consists of particles of ice. 32. He has resolved that he —— not answer the letter. 33. She has resolved that her daughter —— not answer his letter. 34. I —— feel greatly obliged if you —— tell me. 35. When He—appear, we —— be like Him. 36. I hope we —— be in time to get good seats. 37. When —— I come to get my paper? 38. —— I put more coal on the fire? 39. —— you be sorry to leave Boston? 40. —— you be elected? 41. When —— we three meet again? 42. —— I fetch a chair for you? 43. —— you be surprised to hear it? 44. —— you do me the favor to reply by return mail? 45. —— we have time to get our tickets? 46. —— you have time to get your ticket? 47. —— he have time to get his ticket? 48. —— there be time to get our tickets? 49. —— you be at leisure after dinner? 50. —— I find you at home? 51. When —— we have peace? 52. —— he find gold there? —— we find any? 53. —— we hear a good lecture if we go? 54. If I fail on this examination,—— I be allowed to take it over again?

EXERCISE XLVI.

Insert the proper auxiliary (would, should) in each blank in the following sentences:—

1. I —— like to know who he is. 2. We —— prefer to go by boat from Rhinebeck. 3. He —— prefer to go by boat from Poughkeepsie. 4. He —— be sorry to miss his train. 5. I —— be sorry to lose this umbrella. 6. I —— feel hurt if he —— abuse my hospitality in that way. 7. Were I to go, I —— get tired. 8. He ought to have known that we —— be ruined. 9. I —— think he —— know they are fooling him. 10. The head-master decided that you —— be promoted. 11. Ralph said he —— (volition) not stay at the hotel if it were not better kept. 12. Though I —— die for it, yet —— I do it. 13. I was afraid she —— not come. 14. If I knew where she is, I —— write to her. 15. We —— have been paid, if the treasurer had been at home. 16. They —— have been paid, if the treasurer had been at home. 17. I said nothing lest she —— feel hurt. 18. I asked her whether she —— come again. 19. He promised that it —— not occur again. 20. If it —— rain, we would not start. 21. Queen Isabella offered a reward to the first man who —— discover land. 22. Cornelia was afraid that we —— miss the train. 23. I expected that they —— accept the proposal. 24. He said Miss Anderson —— not return to the stage. 25. Franklin resolved that Collins —— row. Collins said that he —— not row, but that Franklin —— row in his place. 26. At first I did not think I —— enjoy seeing the World's Fair. 27. What —— we do without our friends? 28. If he —— come to-day, would (should) you be ready?

QUESTIONS OF TENSE.[80]—The tense of a verb should correctly express the time referred to. Most errors in the use of tenses are violations of some one of the following principles, which are established by good usage:—

1. Principal verbs referring to the same time should be in the same tense. 2. The perfect indicative represents something as now completed—as begun in the past but continuing till the present, at least in its consequences: as, "I have lost my book" (so that now I do not have it); "This house has stood for ninety years" (it is still standing); "Bishop Brooks has died, but he has left us his example" (he is not now among us, but we have his example). 3. The tense of the verb in a dependent clause varies with the tense of the principal verb:[81] as, I know he will come. I knew he would come. I have taken the first train, that I may arrive early. I had taken the first train, that I might arrive early. Blanche will be frightened if she sees the bat. Blanche would be frightened if she saw the bat. Blanche would have been frightened if she had seen the bat. Present facts and unchangeable truths, however, should be expressed in the present tense, regardless of the tense of the principal verb: as, "What did you say his name is?" 4. The perfect infinitive is properly used to denote action which is completed at the time denoted by the principal verb: as, "I am glad to have seen Niagara Falls;" "He felt sorry to have hurt your feelings."

EXCEPTION.—Ought, must, need, and should (in the sense of "ought") have no distinctive form to denote past time; with these verbs present time is denoted by putting the complementary infinitive in the present tense, past time is denoted by putting the complementary infinitive in the perfect tense: as, "You ought to go," "You ought to have gone;" "He should be careful," "He should have been careful." A similar change from the present to the perfect infinitive is found after could and might in some of their uses: as, "I could go," "I could have gone;" "You might have answered."

[80] "Foundations," pp. 93-98. [81] This is sometimes called the "Law of the Sequence of Tenses."

EXERCISE XLVII.

Distinguish in meaning between the following:—

1. The house stood (has stood) twenty years. 2. The messenger came (has come). 3. He should stay (have stayed). 4. It rained (has rained) for two weeks. 5. He was believed to live (to have lived) a happy life. 6. He ought to go (to have gone). 7. He deposited (has deposited) the money in bank. 8. I am sure I could go (have gone) alone. 9. Yesterday at three o'clock I completed (had completed) my work. 10. He must be (have been) weary. 11. He appeared to be (have been) crying. 12. He need not go. He need not have gone. 13. The horse jumped (had jumped) into the field, and began (had begun) to eat the corn. 14. Achilles is said to be (have been) buried at the foot of this hill.

EXERCISE XLVIII.

Which of the italicized forms is right?—

1. Where did you say Pike's Peak is (was)? 2. I intended to do (to have done) it yesterday. 3. Atlas is (was) a mythical giant who was supposed to hold (to have held) the sky on his shoulders. 4. I do not think that any one would say that winter is (was) preferable to spring. 5. Cadmus was supposed to build (to have built) Thebes. 6. Your father grieves to hear (to have heard) of your bad conduct. 7. Would he have been willing to go (to have gone) with you? 8. I meant to write (to have written) yesterday. 9. He tried to learn how far it is (was) from New York to Syracuse. 10. He hardly knew that two and two make (made) four. 11. His experience proved that there is (was) many a slip 'twixt the cup and the lip. 12. Carrie knew that water is (was) composed of two gases. 13. It was their duty to prevent (to have prevented) this outrage. 14. He was reported to rescue (to have rescued) the drowning man. 15. It would have been unkind to refuse (to have refused) to help (to have helped) him. 16. It would not have been difficult to prevent (to have prevented) the disaster. 17. Where did you say Gettysburg is (was)? 18. It was as true as that he is (was) listening to me when I said it. 19. It was harder than I expected it would be (have been). 20. Homer is supposed to be (to have been) born about 850 B.C. 21. When I came I intended to buy (to have bought) all Paris. 22. Washington is known to have (to have had) many narrow escapes. 23 If you would only wait, your success will (would) be certain. 24. Is he very sick? I should say he is (was). 25. Who first asserted that virtue is (was) its own reward? 26. We have done no more than it was our duty to do (to have done). 27. What building is (was) that which we just passed? 28. He impressed on us the truth that honesty is (was) the best policy. 29. He expected to see (to have seen) you to-morrow. 30. He expected to win (to have won) the suit, and was astonished at the decision of the court. 31. The result of such constant reading by poor light would have been to destroy (to have destroyed) his sight. 32. It would have given me great satisfaction to relieve (to have relieved) him from his distress. 33. Who would have thought it possible to receive (to have received) a reply from India so soon? 34. It would have been better to wait (to have waited). 35. I should like to hear (to have heard) the speeches of Hayne and Webster. 36. The furniture was to be (to have been) sold at auction. 37. It was a pity I was the only child, for my mother had fondness of heart enough to spoil (to have spoiled) a dozen children. 38. I am writing to him so that he may (might) be ready for us. 39. I have written to him so that he may (might) be ready for us. 40. I wrote to him so that he may (might) be ready for us.

EXERCISE XLIX.

Examine the tenses in the following sentences, explain any errors which you find, and correct them:—

1. I knew him since boyhood. 2. It was a superstition among the Mexicans that a bullet will not kill a man unless it has his name stamped on it. 3. Being absent from the last recitation, I am unable to write on the subject assigned this morning. 4. Soon after Oliver reached home a servant announces the presence of Charles. 5. "'Got any luck?' says I. 'No,' says he. 'Well,' says I, 'I've got the finest string of trout ever was seen.'" 6. Be virtuous and you would be happy. 7. Stackhouse believed that he solved the problem he had so long studied over, and yesterday afternoon he started from his house, No. 2446 North Tenth Street, to make a test. 8. This beautiful little bird that appears to the king and tries to warn him, was not an ordinary bird. 9. Next September I shall be at school three years. 10. I know very little about the "Arabian Nights," for I have never read any of the stories before I came to this school. 11. If he received your instructions he would have obeyed them. 12. Before he was going to have the sign printed he submitted it to his friends for corrections. 13. The Balloon Society recently invited Mr. Gould to read before them a paper on yachting. Mr. Gould, in reply, has expressed regret that the shortness of his visit will prevent him from accepting the invitation. 14. I should be obliged to him if he will gratify me in that respect. 15. While he was in England the British had given him very honorable positions in America in order to have his help if they had any trouble with the colonies. 16. Up and down the engines pounded. It is a good twenty-one knots now, and the upper deck abaft the chart-house began rapidly to fill. 17. Mr. and Mrs. Lincoln regret that a previous engagement, will prevent them from accepting Mrs. Black's kind invitation for Thursday. 18. Mr. Rockwell will accept with pleasure the invitation of Mr. and Mrs. Pembroke for Tuesday evening, December 3d. 19. I am sure that he has been there and did what was required of him. 20. He might probably have been desirous, in the first place, to have dried his clothes and refreshed himself. 21. He could not have failed to have aroused suspicion. 22. When, on the return of Dr. Primrose's son Moses from the Fair, the family had discovered how he had been cheated, we are shown an admirable picture of home life. 23. Apart from his love, Orlando was also a noble youth. When old Adam, at last overcome by fatigue, sank in the footsteps of Orlando, Orlando tries to encourage and assist him. 24. The increase in tonnage was not so rapid as it would have been were it not for the Act of 1790.

INDICATIVE OR SUBJUNCTIVE.[82]—The modern tendency to drop the subjunctive is unfortunate, for the distinction between the subjunctive and the indicative is too useful to be abandoned.[83] A knowledge of the difference between these modes in English is especially important in view of the difficulty which pupils complain of in mastering the uses of the Latin subjunctive or the Greek subjunctive and optative.[84] For these reasons more space is given to the subjunctive in this book than would be called for by a mere discussion of modern English usage.

FORMS of the SUBJUNCTIVE—In form the English subjunctive differs from the indicative in several ways:—

1. In the single case of the verb to be there are distinct forms for the present and past tenses, namely:—

Present. Past I, we I were, we thou, you } be. thou wert, you } were. he, they/ he were, they/



EXAMPLES.—"See that my room be[85] got ready at once." "I will work you a banner if you be[85] victorious." "The headsman feels if the axe be[85] sharp." "Take care lest you be deceived." "Judge not that ye be not judged." "I will beard them, though they be[85] more fanged than wolves and bears." "If I were you, I would not say that." "If you were more studious, you would rank high." "Would that my parents were here!"

2. In other verbs the subjunctive form is distinguishable from the indicative in the second and third persons singular by the absence of the personal endings -th,-s, or -st: as,

Present Indicative: I have, thou hast, he has (hath). Subjunctive: I have, thou have, he have. Past Indicative: I had, thou hadst, he had. Subjunctive: I had, thou had, he had.

Present Indicative: I come, thou comest, he comes (cometh). Subjunctive: I come, thou come, he come. Past Indicative: I came, thou earnest, he came. Subjunctive: I came, thou came, he came.

[82] "Foundations," pp. 98-101. [83] "Some people seem to think that the subjunctive mood is as good as lost, that it is doomed, and that its retention is hopeless. If its function were generally appreciated, it might even now be saved.... If we lose the Subjunctive Verb, it will certainly be a grievous impoverishment to our literary language, were it only for its value in giving variation to diction—and I make bold to assert that the writer who helps to keep it up deserves public gratitude."—John Earle: English Prose, its Elements, History, and Usage, p. 172. [84] "The lecturer also put in a plea for more vitality in the teaching of English, which ought to be made the gate to other languages. Many of the difficult questions of Latin syntax might be examined in the field of English, if only we were careful to treat our English critically. Whereas most grammars cut the ground from under them by denying the existence of a Subjunctive Mood. Until teachers recognize generally that, in such a sentence as 'If he had done it, it had been better,' we have a Subjunctive in both clauses, and a sentence essentially different from 'If he had loved her before, he now adored her,' English must forfeit half its value, both as a mental discipline and as a means of approach to Latin, Greek, and German."—From a report of a Lecture by Prof. Sonnenschein, of the Mason College, quoted in Earle's "English Prose," p. 55. [85] In such sentences the indicative would be, according to modern usage, correct, and it is more common.

EXAMPLES.—"Long live the king!" "If thou go, see that thou offend not." "It is better he die." "Though he slay me, yet will I trust him." "Unless he behave[86] better, he will be punished." "If I will that he tarry till I come, what is that to thee?" "Govern well thy appetite, lest sin surprise thee." "If my sister saw this snake, she would be frightened." "I wish I knew where Charles is."

The perfect and pluperfect subjunctives are of course formed by means of the subjunctive present and past tenses of "have."

3. Very often, instead of the simple subjunctive forms, we use auxiliary verbs—may (past, might) and would or should—to express the subjunctive idea. "May" ("might") is common as an equivalent for the subjunctive mode in clauses denoting a purpose, a wish, a hope, or a fear: as, "Bring him the book, that he may read to us;" "May he rest in peace;" "I hope you may succeed;" "They were afraid we might lose the way." "Would" and "should" are common substitutes for all tenses of the subjunctive: as, "Walk carefully lest you (stumble) should stumble;" "If he (come) should come, he will find me at home;" "It (were) would be better if he (went) should go alone;" "If my sister had seen this mouse, she (had been) would have been frightened." In these sentences either the form in parenthesis or the italicized form is correct, though the latter is more common.

NOTE.—It does not follow that the verbs "may," "would," and "should" always express the subjunctive idea. In the following sentences, for instance, they express the indicative idea: "You may (i.e., are permitted to) stay an hour;" "You should (i.e., ought to) be punctual;" "Edith would not (i.e., was unwilling to) come." In such sentences "may," "should," and "would" make simple statements of fact.

USES of the SUBJUNCTIVE.—The indicative form is used in expressing a fact or what is assumed to be a fact: as "He thinks he is ill;" the subjunctive form indicates some uncertainty or doubt in the speaker's mind: as, "Whether it rain or not, I will go."

The subjunctive idea occurs most frequently, perhaps, in conditional sentences. A conditional sentence is one that contains a condition or supposition. A supposition may refer to present, past, or future time. If it refers to present or past time, it may be viewed by the speaker as true, untrue, or as a mere supposition with nothing implied as to its truth; if it refers to the future, it may be viewed as either likely or unlikely. A supposition which is assumed to be true, or which is made without any hint as to its correctness, is expressed by the indicative. A supposition which is viewed by the speaker as untrue or unlikely is expressed by the subjunctive or a periphrase[87] for the subjunctive. When the character of the supposition makes the conclusion untrue or unlikely, the conclusion also is expressed by the subjunctive or a periphrase[87] for the subjunctive. The use of tenses is peculiar, as will be seen from the following table of a few common forms of conditional sentences. The tenses should be carefully noted:—

PRESENT: If it rains (is raining) now, I am sorry. Present indicative: A simple supposition without any hint as to its correctness.

If it rained (were raining), I should be sorry. Past subjunctive, both clauses: The speaker implies that it is not raining.

PAST: If it rained (was raining), I was sorry. Past indicative: No suggestion of doubt.

If it had rained, I should have been sorry. Past perfect subjunctive, both clauses: The speaker implies that it did not rain.

FUTURE: If it rains, I shall be sorry. Present indicative: The common, though inexact, form of a simple future supposition.

If it rain, I shall be sorry. Present subjunctive: Less common, but more exact. The future is uncertain.

If it should (were to) rain, I should be sorry. Subjunctive, both clauses: The uncertainty is emphasized by the auxiliary form; the chances of rain seem more remote.

NOTE 1.—When if is equivalent to "whenever", the condition is called "general", to distinguish it from "particular" conditions, which refer to some particular act at some particular time. General conditions always take the indicative: as, "If (whenever) it rains, I stay at home."

NOTE 2.—Sometimes there is no "if", and then the verb or a part of the verb precedes the subject: as, "Were it raining, I should be sorry;" "Had it been raining, I should have been sorry."

NOTE 3.—In such sentences as "If thou hadst been here, my brother had not died," it may perhaps be questioned whether "had not died" is indicative, as in the Greek, or subjunctive, as in the Latin, idiom.

NOTE 4.—Clauses introduced by though and unless take the same forms as clauses introduced by if.

Wishes are naturally expressed in the subjunctive. The present subjunctive denotes a wish for the future: as, "Thy kingdom come." The past subjunctive denotes a wish for the present which is unfulfilled: as, "I wish I were a bird." The past perfect subjunctive denotes a wish contrary to a past fact: as, "I wish you had been there."

[86] In such sentences the indicative would be, according to modern usage, correct, and it is more common. [87] See paragraph 3, page 84. The forms in "would" and "should" in conditional sentences, though they express the subjunctive idea, can hardly be called the "subjunctive mood". Sometimes they are called the "conditional mood."

EXERCISE L.

Tell the time referred to in each of the following sentences, and whether the speaker regards the condition as true, untrue, or uncertain:—

1. If all men did their duty, there would be less misery in the world. 2. Had I heard of the affair sooner, this misfortune would not have happened. 3. Were it true, I would say so. 4. I would go with you if I could spare the time. 5. She could sing if she would. 6. If love be rough with you, be rough with love. 7. If all the year were playing holidays, to play would be as tedious as to work. 8. If thou warn the wicked, and he turn not from his wickedness, he shall die in his iniquity. 9. He brags as if he were of note. 10. If the natural course of this stream be obstructed, the water will make a new channel. 11. If the natural course of a stream is obstructed, the water will make a new channel. 12. If the book was in my library, some one must have borrowed it. 13. If he knows the way, he does not need a guide. 14. If he still wishes to go, he may take my horse. 15. Had he followed my advice, he would be rich. 16. Had she lived a twelvemonth more She had not died to-day. 17. Though gods they were, as men they died. 18. Though the law is severe, we must obey it. 19. If the law be severe, we must change it. 20. Though the vase were made of steel, the servant would break it. 21. Though the vase was made of steel, the servant broke it.

EXERCISE LI.

Tell the difference in meaning between the italicized forms:—

1. If he is (were) studious, he will (would) excel. 2. If he was (had been) studious, he excelled (would have excelled). 3. Oh, that you may be (were, had been) blameless. 4. Though he deceive (deceives) me, yet will I trust him. 5. Though he deceived me, yet will (would) I trust him. 6. Though he deceived (had deceived) me, yet would I trust him 7. Though the boy's coat was (were) made of silk, he soiled (would soil) it.

EXERCISE LII.

Which, of the italicized forms is preferable? Give the reason:—

1. They act as if it was (were) possible to deceive us. 2. If I was (were) in his place, I would go. 3. I wish my mother was (were) here. 4. See that no one is (be) forgotten. 5. If this is (be) treason, make the most of it. 6. If it rain (rains), the work is delayed. 7. If it rain (rains), the work will be delayed. 8. Take care lest you are (be) carried away by your feelings. 9. If he acquire (acquires) riches, they may make him worldly. 10. I could jump across the stream if it was (were) necessary. 11. If to-morrow is (be) breezy, we will go sailing. 12. If my father was (were) here, he would enjoy this. 13. If she was (were) at the reception, I did not see her. 14. If he speak (speaks) only to display his talents, he is unworthy of attention. 15. I wish I was (were) at home. 16. Though this seem (seems) improbable, it is true. 17. I should be surprised if this marriage take (took, will take, should take) place. 18. If the book was (were) in my library, I would send it. 19. I will see that he obey (obeys) you. 20. If a man smite (smites) his servant and the servant die (dies), the man shall surely be put to death. 21. Though he is (be) poor and helpless now, you may rest assured that he will not remain so. 22. I wish I was (were) a musician. 23. Make haste lest your ardor cool (cools). 24. He will continue his course, though it cost (costs) him his life. 25. Though a liar speak (speaks) the truth, he will hardly be believed. 26. Govern well thy appetite, lest sin surprise (surprises) thee. 27. Though gold is (be) more precious than iron, iron is more useful than gold. 28. Whether he go (goes) or not, it is your duty to go. 29. If he was (were, should be) elected, it would be his ruin. 30. If a picture is (be) admired by none but painters, the picture is bad. 31. If one went (should go) unto them from the dead, they would repent. 32. If an animal of any kind was (were) kept shut up in a box, it would surely die. 33. They will not believe, though one rose (rise) from the dead. 34. Clerk wanted. It is indispensable that he write (writes) a good hand and have (has) some knowledge of book-keeping. 35. If the debtor pay (pays) the debt, he shall be discharged. 36. If my sister go (goes), which I think is doubtful, she will surely call for you. 37. The most glorious hero that ever desolated nations might have mouldered into oblivion did (had) not some historian take (taken) him into favor. 38. He will see his error if he substitute (substitutes) "that which" for "what." 39. Though Dorothy is (be) young, she is tall. 40. Unless he take (takes) better care of his health, his constitution will break down. 41. If I lend you my horse, I shall (should) have to borrow one myself. 42. I hope that if any of my readers comes (come, should come) to New Haven, he may find the city just as I have described it.

SINGULAR or PLURAL.[88]—The following principles, established by good usage, writers or speakers are liable to forget:—

1. The expressions each, every, many a, either, and neither are singular. 2. When the subject consists of singular nouns or pronouns connected by or, either—or, or neither—nor, the verb must be singular. 3. Words joined to the subject by with, together with, in addition to, or as well as, are not a part of the grammatical subject, but are parenthetical, and therefore do not affect the number of the verb. 4. Since a relative pronoun has the number and person of its antecedent, a verb whose subject is a relative pronoun agrees in person and number with the antecedent of the relative. 5. "When the subject though plural in form is singular in sense, the verb should be singular; when the subject though singular in form is plural in sense, the verb should be plural:"[89] as, "'Gulliver's Travels' was written by Swift;" "Five hundred dollars is a large sum;" "Half of them are gone." 6. "A collective noun, when it refers to the collection as a whole, is singular in sense, and therefore requires a singular verb; when it refers to the individual persons or things of the collection, it is plural and requires a plural verb."[90]

[88] "Foundations," pp, 101-108. [89] A.S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 56. [90] Ibid., p. 57.

EXERCISE LIII.

Insert the proper form of the verb "to be" in each of the blank places:—

1. "Horses" —— a common noun. 2. Such phenomena —— very strange. 3. The ship with all her crew —— lost. 4. No less than fifty dollars —— paid for what was not worth twenty. 5. Homer, as well as Virgil, —— once students (a student) on the banks of the Rhine. 6. The committee —— divided in its (their) judgment. 7. The genii who —— expected to be present —— deaf to every call. 8. France was once divided into a number of kingdoms, each of which —— ruled by a duke. 9. Sir Richard Steele lived in the reign of Queen Anne, when the tone of gentlemen's characters —— very low. 10. Each man employed in this department —— paid for his (their) work. 11. Mathematics —— my hardest study. 12. There —— once two boys who were so exactly alike in appearance that they could not be distinguished. 13. Each of the heads of the Chimera —— able to spit fire. 14. The jury —— eating dinner. 15. "Plutarch's Lives" —— an interesting book. 16. One of the most beautiful features of Kennebunkport —— the tremendous rocks all along the coast. 17. The richness of her arms and apparel —— conspicuous in the foremost ranks. 18. My robe and my integrity to heaven —— all I dare now call my own. 19. Refreshing as springs in the desert to their long-languishing eyes —— the sight of his white cravat and his boots of Parisian polish. 20. The "Arabian Nights" in complete form comprise (comprises) twenty volumes and —— written by different men. 21. Fifty dollars a month —— paid by the government to the widow of the colonel. 22. Ten minutes —— spent in a writing exercise. 23. —— either of you going to the village? 24. Our happiness or our sorrow —— largely due to our own actions. 25. The guidance as well as the love of a mother —— wanting. 26. Every one of these books —— mine. 27. General Custer with his whole force —— massacred by Indians. 28. Three times three —— nine. 29. Nearly three hundred yards of the track —— under water. 30. To admit the existence of God and then to refuse to worship him —— inconsistent. 31. The ebb and flow of the tides —— caused by the attraction of the moon. 32. Six dollars a week —— all he earns. 33. Nine-tenths of his time —— wasted. 34. Three quarts of oats —— enough for a horse's meal. 35. "Tales of a Wayside Inn" —— written by Longfellow. 36. The rest of the Republican ticket —— elected.

EXERCISE LIV.

Which of the italicized forms is preferable?— 1. A variety of pleasing objects charm (charms) the eye. 2. Already a train or two has (have) come in. 3. Each day and each hour bring (brings) contrary blessings. 4. The Senate has (have) adjourned. 5. No monstrous height, or length, or breadth appear (appears). 6. I am the general who command (commands) you. 7. Many a captain with all his crew has (have) been lost at sea. 8. The jury who (which) was (were) out all night has (have) just returned a verdict. 9. He dare (dares) not touch a hair of Catiline. 10. The ambition and activity of this railroad has (have) done much towards the civilization of the world. 11. Thackeray's "English Humorists" treat (treats) not of the writings of the humorists so much as of their characters and lives. 12. Addison was one of the best writers that has (have) ever lived. 13. This is one of the books that give (gives) me pleasure. 14. Give me one of the books that is (are) lying on the table. 15. This is one of the most important questions that has (have) come up. 16. Nothing but vain and foolish pursuits delight (delights) some persons. 17. Six months' interest is (are) due. 18. You are not the first one that has (have) been deceived in that way. 19. My room is one of those that overlook (overlooks) the garden. 20. A committee was (were) appointed to investigate the matter. 21. The greater part of the audience was (were) pleased. 22. The public is (are) respectfully invited. 23. The jury was (were) not unanimous. 24. Generation after generation pass (passes) away. 25. A glimpse of gable roof and red chimneys add (adds) far more to the beauty of such a scene than could the grandest palace. 26. The society hold (holds) their (its) meetings weekly. 27. What is (are) the gender, the number, and the person of the following words? 28. He made one of the best speeches that has (have) been delivered before the school. 29. He is one of those persons who is (are) quick to take offence. 30. This (these) scanty data is (are) all we have. 31. If the meaning of these passages is not carefully explained, some of the congregation may think that Matthew or Paul is (are) guilty of some unorthodox opinions.

MISUSED VERBS.—See the remarks under "Misused Nouns."

I. A RESEMBLANCE IN SOUND MISLEADS.

ACCREDIT, CREDIT.—'To accredit means 'to invest with credit or authority,'[91] or 'to send with letters credential;' to credit means 'to believe,'[92] or "to put to the credit of."

ARISE, RISE.—"The choice between these words was primarily, and still often is, a matter of rhythm [euphony]. The literal meanings, however, or those which seem literal, have become more associated with rise, and the consciously figurative with arise: as, he rose from the chair; the sun rose; the provinces rose in revolt: trouble arose; 'music arose with its voluptuous swell.'"[93]

CAPTIVATE, CAPTURE.—To captivate means "to fascinate"; to capture, "to take prisoner."

DEPRECIATE, DEPRECATE.—To depreciate means "to bring down in value," "to disparage;" to deprecate means "to argue earnestly against" or "to express regret for."

IMPUGN, IMPUTE.—To impugn means "to call in question;" to impute means "to ascribe to."

Loan, lend.—The use of loan as a verb is not sanctioned by good use. Properly the word is a noun. A loan is money which a person lends.

[91] "Foundations," p. 109. [92] A.S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 38. [93] The Century Dictionary.

EXERCISE LV.

Tell the difference in meaning between—

1. The Amazon captivated (captured) our hero. 2. The king depreciated (deprecated) Napoleon's effort to raise a new army. 3. The readiness with which men impute (impugn) motives is much to be regretted.

EXERCISE LVI.

Insert the proper word in each blank, and give the reason for your choice:—

ACCREDIT, CREDIT. 1. Mr. Lowell was ——ed as Minister Plenipotentiary to England. 2. These reasons will —— his opinion. 3. He did not —— the strange report. 4. The contribution of five dollars previously ——ed to Mr. Williams came from Mr. Brown. 5. Mr. Sherman is well ——ed as a writer on finance. 6. The bank has not ——ed me with the interest on the deposit.

ARISE, RISE. 7. The court —— at four o'clock. 8. At the discharge of a gun whole flocks of quail would ——. 9. The idea of a reward did not —— in his mind. 10. Most of these appalling accidents —— from negligence. 11. The men —— against their officers. 12. Other cases of mutiny may ——.

CAPTIVATE, CAPTURE. 13. Her husband was ——d in the battle of Gettysburg. 14. Mr. S. was ——d by the young widow's beauty. 15. Let us attack them now and try to —— the whole squad. 16. It is not merely what Chaucer has to say, but even more the agreeable way he has of saying it, that ——s our attention and gives him an assured place in literature.

DEPRECIATE, DEPRECATE. 17. Financial panics are likely to follow a—d currency. 18. His purpose was—d by all who knew it. 19. Both parties—war. 20. It is natural for those who have not succeeded to—the work of those who have. 21. He—s his daughter's desire to earn her own living. 22. An injurious consequence of asceticism was a tendency to—the character and the position of woman.

IMPUGN, IMPUTE. 23. We cannot deny the conclusion of a proposition of Euclid without—ing the axioms which are the basis of its demonstration. 24. The gentleman—s my honesty. 25. The power of fortune is confessed only by the miserable, for the happy—all their success to prudence and merit. 26. Mr.X. is uncharitable; he always—s bad motives.

II. A RESEMBLANCE IN SENSE MISLEADS.[94]

ANTAGONIZE, OPPOSE.—To antagonize means properly "to struggle against," "to oppose actively," or "to counteract." "In England, antagonizing forces must be of the same kind, but in the political phraseology of the United States a person may antagonize (i.e., oppose) a measure."[95]

CALCULATE, INTEND.—To calculate means properly "to compute mathematically," or "to adjust or adapt" for something. In the sense of intend it is not in good use.

CARRY, BRING, FETCH.—To carry means "to take along in going;" to bring means "to take along in coming;" to fetch means "to go, get, and bring."

CHAMPION, SUPPORT.—The word champion is very much overworked, being often used in the general sense of "support." It should be restricted to cases in which there is the idea of entering the lists as champion of a cause.

CLAIM, ASSERT, ALLEGE, MAINTAIN, DECLARE, AFFIRM, STATE.—To claim means properly "to demand as one's own or one's due." It is often loosely used, especially in the United States, for "assert," "allege," "maintain," "declare," or "affirm." To assert is "to say or declare in the face of implied denial or doubt." To allege is "to assert without proof." To maintain is "to uphold by argument." To declare is "to say publicly, clearly, or emphatically." To affirm is "to assert on one's reputation for knowledge or truthfulness." To state, which is also often misused in the sense of "say," "assert," "allege," "declare," or "affirm," means properly "to express formally and in detail;" it always implies detail. (See "Foundations," pp. 113, 114, and "Practical Exercises," p. 99.)

CONFESS, ADMIT.—"Admit, in cases into which the idea of confession does not enter, is preferable to confess. On grounds of idiom, however, 'I must confess' and the parenthetical 'I confess' are exempt from the operation of this rule."[96]

DEMAND, ASK.—To demand means "to ask for with authority or with insistence." The use of "demand" in the sense of "ask" is borrowed, possibly, from the French use of demander.

HIRE, LET, LEASE.—To hire means "to obtain the use of;" to let, "to give the use of." To lease means "to give the use of by lease." The owner of a house leases it; the person who occupies it takes a lease of it.

LEARN, TEACH.—Learn means to "acquire" knowledge, not to "impart" it. In the latter sense the proper word is teach.

"I have more information to-day than I had before," said Mr. Sheehan.

"This has learned you something," said Mr. Goff.

"Oh no," replied Mr. Sheehan, "it has taught me something."[97]

LIKE, LOVE.—Like and love differ greatly in strength or warmth, and may differ in kind. Like may be feeble and cool, and it never has the intensity of love. We may like or even love a person; we only like the most palatable kind of food. With an infinitive, like is the common word, love being appropriate only in the hyperbole of poetical or rhetorical feeling.[98]

MATERIALIZE, APPEAR.—To materialize properly means "to make or to become physically perceptible;" as, "by means of letters we materialize our ideas and make them as lasting as ink and paper;" "the ideas of the sculptor materialize in marble."

PLEAD, ARGUE.—See plea, argument, p. 29.

STAY, STOP.—"Stay, as in 'At what hotel are you staying?' is preferable to stop, since stop also means 'to stop without staying.'"[99]

TRANSPIRE, HAPPEN.—To transpire means properly "to escape from secrecy to notice," "to leak out;" it should not be used in the sense of to happen.

[94] "Foundations," pp. 110-114. [95] Murray's Dictionary. [96] A.S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 18. [97] Newspaper report. [98] See the Century Dictionary. [99] A.S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p. 19.

EXERCISE LVII.

Tell the difference in meaning between—

1. Please bring (fetch) a chair from the next room. 2. You had better carry (bring) an umbrella with you. 3. He asserts (alleges, maintains, declares, affirms, says) that he has been robbed. 4. Mr. A. stated (declared) his opinion. 5. He admits (confesses) the fault. 6. The grocer asks for (demands) his money. 7. He has let (hired) the boat for the afternoon. 8. We have leased (taken a lease of) the cottage. 9. He is learning (teaching) the alphabet. 10. Dorothy likes (loves) Helen. 11. Washington stayed (stopped) at this house on his way to Philadelphia. 12. It transpired (happened) that we disagreed.

EXERCISE LVIII.

Insert the proper word in each blank, and give the reason for your choice:—[100]

ANTAGONIZE, OPPOSE. 1. Ex-Secretary Windom ——d ex-Secretary Sherman's bill. 2. The body is balanced by an incessant shifting of the muscles, one group ——ing the other. 3. I am too weak to —— your cunning.

CALCULATE, INTEND. 4. To-morrow he ——s to hunt the boar. 5. Bradley was able to —— the velocity of light. 6. He ——s to go.

CARRY, FETCH, BRING. 7. Farmers —— their potatoes to market. 8. What shall I —— you from Paris? 9. Harry, please —— a chair from the hall. 10. Go to the flock and —— me two young lambs. 11. The Spartan was to —— his shield home, or to be borne home on it. 12. When he dieth, he shall —— nothing away.

CHAMPION, SUPPORT. 13. The Republican party ——ed this measure. 14. He ——ed the policy of the administration. 15. Gareth ——ed the cause of Lynette in the combats with the craven knights.

CLAIM, ASSERT, ALLEGE, MAINTAIN, DECLARE, AFFIRM, STATE, SAY. 16. The heavens —— the glory of God. 17. Rhoda constantly ——d that it was even so. 18. I have endeavored to —— nothing but what I have good authority for. 19. Nay, if my Lord ——d that black was white, My word was this, your honour's in the right. 20. She ——s her innocence in the strongest terms. 21. I will —— what He hath done for my soul. 22. What if Nemesis —— repayment? 23. It is not directly ——d, but it seems to be implied. 24. That such a report existed in Claudian's time cannot now be ——d. 25. Geologists —— that before there were men on earth this immense gulf was a forest. 26. He fared on in haste to —— his kingdom. 27. Will Mr. L. —— his reasons for disagreeing with the rest of the committee? 28. He ——s that he will not come. 29. Both sides —— the victory. 30. There is another point which ——s our attention. 31. He ——d that he had been robbed by A., but he showed no proofs. 32. He ——s that the thief attacked him on Third Street. 33. Please —— all the particulars of the disaster. 34. The woman ——s that she left Bangor Thursday night, and was put off the train at Hermon for not paying her fare.

CONFESS, ADMIT. 35. He ——s that his opponent is a good man. 36. I —— that I spoke too hastily. 37. I —— that John was a thief. 38. Every man must —— that he has occasional fits of bad temper. 39. The problem, I ——, is difficult.

DEMAND, ASK. 40. He ——s why I will not go with him. 41. The highwayman ——ed their purses. 42. The pound of flesh which I—— of him I dearly bought; 'tis mine, and I will have it. 43. He ——ed the way to Chester.

HIRE, LET, LEASE. 44. Boats to ——; twenty-five cents an hour. 45. We will —— our country-house during the winter. 46. —— us some fair chamber for the night. 47. Bathing suits to ——.

LIKE, LOVE. 48. I —— to go rowing. 49. He ——s to talk of the days before the war. 50. All children —— their mothers. 51. She ——s her blue gown. 52. Don't you ——strawberry short-cake? 53. A maid whom there were none to praise And very few to ——.

MATERIALIZE, APPEAR. 54. The representatives of the other colleges did not ——. 55. His hopes have not ——ed.

STAY, STOP. 56. The King of Denmark ——s there during the summer. 57. —— a few moments longer. 58. She is very kind to ask me to —— overnight. 59. I am very tired; let us —— here and rest. 60. I've been ——ing with my mother for a week.

TRANSPIRE, HAPPEN, ELAPSE. 61. After a considerable time had ——d, he returned to the office. 62. Silas takes an interest in everything that ——s. 63. Presently it ——d that Henry Roscoe was the obstinate juryman. 64. Many things have ——d since the war was ended.

III. ADDITIONAL MISUSED VERBS.[101]

ACCEPT, EXCEPT.—To accept means "to take something offered;" to except means "to make an exception of."

ADVERTISE, ADVISE.—To advertise is "to announce to the public" to advise is "to give counsel or information to a person."

AFFECT, EFFECT.—To affect is "to act upon," "to influence;" to effect is "to bring about."

ALLEVIATE, RELIEVE.—To alleviate pain is "to lighten" it; to relieve it is to go further, and "to remove it in a large measure or altogether."

ALLOW, ADMIT, THINK.—Allow properly means to "grant" or "permit," not to "admit," "think" or "intend."

ALLUDE TO, REFER TO, MENTION.—We mention a thing when we name it directly. We refer to it when we speak of it less directly. We allude to it when we refer to it in a delicate or slight way.

ARGUE, AUGUR.—To argue is "to bring forward reasons;" to augur is "to foretell," "to forebode."

COMPARE WITH, COMPARE TO, CONTRAST.—"Two things are compared in order to note the points of resemblance and difference between them; they are contrasted in order to note the points of difference only. When one thing is compared to another, it is to show that the first is like the second; when one thing is compared with another, it is to show either difference or similarity, especially difference."[102]

CONSTRUE, CONSTRUCT.—"To construe means 'to interpret,' 'to show the meaning;' to construct means 'to build;' we may construe a sentence as in translation, or construct it as in composition."[103]

CONVINCE, CONVICT.—"To convince is 'to satisfy the understanding;' to convict, 'to pronounce guilty.' 'The jury having been convinced of the prisoner's guilt, he was convicted.'"

DETECT, DISCRIMINATE.—To detect is "to find out;" to discriminate is "to distinguish between."

DISCLOSE, DISCOVER.—To disclose is "to uncover," "to reveal;" to discover is, in modern usage, "to find."

DOMINATE, DOMINEER.—To dominate is "to rule;" to domineer is "to rule in an overbearing manner."

DRIVE, RIDE.—We go driving in carriages, riding in saddles. We drive behind horses, we ride on them.

ELIMINATE, ELICIT.—To eliminate is "to remove," "to get rid of;" to elicit is "to draw out."

ESTIMATE, ESTEEM.—To estimate is "to judge the value of;" to esteem is "to set a high value on," especially of persons.

EXPOSE, EXPOUND.—To expose is "to lay bare to view;" to expound is "to explain the meaning of."

FRIGHTEN.—Frighten is a transitive verb, and is used correctly in "The locomotive frightened the horse;" "The horse was frightened by the locomotive;" "The horse became frightened." It should not be used intransitively, as in the sentence "The horse frightened at the locomotive."

INQUIRE, INVESTIGATE.—To inquire is "to ask for information;" to investigate is "to make a thorough examination."

INSURE, SECURE.—Secure, in the sense of "to guard from danger," "to make safe," is preferable to insure, since insure also means "to guarantee indemnity for future loss or damage."

LET, LEAVE.—Let means "to permit;" leave, "to let remain," or "to go away from."

LOCATE, FIND.—Locate properly means "to place in a particular position," or "to designate the site of," as of a new building or purchased lands; it does not mean to find.

PERSUADE, ADVISE.—To persuade is "to induce," "to convince;" to advise is "to give counsel or information."

PREDICATE, PREDICT.—To predicate is "to affirm as an attribute or quality;" to predict is "to foretell."

PRESCRIBE, PROSCRIBE.—To prescribe is "to lay down as a rule or a remedy;" to proscribe is "to condemn to death or to loss of rights."

PURPOSE, PROPOSE.—"The verb purpose, in the sense of 'intend,' is preferable to propose, since to propose also means 'to offer for consideration:' the noun answering to the former is purpose; to the latter, proposal or proposition."[104]

REPULSE, REPEL.—Repulse usually implies hostility; repel is a milder term. We repulse an enemy or an assailant; we repel an officious person or the unwelcome advances of a lover.

START, BEGIN, COMMENCE.—To start is "to set out" or "to set going," and is not followed by an infinitive. Before an infinitive, "begin" or "commence" is used. "Begin is preferred in ordinary use; commence has more formal associations with law and procedure, combat, divine service, and ceremonial."[105]

SUSPECT, EXPECT, ANTICIPATE.—To suspect is "to mistrust," "to surmise." Expect, in the sense of "look forward to," is preferable to anticipate, since anticipate also means "take up, perform, or realize beforehand;" as, "Some real lives do actually anticipate the happiness of heaven."