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Once domesticated in Palestine, with her name so changed as to declare her feminine character, Ashtoreth soon tended to lose her independence. Just as there were Baalim or "Baals" by the side of Baal, so there were Astaroth or "Ashtoreths" by the side of Ashtoreth.
The Semites of Babylonia themselves had already begun the work of transformation. They too spoke of Istarat or "Istars," and used the word in the general sense of "goddesses." In Canaan, however, Ashtaroth had no such general meaning, but denoted simply the various Ashtoreths who were worshipped in different localities, and under different titles. The individual Ashtoreth of Gebal was separate from the individual Ashtoreth of Bashan, although they alike represented the same divine personality.
It is true that even in the West Istar did not always become the feminine complement of Baal. Here and there the old form of the name was preserved, without any feminine suffix. But when this was the case, the necessary result was that the female character of the deity was forgotten. Istar was conceived of as a god, and accordingly on the Moabite Stone Ashtar is identified with Chemosh, the patron-god of Mesha, just as in Southern Arabia also Atthar is a male divinity.
The worship of Ashtoreth absorbed that of the other goddesses of Canaan. Among them there was one who had once occupied a very prominent place. This was Asherah, the goddess of fertility, whose name is written Asirtu and Asratu in the tablets of Tel el-Amarna. Asherah was symbolized by a stem stripped of its branches, or an upright cone of stone, fixed in the ground, and the symbol and the goddess were at times confounded together. The symbol is mistranslated "grove" in the Authorized Version of the Old Testament, and it often stood by the side of the altar of Baal. We find it thus represented on early seals. In Palestine it was usually of wood; but in the great temple of Paphos in Cyprus there was an ancient and revered one of stone. This, however, came to be appropriated to Ashtoreth in the days when the older Asherah was supplanted by the younger Ashtoreth.
We hear of other Canaanitish divinities from the monuments of Egypt. The goddess Edom, the wife of Resheph, has already been referred to. Her name is found in that of the Gittite, Obed-Edom, "the servant of Edom," in whose house the ark was kept for three months (2 Sam. vi. 10). Resheph, too, has been mentioned in an earlier page. He was the god of fire and lightning, and on the Egyptian monuments he is represented as armed with spear and helmet, and bears the titles of "great god" and "lord of heaven." Along with him we find pictures of a goddess called Kedesh and Kesh. She stands on the back of a lion, with flowers in her left hand and a serpent in her right, while on her head is the lunar disk between the horns of a cow. She may be the goddess Edom, or perhaps the solar divinity who was entitled A in Babylonian, and whose name enters into that of an Edomite king A-rammu, who is mentioned by Sennacherib.
But, like Istar, a considerable number of the deities of Palestine were borrowed from Babylonia. In the Tel el-Amarna tablets the god of Jerusalem is identified with the warlike Sun-god of Babylonia, Nin-ip, and there was a sanctuary of the same divinity further north, in Phoenicia. Foremost among the deities whose first home was on the banks of the Euphrates were Arm and Anat, and Rimmon. Anu, whose name is written Anah in Hebrew, was the god of the sky, and he stood at the head of the Babylonian pantheon. His wife Anat was but a colourless reflection of himself, a grammatical creation of the Semitic languages. But she shared in the honours that were paid to her consort, and the divinity that resided in him was reflected upon her. Anat, like Ashtoreth, became multiplied under many forms, and the Anathoth or "Anat" signified little more than "goddesses." Between the Ashtaroth and the Anathoth the difference was but in name.
The numerous localities in Palestine which received their names from the god Rimmon are a proof of his popularity. The Babylonian Rimmon or Ramman was, strictly speaking, the god of the air, but in the West he was identified with the Sun-god Hadad, and a place near Megiddo bore the compound title of Hadad-Rimmon (Zech. xii. 11). His naturalization in Canaan seems to belong to a very early period; at all events, in Sumerian he was called Martu, "the Amorite," and seal-cylinders speak of "the Martu gods." One of these has been found in the Lebanon. The Assyrian tablets tell us that he was also known as Dadu in the West, and under this form we find him in names like El-Dad and Be-dad, or Ben-Dad.
Like Rimmon, Nebo also must have been transported to Palestine at an early epoch. Nebo "the prophet" was the interpreter of Bel-Merodach of Babylon, the patron of cuneiform literature, and the god to whom the great temple of Borsippa—the modern Birs-i-Nimrud—was dedicated. Doubtless he had migrated to the West along with that literary culture over which he presided. There his name and worship were attached to many localities. It was on the summit of Mount Nebo that Moses died; over Nebo, Isaiah prophesies, "Moab shall howl;" and we hear of a city called "the other Nebo" in Judah (Neh. vii. 33).
Another god who had been borrowed from Babylonia by the people of Canaan was Malik "the king," a title originally of the supreme Baal. Malik is familiarly known to us in the Old Testament as Moloch, to whom the first-born were burned in the fire. At Tyre the god was termed Melech-kirjath, or "king of the city," which was contracted into Melkarth, and in the mouths of the Greeks became Makar. There is a passage in the book of the prophet Amos (v. 25, 26), upon which the Assyrian texts have thrown light. We there read: "Have ye offered unto me sacrifices and offerings in the wilderness forty years, O house of Israel? Yet ye have borne Sikkuth your Malik and Chiun your Zelem, the star of your god, which ye made to yourselves."
Sikkuth and Chiun are the Babylonian Sakkut and Kaivan, a name given to the planet Saturn. Sakkut was a title of the god Nin-ip, and we gather from Amos that it also represented Malik "the king." Zelem, "the image," was another Babylonian deity, and originally denoted "the image" or disk of the sun. His name and worship were carried into Northern Arabia, and a monument has been discovered at Teima, the Tema of Isaiah xxi. 14, which is dedicated to him. It would seem, from the language of Amos, that the Babylonian god had been adored in "the wilderness" as far back as the days when the Israelites were encamping in it. Nor, indeed, is this surprising: Babylonian influence in the West belonged to an age long anterior to that of the Exodus, and even the mountain whereon the oracles of God were revealed to the Hebrew lawgiver was Sinai, the mountain of Sin. The worship of Sin, the Babylonian Moon-god, must therefore have made its way thus far into the deserts of Arabia. Inscriptions from Southern Arabia have already shown us that there too Sin was known and adored.
Dagon, again, was another god who had his first home in Babylonia. The name is of Sumerian origin, and he was associated with Ami, the god of the sky. Like Sin, he appears to have been worshipped at Harran; at all events, Sargon states that he inscribed the laws of that city "according to the wish of Anu and Dagon." Along with Arm he would have been brought to Canaan, and though we first meet with his name in the Old Testament in connection with the Philistines, it is certain that he was already one of the deities of the country whom the Philistine invaders adopted. One of the Canaanitish governors in the Tel el-Amarna correspondence bears the Assyrian name of Dagon-takala, "we trust in Dagon." The Phoenicians made him the god of corn in consequence of the resemblance of his name to the word which signifies "corn"; primarily, however, he would have been a god of the earth. The idea that he was a fish-god is of post-Biblical date, and due to a false etymology, which derived his name from the Hebrew dag, "a fish." The fish-god of Babylonia, however, whose image is sometimes engraved on seals, was a form of Ea, the god of the deep, and had no connection with Dagon. Doubtless there were other divinities besides these whom the peoples of Canaan owed to the Babylonians. Mr. Tomkins is probably right in seeing in the name of Beth-lehem a reminiscence of the Babylonian god Lakhmu, who took part in the creation of the world, and whom a later philosophizing generation identified with Anu. But the theology of early Canaan is still but little known, and its pantheon is still in great measure a sealed book. Now and again we meet with a solitary passage in some papyrus or inscription on stone, which reveals to us for the first time the name of an otherwise unknown deity. Who, for instance, is the goddess 'Ashiti-Khaur, who is addressed, along with Kedesh, on an Egyptian monument now at Vienna, as "the mistress of heaven" and "ruler of all the gods"? The votive altars of Carthage make repeated mention of the goddess Tanit, the Peni or "Face" of Baal, whom the Greeks identified with Artemis. She must have been known in the mother-land of Phoenicia, and yet no trace of her worship there has as yet been found. There were "gods many and lords many" in primitive Palestine, and though a comprehensive faith summed them up as its Baalim and Ashtaroth they yet had individual names and titles, as well as altars and priests.
But though altars were numerous, temples were not plentiful. The chief seats of religious worship were "the high-places," level spots on the summits of hills or mountains, where altars were erected, and the worshipper was believed to be nearer the dwelling-place of the gods than he would have been in the plain below. The altar was frequently some natural boulder of rock, consecrated by holy oil, and regarded as the habitation of a god. These sacred stones were termed beth-els, baetyli as the Greeks wrote the word, and they form a distinguishing characteristic of Semitic faith. In later times many of them were imagined to have "come down from heaven." So deeply enrooted was this worship of stones in the Semitic nature, that even Mohammed, in spite of his iconoclastic zeal, was obliged to accommodate his creed to the worship of the Black Stone at Mekka, and the Kaaba is still one of the most venerated objects of the Mohammedan faith.
But the sacred stone was not only an object of worship or the consecrated altar of a deity, it might also take the place of a temple, and so be in very truth a beth-el, or "house of God." Thus at Medain Salih in North-western Arabia Mr. Doughty discovered three upright stones, which an inscription informed him were the mesged or "mosque" of the god Aera of Bozrah. In the great temple of Melkarth at Tyre Herodotus saw two columns, one of gold, the other of emerald, reminding us of the two pillars, Jachin and Boaz, which the Phoenician architect of Solomon erected in the porch of the temple at Jerusalem (1 Kings vii. 21). Similar columns of stone have been found in the Phoenician temple, called that of the Giants, in Gozo, one of which is still standing in its place.
While certain stones were thus regarded as the abode of deity, the high places whereon so many of them stood also received religious worship. The most prominent of the mountains of Syria were deified: Carmel became a Penu-el or "Face of God," Hermon was "the Holy One," and Mount Lebanon was a Baal. The rivers and springs also were adored as gods, and the fish which swam in them were accounted sacred. On the Phoenician coast was a river Kadisha, "the holy," and the Canaanite maiden saw in the red marl which the river Adonis brought down from the hills the blood of the slaughtered Sun-god Tammuz.
The temple of Solomon, built as it was by Phoenician architects and workmen, will give us an idea of what a Canaanitish temple was like. In its main outlines it resembled a temple in Babylonia or Assyria. There, too, there was an outer court and an inner sanctuary, with its parakku or "mercy-seat," and its ark of stone or wood, in which an inscribed tablet of stone was kept. Like the temple of Jerusalem, the Babylonian temple looked from the outside much like a rectangular box, with its four walls rising up, blank and unadorned, to the sky. Within the open court was a "sea," supported at times on oxen of bronze, where the priests and servants of the temple performed their ablutions and the sacred vessels were washed.
The Canaanitish altar was approached by steps, and was large enough for the sacrifice of an ox. Besides the sacrifices, offerings of corn and wine, of fruit and oil were also made to the gods. The sacrifices and offerings were of two kinds, the zau'at or sin-offering, and the shelem or thank-offering. The sin-offering had to be given wholly to the god, and was accordingly termed kalil or "complete"; a part of the thank-offering, on the other hand, might be carried away by him who made it. Birds, moreover, might constitute a thank-offering; they were not allowed when the offering was made for sin. Such at least was the rule in the later days of Phoenician ritual, to which belong the sacrificial tariffs that have been preserved.
In these sacrificial tariffs no mention is made of human sacrifices, and, as M. Clermont-Ganneau has pointed out, the ram takes in them the place of the man. But this was the result of the milder manners of an age when the Phoenicians had been brought into close contact with the Greeks. In the older days of Canaanitish history human sacrifice had held a foremost place in the ritual of Syria. It was the sacrifice of the firstborn son that was demanded in times of danger and trouble, or when the family was called upon to make a special atonement for sin. The victim was offered as a burnt sacrifice, which in Hebrew idiom was euphemistically described as passing through the fire.
Side by side with these human sacrifices were the abominations which were performed in the temples in honour of Ashtoreth. Women acted as prostitutes, and men who called themselves "dogs" foreswore their manhood. It was these sensualities practised in the name of religion which caused the iniquity of the Canaanites to become full.
It is pleasanter to turn to such fragments of Canaanitish mythology and cosmological speculation as have come down to us. Unfortunately most of it belongs in its present form to the late days of Greek and Roman domination, when an attempt was made to fuse the disjointed legends of the various Phoenician states into a connected whole, and to present them to Greek readers under a philosophical guise. How much, therefore, of the strange cosmogony and history of the gods recorded by Philon of Gebal really goes back to the patriarchal epoch of Palestine, and how much of it is of later growth, it is now impossible to say. In the main, however, it is of ancient date.
This is shown by the fact that a good deal of it has been borrowed directly or indirectly from Babylonia. How this could have happened has been explained by the Tel el-Amarna tablets. It was while Canaan was under the influence of Babylonian culture and Babylonian government that the myths and traditions of Babylonia made their way to the West. Among the tablets are portions of Babylonian legends, one of which has been carefully annotated by the Egyptian or Canaanite scribe. It is the story of the queen of Hades, who had been asked by the gods to a feast they had made in the heavens. Unable or unwilling to ascend to it, the goddess sent her servant the plague-demon, but with the result that Nergal was commissioned to descend to Hades and destroy its mistress. The fourteen gates of the infernal world, each with its attendant warder, were opened before him, and at last he seized the queen by the hair, dragging her to the ground, and threatening to cut off her head. But Eris-kigal, the queen of Hades, made a successful appeal for mercy; she became the wife of Nergal, and he the lord of the tomb.
Another legend was an endeavour to account for the origin of death. Adapa or Adama, the first man, who had been created by Ea, was fishing one day in the deep sea, when he broke the wings of the south wind. The south wind flew to complain to Anu in heaven, and Anu ordered the culprit to appear before him. But Adapa was instructed by Ea how to act. Clad in a garment of mourning, he won the hearts of the two guardians of the gate of heaven, the gods Tammuz and Gis-zida ("the firmly-fixed post"), so that they pleaded for him before Anu. Food and water were offered him, but he refused them for fear that they might be the food and water of death. Oil only for anointing and clothing did he accept. "Then Anu looked upon him and raised his voice in lamentation: 'O Adapa, wherefore atest thou not, wherefore didst thou not drink? The gift of life cannot now be thine.'" Though "a sinful man" had been permitted "to behold the innermost parts of heaven and earth," he had rejected the food and water of life, and death henceforth was the lot of mankind.
It is curious that the commencement of this legend, the latter portion of which has been found at Tel el-Amarna, had been brought to the British Museum from the ruins of the library of Nineveh many years ago. But until the discovery of the conclusion, its meaning and character were indecipherable. The copy made for the library of Nineveh was a late edition of the text which had been carried from Babylonia to the banks of the Nile eight hundred years before, and the fact emphasizes once more the Babylonian character of the culture and literature possessed by Palestine in the Patriarchal Age.
We need not wonder, therefore, if it is to Babylonia that the cosmological legends and beliefs of Phoenicia plainly point. The watery chaos out of which the world was created, the divine hierarchies, one pair of deities proceeding from another and an older pair, or the victory of Kronos over the dragon Ophioneus, are among the indications of their Babylonian origin. But far more important than these echoes of Babylonian mythology in the legendary lore of Phoenicia is the close relationship that exists between the traditions of Babylonia and the earlier chapters of Genesis. As is now well known, the Babylonian account of the Deluge agrees even in details with that which we find in the Bible, though the polytheism of Chaldaea is there replaced by an uncompromising monotheism, and there are little touches, like the substitution of an "ark" for the Babylonian "ship," which show that the narrative has been transported to Palestine. Equally Babylonian in origin is the history of the Tower of Babel, while two of the rivers of Eden are the Tigris and Euphrates, and Eden itself is the Edin or "Plain" of Babylonia.
Not so long ago it was the fashion to declare that such coincidences between Babylonian and Hebrew literature could be due only to the long sojourn of the Jews in Babylonia during the twenty years of the Exile. But we now know that the traditions and legends of Babylonia were already known in Canaan before the Israelites had entered the Promised Land. It was not needful for the Hebrew writer to go to Chaldaea in order that he might learn them; when Moses was born they were already current both in Palestine and on the banks of the Nile. The Babylonian colouring of the early chapters of Genesis is just what archaeology would teach us to expect it would have been, had the Pentateuch been of the age to which it lays claim.
Here and there indeed there are passages which must be of that age, and of none other. When in the tenth chapter of Genesis Canaan is made the brother of Cush and Mizraim, of Ethiopia and Egypt, we are carried back at once to the days when Palestine was an Egyptian province. The statement is applicable to no other age. Geographically Canaan lay outside the southern zone to which Egypt and Ethiopia belonged, except during the epoch of the eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties, when all three were alike portions of a single empire. With the fall of that empire the statement ceased to be correct or even conceivable. After the era of the Israelitish conquest Canaan and Egypt were separated one from the other, not to be again united save for a brief space towards the close of the Jewish monarchy. Palestine henceforth belonged to Asia, not to Africa, to the middle zone, that is to say, which was given over to the sons of Shem.
There is yet another passage in the same chapter of Genesis which takes us back to the Patriarchal Age of Palestine. It is the reference to Nimrod, the son of Cush, the beginning of whose kingdom was Babel and Erech, and Accad and Calneh in the land of Shinar, and who was so familiar a figure in the West that a proverb was current there concerning his prowess in the chase. Here again we are carried to a date when the Kassite kings of Babylonia held rule in Canaan, or led thither their armies, and when the Babylonians were called, as they are in the Tel el-Amarna tablets, the Kassi or sons of Cush. Nimrod himself may be the Kassite monarch Nazi-Murudas. The cuneiform texts of the period show that the names borne by the Kassite kings were strangely abbreviated by their subjects; even in Babylonia, Kasbe and Sagarta-Suria, for instance, being written for Kasbeias and Sagarakti-Suryas, the latter of which even appears as Sakti-Surias, while Nazi-Murudas itself is found under the form of Nazi-Rattas. Similarly Duri-galzu and Kurigalzu take the place of Dur-Kurigalzi. There is no reason, therefore, why Nazi-Murudas should not have been familiarly known as Na-Muruda, more especially in distant Canaan.
Indeed we can almost fix the date to which the lifetime of Nimrod must be assigned. We are told that out of his kingdom "one went forth into Assyria," and there "builded" Nineveh and Calah, The cuneiform inscriptions have informed us who this builder of Calah was. He was Shalmaneser I., who was also the restorer of Nineveh and its temples, and who is stated by Sennacherib to have reigned six hundred years before himself. Such a date would coincide with the reign of Ramses II., the Pharaoh of the Oppression, as well as with the birth-time of Moses. It represents a period when the influence of Babylonia had not yet passed away from Canaan, and when there was still intercourse between the East and the West. Ramses claims to have overcome both Assyria and Shinar, and though the Shinar he means was the Shinar of Mesopotamia and not Chaldaea, it lay within the limits of Babylonian control. The reign of Ramses II. is the latest period down to which, with our present knowledge, we can regard the old influence of Babylonia in Canaan as still continuing, and it is equally the period to which, if we are to listen to the traditional teaching of the Church, the writer of the Pentateuch belonged. The voice of archaeology is thus in agreement with that of authority, and here as elsewhere true science declares herself the handmaid of the Catholic Church.
INDEX
A (deity), 256
Abel (place), 153
Abel-mizraim, 201
Abiliya, 126
Abimelech, 123, 127, 128, 129
Abram (in Babylonian), 169
Achshaph or Ekdippa, 211, 219, 229
Acre (Akku), 134, 154, 155, 157, 229, 235
Adai, 142
Adami, 219, 228
Adapa or Adama, 265
Addar, 153
Adon, 131
Adoni-zedek, 75
Adullam, 212, 221
Ahitub, 154
Ahmes I., 88, 94
Aia, 207
Ajalon, 137, 142
Akizzi, 131
Akkad, 55
Alasiya, 67, 107, 157, 223
'Aluna or 'Arna, 97, 228
Amalekites, 26, 35, 40, 41, 53
Amanus, 62, 107
Amber, 85, 242
Amenophis II., 106, 110
Amenophis III., 111, 112, 135
Amenophis IV. or Khu-n-Aten, 71, 86, 112 et seq.
Ammi, 22, 64, 206
Ammi-anshi, 63, 206
Ammi-satana, 63
Ammiya, 131
Ammon, 22, 36, 38, 64, 179
Ammunira, 124
Amon (god), 87, 99, 110, 114
Amon-apt, 128, 152
Amorites, 28, 35, 36, 38, 40, 41, 42, 43 et seq., 56, 58, 65, 100, 110, 112, 119, 124 et seq., 152, 160, 163, 186, 239
Amorites, god of, 257
Amraphel, 64, 66, 67
Anab, 221
Anaharath, 229
Anakim, 36, 37
Anat, 82, 232, 257
Anu, 82, 169, 257, 259, 260
Anugas or Nukhasse, 98, 102, 107, 110
Aphekah, 239
Apphadana, 111
Aqabah, Gulf of, 26, 108
Aram-Naharaim (Mitanni), 72, 85, 86, 94, 101, 103, 108, 111, 131, 138, 149, 157, 163
Ararat, 46
Argob, 23
Ariel, 213
Arioch (see Eri-Aku), 63, 168
Arisu, 162
Arka, 26, 52, 128, 131
Article, definite, 248
Arvad, 52, 85, 100, 106, 129
Arzai, 143
Asher, 219
Asherah, 191, 255
Ashiti-Khaur, 260
Ashkelon, 141, 150, 160, 236
Ashtaroth-Karnaim, 35, 36, 133, 153, 161, 228
Ashtoreth, 168, 253 et seq., 264
Asphalt, 70
Assyria, 99, 105, 153, 155, 157
Aten-Ra, 113
Augustine, St., 41
Aupa (see Ube), 132
Avim, 54
Ayab, 152, 153
Aziru, 124 et seq., 129, 131, 133
Baal, 253
Baalbek, 24
Babylon, 66, 67, 91, 102, 105
Babylonia, 55, 62, 72, 83, 100, 111, 124, 138, 142, 143
Babylonians, 87, 89
Balaam, 22, 64, 154
Bashan, 23, 35, 36, 38, 64, 95, 112, 133
Bedad, 257
Beduin, 26, 35, 53, 95, 124, 127, 133, 156, 209, 210
Beer-sheba, 180, 182, 183, 189
Bek'a, 25
Belshazzar, 175
Bene-berak, 135
Beth-anath, 157, 160, 164, 232, 235, 236, 239
Beth-el, 152, 153, 157, 190 et seq., 196, 212, 222, 232, 235
Bethels, 261 et seq.
Beth-lehem, 39, 75, 82, 197, 260
Beth-On, 192
Beth-Sannah, 143
Bethuel, 125
Beth-Ya, 232
Beya or Baya, 151
Beyrout, 25, 124, 126, 164, 210, 211, 217
Bin-sumya, 136
Biridasyi, 133
Biridi, 134, 135
Bliss, Mr., 85, 119
Bosra, 133
Botanical Gardens at Thebes, 102
Burna-buryas, 111, 153 et seq.
Buzruna, 133
Calah, 269
Camel, 170
Cana, 222
Canaan, 41 et seq., 154, 157, 267; art of, 243 et seq.; merchants in, 154, 243
Canaanite words, 216, 245-8
Canaanites, 41, 106
Carchemish, 44, 45, 62, 66, 86, 99, 107
Carmel of Judah, 72, 146, 157, 160, 232, 235, 236, 239
Carmel, Mount, 29, 164, 229, 236, 238, 262
Cedars, 19
Chedor-laomer, 35, 64, 168
Chimham, 157, 235
Chinneroth, 228
Chiun, 258
Circumcision, 176
Copper, 57, 62, 85, 109, 242
Creation legends, 267
Cush, 91, 149, 268
Cyprus, 57, 60, 85, 98, 103, 157, 160
Dagon, 82, 169, 259
Damascus, 24, 35, 65, 98, 133, 176, 227, 236
Dapul, 160, 220, 236
Dead Sea, 21, 22, 74, 165, 177
Debir, 80, 221, 236, 237, 239
Deluge story, 267
Dor, 26
Dothan, 227
Doughty, Mr., 262
Dragoman, 146
Dudu, 125
Ea, 87
Ebed-Asherah, 89, 126 et seq.
Ebed-Sullim, 129
Ebed-Tob, 51, 71, 72, 75, 78, 88, 118, 121, 135, et seq., 155, 174
Ebyon, 245
Edom, town of, 153; god, 229, 256
Edomites, 39, 53, 108, 206, 248
Ekron, 231
Elam, 56, 63, 88
Elephants, 101
Eliezer, 176
Elimelech, 140, 148
Elimelech of Tyre, 129
Ellasar (Larsa), 64, 69
El-rabi-Hor, 131
Emim, 36, 37, 38
En-athon, 136, 154
En-gedi, 40
En-han-nabi, 153
Ephraim, Mount, 30; sons of, 202, 231
Eri-Aku (Arioch), 63, 65 et seq.
Eta-gama (or Aidhu-gama), 129, 131, 132, 133
Ethiopia, 142, 149
Euphrates, 96, 101
Fenkhu, 104, 226
Galeed, 192
Gath, 137, 143, 144, 203, 230, 231
Gath-Carmel, 138, 143, 146, 148, 231
Hadad, 82, 257
Hadad-dan, 151
Hadad-el, 143
Hadad-Rimmon, 257
Hadad-sum, 250
Hadashah, 74, 160, 165, 236, 238, 239, 241
Hamath, 43, 53, 164, 211, 219, 227, 239
Harankal, 98, 110
Har-el, 77, 184, 231
Harran, 73, 166, 259
Havilah, 62
Hazezon-tamar, 40, 50, 179
Hazor, 94, 129, 211, 219, 228
Heber, 147
Hebrew language, 246 et seq.; words in tablets, 247
Hebron, 36, 37, 43, 46, 93, 146, 148, 164, 172, 185 et seq., 197, 201, 232, 239
Hekal, etymology of, 73, 249
Hekalim, 231
Helkath, 232
Hermon, 18, 29, 52, 164, 239, 262
Herodotus, 43, 262
Hin, 245
Gath-Rimmon, 135
Gaulos, 245
Gaza, 94, 96, 110, 143, 144, 150, 157, 181, 215, 236, 239
Gaza or Khazi, 134, 226
Gebal, 43, 53, 85, 89, 94, 123 et seq., 152, 211, 217
Gebel Usdum, 178
Gerar, 181, 189
Gezer, 94, 134, 136, 141, 144, 151
Gibeah, 232
Gilu-khipa, 111
Girgashites, 43, 51
Goshen, 201
Gudea, 62, 70
Hittites, 41, 43, 46 et seq., 86, 89, 102, 104, 107, 110, 118, 124, 131, 156, 157, 163, 185, 209, 251
Hivites, 43, 52
Horites, 35, 39, 52, 64
Horus, 92
Hui, 156
Hyksos, 88, 91 et seq., 170, 201
Ibleam, 229
Ihem or Iha (see Yahem), 96, 239
Ilgi, 129
Inuam, 98, 110, 133, 157, 235, 236
Ionian, 127
'Ir, 249
Ir-Shemesh, 238
Iron, 84, 224, 242
Isaiah, 74
Israel, meaning of name, 194
Istar (Ashtoreth), 87, 168, 253
Ituraea, 23
Jabbok, 193
Jachin and Boaz, 161, 262
Jacob-el, 160, 164, 194, 202, 232, 236, 239
Jacob's well, 195
Jebusites, 43, 51
Jehovah-jireh, 77
Jephthah-Hadad, 122, 139
Jerusalem (see Salem), 29, 43, 50, 51, 71, 75, 77 et seq., 88, 142, 143, 160, 165, 173, 236, 239; etymology of name, 73
Joktheel, 239
Joppa, 150, 151, 213, 230
Jordan, 21, 74, 212, 237, 239
Joseph, 200 et seq.
Joseph-el, 202, 230
Kadesh on the Orontes, 43, 96, 98, 104, 111, 131, 132, 157, 163, 209, 217, 226
Kadesh-barnea, 35, 39, 58, 64, 180
Kadmonites, 63, 206
Kaft, 83, 85
Kana'an, 41, 157
Kanneh, 132
Kassites, 88, 147, 149, 269
Kedesh (goddess), 256
Keilah, 71, 144, 145, 146
Kenites, 224
Khabiri, 51, 122, 138, 141, 143, 144, 146 et seq.
Khalunni, 133
Khammurabi, 62, 66
Khani, 125
Khata, 44
Khata-sil, 158
Khatip (Hotep), 125, 126
Khayapa, 127
Khazi (Gaza), 134
Khu-n-Aten (Amenophis IV.), 71, 113 et seq., 120
Kikar, 72, 76, 142
Kinanat, 132
Kinza, 129
Kiriathaim, 35, 38
Kirjath-Sepher, 81, 161, 220, 221
Kishion, 228
Kudur-Lagamar (Chedor-lao-mer), 65, 69
Kudur-Mabug, 65, 69
Kumidi (or Kamdu), 126, 129, 133, 157, 164, 217, 227, 235, 239
Kuri-galzu, 155
Labai, 51, 134 et seq., 141, 143, 145
Lachish, 85, 119, 122, 139, 141, 148
Lagamar, 69
Laish, 25, 228
Lakhmu, 82, 260
Larsa (Ellasar), 65, 66, 69
Lebanon, 27, 60, 62, 101, 262
Levi-el, 239
Libnah, 164, 239
Lot, 65
Lotan (Lutennu), 95, 150, 156, 206
Ma'arath, 232
Mabug, 65
Machpelah, 187, 188
Mad-ga, 70
Mafkat (Sinai), 57, 109
Magan (Sinai), 57, 60
Magoras, 164, 210, 217, 238
Malachite, 109, 110
Malchiel, 135 et seq., 141, 143, 144, 146, 152
Manahath, 150
Max Mueller, Dr. W., 81, 160, 206, 221
Mearah, 217
Megiddo, 30, 31, 94, 97 et seq., 134, 135, 150, 212, 226, 257
Melchizedek, 71 et seq., 173
Melkarth, 43
Meneptah, 110, 161, 162, 181
Merom, 160, 227, 236
Midian, 57, 109
Migdol, 153, 155, 165, 230, 239
Misheal, 229
Misi, 95
Mitanni (Aram-Naharaim), 86, 89, 108, 111, 124, 150, 160
Miya-Riya (Meri-Ra), 143
Mizraim, 42
Moab, 21, 36, 38, 53, 153, 165, 180, 237
Mohar, Travels of a, 84, 189, 204 et seq., 209
Moloch, 82, 258
Moriah, 77, 184 et seq.
Moses, 267
Mosheh, 153
Most High God, 173
Musikhuna, 150
Mut-Hadad, 152
Na'amah, 231
Namya-yitsa, 129, 133, 134
Naram-Sin, 57, 59, 60, 168
Nazi-Murudas, 269
Nebo, 82, 257
Negela, 26
Ni, 101, 106, 125, 131, 132
Nimrod, 91, 269
Nin-ip, 79, 144, 174, 256, 258; Bit, 127, 144
Nukhasse (Anugas), 98, 102, 107, 116, 125, 132
On, 25, 92, 191
Pa-Hor, 126
Pakhanate, 128
Palasa, 131
Pa-ur, 142, 144
Pella, 157, 228, 235
Penuel, or Peniel, 193, 262
Perizzites, 20, 52, 162
Pethor, 22, 64
Petrie, Prof., 48, 62, 113, 120
Philistines, 17, 54, 163, 182
Phoenicia, 25, 85, 99, 152, 191
Phoenician alphabet, 251
Phoenicians, 33, 177
Pinches, Mr., 70, 231
Pu-Hadad, 150
Purple-dye, 84, 85
Qana or Qina, 97
Qatna, 107, 132
Ra, 92
Rabbah, 78, 143, 144, 146, 232
Ramses II., 21, 45, 74, 81, 110, 157 et seq., 161, 204, 234, 269
Ramses III., 21, 53, 74, 109, 110, 162 et seq., 181, 235, 240
Raphia, 222
Raphon, 37, 228
Rehob, 222, 231
Rehoboth, 189, 223
Rephaim, 35, 36, 37, 48, 228
Resheph, 21, 237, 251, 256
Rethpana, Lake of, 21, 165, 237, 239
Rianap, 150
Rib-Hadad, 89, 123 et seq., 152
Rimmon, 82, 257
Rimmon-nirari, 116
Rowlands, Dr., 39, 180
Sacrifice of the firstborn, 183, 264
Sacrifices, 263
Salem or Shalem (Jerusalem), 71, 74, 160, 165, 173, 239
Salim (god), 73, 75, 79, 144, 174
Samas-akh-iddin, 116
Sangar (see Singara), 68, 102
Saratum or Zurata, 135, 154
Sarepta, 211
Sardinians, 95, 127
Sargon of Akkad, 49, 55, 87, 167
Scheil, Dr., 121
Schumacher, Dr., 161
Seal-cylinders, 60, 83, 120, 252
Seir, 39, 53, 108, 138, 146
Sela, 160, 236, 239
Set, 251
Seti I., 41, 110, 157, 235
Seti or Suta, 134, 138
Shalem or Salem, 195
Shasu (see Beduin), 40, 41, 104
Shaveh, 71
Shechem, 29, 30, 49, 134, 160, 170, 195, 198, 211, 219
Shenir, 28, 59, 164, 239
Shiloh, 30
Shimron, 227
Shimron-meron, 220
Shinab, 70
Shinar, 67, 68, 269
Ships, 85, 247
Shunem, 135, 229
Sibti-Hadad, 152
Siddim, 35, 40, 64, 177, 178
Sidon, 42, 94, 126, 128, 129, 164, 211, 250
Sihon, 50
Sin (city), 52
Sin (god), 59, 87, 259
Sinai, 57, 58, 100, 109, 160, 259
Singara (see Sangar), 67, 108, 157.
Sinuhit, 63, 205 et seq.
Sirah, 232
Sirion, 28
Sitti or Sati, 40
Socho, 160, 230, 236
Sodom, 65, 76, 172, 177, 237
Sonzar, 132
Stone of Job, 161
Subari, 87
Subsalla, 62
Sum-Adda, 154
Sumer, 55, 67
Sumerian, 249
Suri, 87
Sutarna, 111, 150
Sutatna or Zid-athon, 154, 155
Sutekh, 92
Sute, 40, 95, 127, 134, 143
Su-yardata or Su-ardatum, 137, 144, 145
Su-yarzana, 134
Taanach, 97, 150, 229
Tadu-khipa, 112
Tagi, 137, 143, 146
Takhis, 100, 110, 211, 220
Tamar (Tumur), 150
Tammuz, 262
Tanit, 194, 260
Tapun, 232
Tarqu, 222
Tebah, 245
Teie, 112, 120
Tel el-Amarna, 120 et seq.
Tel-loh, 61
Temple, 262
Terebinth, 19
Thahash, 100, 220
Thothmes II., 94, 101
Thothmes III., 36, 44, 53, 67, 78, 83, 94 et seq., 110, 146, 208, 224, 242
Thothmes IV., 110
Tibhath, 217, 227
Tidal, 64, 70
Tidanum, 59, 62
Timnah, 220
Tithes, 175
Tomkins, Mr., 37, 82
Tree, sacred, 182
Trumbull, Dr., 39, 180
Tunip, 99, 104, 107, 111, 125 et seq., 133
Turbazu, 122, 138
Tusratta, 112
Tut-ankh-Amon, 156
Tyre, 43, 85, 94, 123, 127, 129, 157, 162, 211, 218, 235, 244, 262
Ube or Ubi, 132, 216, 222
Ugarit, 106, 236
Ur, 65, 166
Uru, 73, 77
Usu, 128, 157, 211, 218, 235
Winckler, Dr., 78
Yabitiri, 150
Yabni-el, 122
Yahem (see Ihem), 230
Yamutbal, 65, 69
Yankhamu, 146, 151
Yapa-Hadad, 127
Yapakhi, 134
Yasdata, 135
Yerzeh, 150, 160, 230, 236
Yidya, 150
Yikhbil-Khamu, 140, 144
Yisyara, 121
Zahi, 83, 103
Zakkal, 163
Zamzummim, 36, 38
Zedek, 75
Zelah, 122, 139, 148, 232
Zelem, 258
Zemar, 26, 52, 100, 123, 126 et seq., 152
Zephath, 232
Zimmern, Dr., 79
Zimrida or Zimridi, 121, 122, 123, 127, 128, 129, 130, 139
Zinzar, 132
Zion, 197
Zippor, 162
Zoan, 93, 170, 198
Zorah, 137
Zurata or Saratum, 135, 154
Zuzim, 35
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