"When the Goths pitched their camps under the walls of Rome, they declared an impious war against the Saints:

"And destroyed in their sacrilegious attack the tombs dedicated to the memory of martyrs:

"Whose epitaphs, composed by Pope Damasus, have been destroyed.

"Pope Virgilius, having witnessed the destruction, has repaired the tombs, the inscriptions, and the underground sanctuaries after the retreat of the Goths."

The repairs must have been made in haste, between March, 537, the date of the flight of Vitiges, and the following November, the date of the journey of Virgilius to Constantinople, from which he never returned. Traces of this Pope's restorations have been found in other catacombs. In those of Callixtus the fragments of a tablet, dedicated by Damasus to S. Eusebius, have been found, dispersed over a large area, and also a copy set up by Virgilius in the place of the original. In those of Hippolytus, on the Via Tiburtina, an inscription was discovered in 1881, which stated that the "sacred caverns" had been restored praesule Virgilio. The example of Virgilius and his successors in the See of Rome was followed by private individuals. The tomb of Crysanthus and Daria on the Via Salaria was restored, after the retreat of the barbarians, pauperis ex censu, that is to say, with the modest means of a devotee.

Nibby has attributed the origin of cemeteries within the walls to the invasion of Vitiges, burial within the city limits having been strictly forbidden by the laws of Rome. But the law seems to have been practically disregarded even before the Gothic wars. Christians were buried in the Praetorian camp, and in the gardens of Maecenas, during the reign of Theodoric (493-526). I have mentioned this particular because it marks another step towards the abandonment of suburban cemeteries. The country around Rome having become insecure and deserted, it was deemed necessary to place within the protection of the city walls the bodies of martyrs who had been buried at a great distance from the gates. The first translation took place in 648: the second in 682, when the bodies of Primus and Felicianus were removed from Nomentum, and those of Viatrix, Faustinus and Simplicius from the Lucus Arvalium (Monte delle Piche, by la Magliana). The last blow to the catacombs was given by Paschal I. (817-824). Contemporary documents mention innumerable transferences of bodies. The mosaic legend of the apse of S. Prassede says that Pope Paschal buried the bodies of many saints within its walls.[152]

The official catalogue of the remains removed on July 20, 817, which was compiled by the Pope's notary and engraved on marble, has come down to us. It speaks of the translation of twenty-three hundred bodies, most of which were buried under the chapel of S. Zeno, which Paschal I. had built as a memorial to his mother, Theodora Episcopa. The legend in the apse of S. Caecilia speaks, likewise, of the transference to her church of bodies "which had formerly reposed in crypts" (quae primum in cryptis pausabant): among them those of Caecilia herself, Valerianus, Tiburtius, and Maximus. The finding and removal of Caecilia's remains from the Catacombs of Callixtus is one of the most graceful episodes in the life of Paschal I. He describes it at length in a letter addressed to the people of Rome.

After many unsuccessful attempts to discover the coffin of the saint, he had come to the conclusion that it must have been stolen by the Lombards, when they were besieging the city in 755. S. Caecilia, however, told him in a vision where her grave was; and hurrying to the catacombs of the Appian Way he at last discovered her crypt and coffin, together with those of fourteen Popes, from Zephyrinus to Melchiades. It is only fair to say that the discoveries made in this very crypt, between 1850 and 1853, confirm the account of Paschal in its minutest details.

The first half of the ninth century thus marks the final abandonment of the catacombs, and the cessation of divine worship in their historical crypts. In later times we find little or no mention of them in Church annals. When we read of Nicholas I. (858-867) and of Paschal II. (1099-1118) visiting the cemeteries, we must believe that their visits were to the basilicas erected over the catacombs, and to their special crypts, not to the catacombs themselves. In the chronicle of the monastery of S. Michael ad Mosam we read of a pilgrim of the eleventh century who obtained relics of saints "from the keeper of a certain cemetery, in which lamps are always burning." He refers to the basilica of S. Valentine and the small hypogaeum attached to it (discovered in 1887), not to catacombs in the true sense of the word. The very last account referring directly to them dates from the time of Pope Nicholas I. (858-867) who is said to have restored the crypt of Mark on the Via Ardeatina, and of Felix, Abdon, and Sennen on the Via Portuensis. At this time also the visits of pilgrims, to whose itineraries, or guidebooks, we are indebted for so much knowledge of the topography of suburban cemeteries, come to an end. The best itineraries are those of Einsiedeln, Salzburg, Wurzburg, and William of Malmesbury; and the list of the oils from the lamps burning before the tombs of martyrs, which were collected by John, abbot of Monza, at the request of queen Theodolinda. The pilgrims left many records of their visits scratched on the walls of the sanctuaries; and to these graffiti also we are indebted for much information, since they contain formulas of devotion addressed to the saint of the place. They are very interesting in their simplicity of thought and diction, as are generally the memoirs of early pilgrims and pilgrimages. I shall mention one, discovered not many years ago in the cemetery of Mustiola at Chiusi. It is a plain tombstone, inscribed with the words:—

HIC . POSITUS . EST . PEREGRINUS . CICONIAS . CUIUS . NOMEN . DEUS . SCIT

"Here is buried a pilgrim from Thrace, whose name is known only to God." The tale is simple and touching. A pilgrim on his way to Rome, or back to his country, was overtaken by death at Chiusi, before he could make himself known to those who had come to his help. They could only suppose he had come from Thrace, the country of the Cicones, possibly from the language he spoke, or from the costume he wore.

On May 31, 1578, a workman, while digging a sandpit in the vineyard of Bartolomeo Sanchez at the second milestone of the Via Salaria, came upon a Christian cemetery containing frescoes, sarcophagi, and inscriptions. This unexpected discovery created a great sensation,[153] and the report was circulated that an underground city had been found. The leading men of the age hastened to the spot; among them Baronius, who speaks of these wondrous crypts three or four times in his annals.[154] It seems that the network of galleries, crossing one another at various angles, the skylights, the wells, the symmetry of the cubiculi and arcosolia, the number of loculi with which the sides of the galleries were honeycombed, affected the imagination of visitors even more than the pictures, the sarcophagi, and the epitaphs. The subjects of the frescoes were so varied as to contain almost the whole cycle of early Christian symbolism. There were the Good Shepherd and the Praying Soul, Noah and the ark, Daniel and the lions, Moses striking the rock, the story of Jonah, the sacrifice of Isaac, the three men in the fiery furnace, the resurrection of Lazarus, etc. The bas-reliefs of the marble coffins represented Christian love-feasts and pastoral scenes. The epitaphs contained simply names, except one, which was raised by a girl "to her sweet nurse Paulina, who dwells in Christ among the blessed." These pious memorials of the primitive church led the learned visitors to investigate their meaning and value, as well as the history and name of those mysterious labyrinths. The origin of Christian archaeology, therefore, really dates from May 1, 1578. Antonio Bosio, the Columbus of subterranean Rome, was but three years old at that time, but he seems to have developed his marvellous instinct on the strength of what he saw in the Vigna Sanchez in his boyhood. The crypts, however, had but a short life: the quarry-men damaged and robbed them to such an extent that, when Bosio began his career in 1593, every trace of them had disappeared. They have never been found since. We can only point out to the lover of these studies the site of the Vigna Sanchez. It is marked by a monumental gate, on the right side of the Via Salaria, crowned by the well-known coat-of-arms of the della Rovere family, to whom the property was sold towards the end of the sixteenth century. The gate is a little more than a mile from the Porta Salaria.

From that time to the first quarter of the present century, we have to tell the same long tale of destruction. And who were responsible for this wholesale pillage? The very men—Aringhi, Boldetti, Marangoni, Bottari—who devoted their lives, energies and talents to the study of the catacombs, and to whom we are indebted for many standard works on Christian archaeology. Such was the spirit of the age. Whether an historical inscription came out of one cemetery or another did not matter to them; the topographical importance of discoveries was not appreciated. Written or engraved memorials were sought, not for the sake of the history of the place to which they belonged, but to ornament houses, museums, villas, churches and monasteries. In 1863, de Rossi found a portion of the Cemetery of Callixtus, near the tombs of the Popes, in incredible confusion and disorder: loculi ransacked, their contents stolen, their inscriptions broken and scattered far and wide, and the bones themselves taken out of their graves. The perpetrators of the outrage had taken care to leave their names written in charcoal or with the smoke of tallow candles; they were men employed by Boldetti in his explorations of the catacombs, between 1713 and 1717. Some of the tombstones were removed by him to S. Maria in Trastevere, and inserted in the floor of the nave. Benedict XIV. took away the best, and placed them in the Vatican Library. They have now migrated again to the Museo Epigrafico of the Lateran Palace. Those left in the floor of S. Maria in Trastevere were removed to the vestibule of the church in 1865.

In 1714, some beautiful paintings of the first century were discovered in the crypt of the Flavian family (Domitilla) at Torre Marancia. They were examined by well-known archaeologists and churchmen, whose names are scratched or written on the walls: Boldetti, Marangoni, Bottari, Leonardo da Porto Maurizio, and G. B. de Rossi (the last two since canonized by the Church), and by hundreds of priests, nuns, missionaries, and pilgrims. No mention is made of this beautiful discovery in contemporary books; but an attempt was made to steal the frescoes, which resulted, as usual, in their total destruction.[155] The catacombs owe their sad fate to the riches which they contained. In times of persecution, when the fossores were pressed by too much work and memorial tablets could not be secured in time, it was customary for the survivors to mark the graves of the dear ones either with a symbol, a word, or a date scratched in the fresh cement; or with some object of identification, such as glass cups, medallions, cameos, intaglios, objects cut in rock crystal, coral, etc. If the work of exploration has been carried on actively in the last three centuries, it is on account of the rich harvest which searching parties were sure to reap whenever they chanced to come across a catacomb or part of a catacomb, yet unexplored, with these signs of recognition untouched.

The best works of the glyptic art, the rarest gems, coins, and medallions of European cabinets have come to light in this way. Pietro Sante Bartoli, who chronicled the discoveries made in Rome in the second half of the seventeenth century, speaks several times of treasure-trove in catacombs:[156]

"In a Christian cemetery discovered outside the Porta Portese, in the vineyard of a priest named degli Effetti, many relics of martyrs have been found, a beautiful set of the rarest medallions (bellissima serie di medaglioni rarissimi), works in metal and crystal, engraved stones, jewels, and other curios and interesting objects, many of which were sold by the workmen at low prices." And again: "The opening of a catacomb was discovered by accident under the Casaletto of Pius V., outside the Porta S. Pancrazio. Although the crypt had never been entered, and promised to be very rich, no excavations were attempted, owing to the dangerous condition of the rock. One object only was extracted from the ruinous cavern; a polychrome cameo of marvellous beauty (di meravigliosa bellezza) representing a Bacchanalian. The stone measured sixteen inches in length by ten in width. It was given to cardinal Massimi."[157]

The number of catacombs has been greatly exaggerated. Panvinius and Baronius stated it as forty-three; Aringhi and his followers raised this number to sixty. De Rossi, however, in vol. i., p. 206, of the "Roma sotterranea" proves that the number of catacombs excavated during the first three centuries, within a radius of three miles from the walls of Servius Tullius, is but twenty-six; besides eleven of much less importance, and five which were excavated after the Peace of Constantine.

It would be impossible to give even a summary description of these forty-two cemeteries, within the limits of the present chapter. De Rossi's account of Lucina's crypts in the Cemetery of Callixtus occupies one hundred and thirty-two folio pages, and has required thirty-five plates of illustration. I must confine myself to the mention of the few discoveries, connected with the history and topography of underground Rome, which have come within my personal experience, or which I have had occasion to study.

THE CATACOMBS OF GENEROSA. In 1867, while watching with my friend commendatore Visconti (the present director of the Vatican Museum) the excavations of the Sacred Grove of the Arvales, on the Via Campana, five miles outside the Porta Portese, I witnessed for the first time the discovery of a catacomb. The experience could not have been more pleasant, nor the history of the first occupants of these crypts more interesting.

In the persecution of Diocletian two brothers, Simplicius and Faustinus, were tortured and put to death for their faith, and their bodies were thrown into the Tiber from the bridge of AEmilius Lepidus. The stream carried them to a considerable distance, and their young sister Beatrix, who was anxiously watching the banks of the river for the recovery of their dear remains, discovered them lying in the shallows of la Magliana, near the grove of the Arvales. She buried them in a small Christian cemetery which a certain Generosa had excavated close by, under the boundary line of the grove itself. Beatrix, left alone in the world, found shelter in the house of one of the Lucinas; but the persecutors, to whom her pious action had evidently been reported, discovered her retreat, and killed her by suffocation, seven months after the execution of Simplicius and Faustinus. Lucina laid her to rest in the same cemetery of Generosa, by the side of her brothers. This touching story is related in contemporary documents.

Pope Damasus, who in his younger days had been notary and stenographer of the church of Rome, and was acquainted with every detail of the last persecution, raised a small oratory to the memory of the three martyrs, and sanctified the ground which for eleven centuries had been the seat of the worship of the Dea Dia. The chapel lasted until the pontificate of Leo II., when it became evident that the only way of saving the remains of Beatrix, Simplicius, and Faustinus from profanation and robbery, was to remove them from a place so conspicuous for many miles around, and directly in the path of pirates and invaders from the sea, and to place them under the protection of the city walls. The translation took place in 682; the bodies were removed to the church of Santa Biviana, or the Bibiana, on the Esquiline, and placed in a sarcophagus, with the record: "Here lie in peace Simplicius and Faustinus, martyrs, drowned in the Tiber and buried in the cemetery of Generosa, above the landing-place called ad Sextum Philippi." Sarcophagus and inscription are still in existence. The discovery of the oratory of Pope Damasus and the cemetery of Generosa took place, as already stated, in the spring of 1867, when a fragment of the architrave of the altar was found in front of the apse, inscribed with the names, ... STINO . VIATRICI, engraved in the best Damasian calligraphy. The spelling of the second name deserves attention, because it is certainly intentional, as Damasus and his engraver Furius Dionysius Philocalus are distinguished for absolute epigraphic correctness. Viatrix, the feminine of Viator, is altogether different from Beatrix, and has its own Christian meaning, as an allusion to the eventful journey of human life. Must we take the word Beatrix as a new form, more or less connected with the adjective beatus, or as a corruption of the genuine name? No doubt it is a corruption, as the oldest martyrologies and liturgies have the genuine spelling. The substitution of the B instead of the V took place in the eighth or ninth century, and appears for the first time in the Codex of Berne. The grammarian who wrote it was evidently of the opinion that Viatrix was not the right spelling; and so the true and beautiful name of the sister of Faustinas and Simplicius became corrupted.



The accompanying illustration represents the portrait of Viatrix discovered in the Catacomb of Generosa in the spring of 1868.

THE CEMETERY OF DOMITILLA. The farm of Torre Marancia, at the crossing of the Via Ardeatina and the Via delle Sette Chiese, is familiar to archaeologists on account of the successful excavations which the duchess of Chablais made there in the spring of the years 1817 and 1822. Bartolomeo Borghesi, who first visited them in April, 1817, describes the remains of a noble villa of the first century, with mosaic pavements, fountains, statuary, candelabra, and frescos. The pictures of Pasiphae, Canace, Phaedra, Myrrha, and Scylla, which are now in the Cabinet of the Aldobrandini Marriage, in the Vatican Library, were discovered in one of the bedrooms of the villa. Other works of art, now exhibited in the third compartment of the Galleria dei Candelabri, were found in the peristyle. An exact description of these discoveries, with maps and illustrations, is given by Marchese Biondi in a volume called "Monumenti Amaranziani," published in Rome in 1825.

The Villa Amaranthiana, from which the modern name of Torre Marancia is derived, belonged to two ladies, one of imperial descent, Flavia Domitilla, a relative of Domitian and Titus, the other of patrician birth, Munatia Procula, the daughter of Marcus. Domitilla's name appears twice in documents attesting her ownership of the ground; the first is the grant of a sepulchral area, measuring thirty-five feet by forty, to Sergius Cornelius Julianus ex indulgentia Flaviae Domitillae; the other mentions the construction of another tomb, Flaviae Domitillae divi Vespasiani neptis beneficio.[158] These concessions refer to burial-plots above ground, on the Via Ardeatina. Much more important was the permission given by Domitilla for the excavation of a catacomb in the service of the Church, which had just been established in Rome by the apostles. The catacomb consisted originally of two sections; one for the use of those members of the imperial Flavian family who had been converted to the gospel, and one for common use. I have already given a brief account of the first (see p. 10). The entrance to the crypts was built in a conspicuous place, under the safeguard of the law which guaranteed the inviolability of private tombs. The place can still be visited. On each side of the entrance are apartments for the celebration of anniversary banquets, the [Greek: agapai] or love-feasts of the early Church. Those on the left are decorated in the so-called Pompeian style, with birds and festoons on a red ground. Here is the well, the drinking-fountain, the washing-trough, and the wardrobe. On the opposite side is the schola, or banqueting-room, with benches on three sides. There is no doubt that the builders and owners of these crypts were Christians; because the graves within were arranged for the interment of bodies, not for cremation; that is, for sarcophagi and coffins, not for cinerary urns; and, as I stated at the beginning of the previous chapter, the pagans of the first century, and of the first half of the second, were never interred. The Domitilla after whom the catacombs were named was a niece of Vespasian, Divi Vespasiani neptis. The reader will remember that in chapter i. I quoted Xiphilinus as saying that in the year 95 some members of the imperial family were condemned by Domitian on the charge of atheism, together with other leading personages, who had adopted "the customs and persuasion of the Jews,"—an expression which means the Christian faith. Among those condemned he mentions Clemens and Domitilla, whose genealogy is still subject to some uncertainty.

A tombstone discovered in 1741, by Marangoni, in these very catacombs, mentions two names, Flavius Sabinus and Flavia Titiana. They are descendants, perhaps grandchildren, of Flavius Sabinus, the brother of Vespasian. Sabinus was prefect of Rome during the persecution of Nero; but Tacitus[159] describes him as a gentle man, who hated violence (mitem virum abhorrentem a sanguine et caedibus). His second son, Titus Flavius Clemens, consul A. D. 82, was executed in 95 on account of his Christian faith; and Flavia Domitilla, his daughter-in-law, was banished for the same cause to the island Pandataria. There is a record of the banishment of another Flavia Domitilla to the island of Pontia; but her genealogy and relationship with the former have not been yet clearly established. Some writers, however, have identified her with the niece of Vespasian, mentioned in the inscription referred to above, as owner of the villa of Torre Marancia and founder of the catacombs. The small island, where she spent many years in solitary confinement, is described by S. Jerome as one of the leading places of pilgrimage in the fourth century of our era.

The "Acta Martyrum" state that Flavia Domitilla, niece of Flavius Clemens, was buried at Terracina, with her attendants, Theodora and Euphrosyne; and that her body-servants, or cubicularii, Nereus and Achilleus, who were executed for the same reason, were laid to rest in the crypts of the Villa Amaranthiana, half a mile from Rome, near the tomb of Petronilla, the so-called daughter of S. Peter. In the early itineraries the place is also indicated as the "cemetery of Domitilla, Nereus, and Achilleus, near Santa Petronilla." Bosio discovered it towards the end of the sixteenth century, and mistook it for the Cemetery of Callixtus. The discoveries made in 1873 leave no doubt as to its identification with the famous burial-place of the Flavians; they brought to light, not a crypt of ordinary dimensions, but a basilica equal in size to the one dedicated to S. Lorenzo by Constantine.



The pavement of the basilica is sunk to the level of the second floor of the catacombs, in order that the graves of Nereus, Achilleus, and Petronilla could be enclosed in the altar, without being raised, or touched at all. The body of the church is divided into nave and aisles by two rows of columns, mostly of cipollino, some of which were stolen in 1871 by the farmer; the others were found in 1876 lying on the floor, in parallel lines from northeast to southwest, as if they had been overthrown by an earthquake.

A fragment of one of the four columns which supported the ciborium above the high altar has been found in the apse. This fragment contains a bas-relief representing the execution of a martyr. The young man is tied to a stake, which is surmounted by a cross-beam, like a [Symbol: T], the true shape of the patibulum cruciforme. A soldier, dressed in a tunic and mantle, seizes the prisoner with the right hand, and stabs him in the neck with the left. The weapon used is not a lictor's axe, nor the sword of a legionary, but a sort of cutlass, which would be more likely to cut the throat than to sever the head from the body. The cross is crowned by a triumphal wreath, as a symbol of the immortal recompense which awaits the confessor of the Faith. The historical value of this rare sculpture is determined by the name, ACILLEVS, engraved above it.



The character of the letters and the style of the bas-relief are those of the second half of the fourth century. Of the sister column, with the name and martyrdom of NEREVS, only a small bit has been found. Another monument of equal value is a broken slab containing, in the first line, the letters ....RVM; in the second, the letters ....ORVM; and below these, the cross-shaped anchor, the mysterious but certain emblem of Christian hope. As the position of the symbol determines the middle point of the inscription, it is easy to reconstruct the whole text, by a careful calculation of the size of each letter:—



"the tomb of the Flavian family," namely, of those relatives of Domitilla who had embraced the Christian faith.

Under the pavement of the nave, aisles, and presbytery, are numberless graves, some of which belong to the original catacombs, before they were cut and disarranged by the building of the basilica; others are built in accordance with the architectural lines of the basilica itself. A grave belonging to the first series, that is, to a gallery of the catacombs which had been blocked by the foundations of the left aisle, bears the date of the year 390; while a sarcophagus placed at the foot of the altar is dated Monday, May 12, 395. It is evident, therefore, that the basilica was built between 390 and 395, during the pontificate of Siricius.

No memorial of Petronilla, the third saint for whom the building was named, has been found within the sacred enclosure,—a fact not wholly unexpected, because the coffin in which her remains were placed is known to have been removed to the Vatican by Paul I. (755-756), at the request of the king of France. In November, 1875, a cubiculum was found at the back of the apse, connected with it by a corridor which opens near the episcopal chair. The walls of this passage are covered with graffiti and other records of pilgrims. The cubiculum contains two graves: one empty, in the arcosolium, the place of honor; the other, in front of it, of a much later date. The front of the arcosolium is closed by a wall, on the surface of which is an interesting fresco, which is here reproduced.



The younger figure, on the right, is Petronilla Martyr; the elder is a matron named Veneranda, buried January 7 (DEPosita VI. IDVS. IANVARIAS), in the sarcophagus below the picture. There is no doubt that Petronilla was buried in close proximity to this cubiculum. The story of her relationship to S. Peter has no foundation whatever; it rests on an etymological mistake, by which the name Petronilla is treated as a diminutive of Petrus, as is Plautilla of Plautius or Plautia, and Domitilla of Domitius or Domitia. Petrus is not a Latin name; it came into use with the spreading of the gospel, and only in rare and exceptional cases. The young martyr was named after a member of the same Flavian family to which this cemetery belonged, Titus Flavius Petron, an uncle of Vespasian. Her kinship with the apostle must consequently be taken in a spiritual sense.

Towards the end of 1881 another remarkable discovery took place in these catacombs: that of a cubiculum which in style of decoration is unique. It looks more like the room of a Pompeian house than a Christian crypt. Its architectural paintings with groups of frail columns supporting fantastic friezes, and enclosing pastoral landscapes, might be compared to the frescoes of the Golden House of Nero, or those of the house of Germanicus on the Palatine; but they find no parallel in "subterranean Rome."

The name of the owner of this conspicuous tomb is engraved above the arcosolium: AMPLIATI. The size and the beauty of the letters, the peculiarity of a single cognomen in a possessive case, the fact that a man of inferior condition[160] should own such a tomb; that at a later period, a staircase had been cut through the rock, to provide a direct communication between the Via Ardeatina and the tomb, for the accommodation of pilgrims; the care used to keep the tomb in good order, as shown by later restorations,—all these circumstances make us believe that Ampliatus was a prominent leader of our early Christian community.

Such being the case, the mind runs at once to the paragraph of S. Paul's Epistle to the Romans (xvi. 8): "Salute Ampliatus my beloved in the Lord," and one feels inclined to kneel before the tomb of the dear friend of the apostle. However, when discoveries of this kind happen, it is wise to proceed with caution, and examine every detail from a sceptical point of view. Doubtless the cubiculum of Ampliatus was made and painted in the first century of our era. The type of the letters engraved above the tomb is peculiar to painted or written inscriptions of the beginning of the second century. It is possible, therefore, that the name was at first painted on the white plaster, and engraved on marble many years after the deposition of Ampliatus. As regards Ampliatus himself, it is true that according to Greek tradition he died when Bishop of Moesia,[161] but the tradition is derived from an apocryphal source. There are those who doubt whether all the salutations contained in S. Paul's epistle are really addressed to the faithful residing in Rome and belonging to the Roman community.[162] Another difficulty arises from the fact that in the same cubiculum a tombstone has been found, inserted in the wall above the arcosolium, between two painted peacocks, with this inscription: "Aurelius Ampliatus and his son Gordianus have placed this memorial to Aurelia Bonifatia, wife and mother incomparable, and truly chaste, who lived 25 years, 2 months, 4 days, and 2 hours." Although the name Aurelius is not uncommon on tombstones of the first century in this very Cemetery of Domitilla, there is no doubt that the tablet of Aurelia Bonifatia belongs to a later period. The name Bonifatius—derived from bonum fatum, not from bonum facere as commonly believed—did not come into use before the middle of the second century. At all events, Ampliatus, husband of Bonifatia and father of Gordianus, may be the son, grandson, or even a later descendant of the man in whose memory the cubiculum was originally built.

Shall we recognize in this man the friend of S. Paul? I do not think the question can as yet be answered with certainty. Further excavations in the galleries radiating from the crypt may disclose fresh particulars, and supply more conclusive evidence.

The discoveries of which a summary description has here been given deserve a place of honor in the comments to Suetonius' "Lives of the Emperors." The exploration of underground Rome must be greeted with pleasure, not only by the pious believers in Christ and his martyrs, but also by agnostic students of classical history. A tombstone, which on one side is inscribed with the records of the victories gained by the imperial legions, on the other with the simple and humble name of a Christian who has given his life for his faith, is a monument worthy the consideration of all thoughtful men. Christian archaeology has an intimate and indissoluble connection with classical studies, and there is no discovery referring to the first century of Christianity which does not throw new and often unexpected light on general history, art, and science. Those made at Torre Marancia in 1875 illustrate the history of Rome and the Campagna, after the fall of the empire. In the niche where the episcopal chair was placed,—behind the high altar, in the middle of the apse,—a rough hand has sketched the figure of a priest, dressed in a casula, in the act of preaching from his seat. This sketch reminds us of Gregory the Great, when in this very cemetery of Nereus and Achilleus, in this very apse, he read one of his homilies from this episcopal chair, deploring to the panic-stricken congregation the state of the city, the queen of the world, desolated by famine, by pestilence, and by the Lombards, who at that very moment were burning and plundering the villas and farms of the surrounding Campagna.

CEMETERY AD CATACUMBAS.[163] The cemetery near the church of S. Sebastiano was originally called in an indefinite way cimiterium ad catacumbas. The etymology of the name is uncertain. De Rossi suggests the roots cata, a Graeco-Latin preposition of the decadence, signifying "near," and cumba, a resting-place. The word would therefore mean apud accubitoria, "near the resting-places," an allusion to the many tombs which surrounded the old crypt above and below ground. This crypt dates from apostolic times, or, at all events, from a period much earlier than the martyrdom of Sebastian, the Christian officer whose name it now bears.

The great interest of the cemetery is derived from the shelter which the bodies of the apostles are said to have had in its recesses during the fiercest times of persecution. The temporary transferment of the remains of SS. Peter and Paul, from their graves on the Via Cornelia and the Via Ostiensis, to the catacombs, is not a mere tradition. It is described by Pope Damasus in a metric inscription published by de Rossi,[164] and by Pope Gregory in an epistle to the empress Constantina, no. 30 of book iv. A curious entry in the calendar called Bucherianum, from its first editor, seems to point to a double transferment. The entry is dated June 29, A. D. 258:—

Tertio Kalendas Julias, Tusco et Basso consulibus, Petri in Vaticano, Pauli in via Ostiensis—utriusque in Catacumbas.

Since, in early calendars, the date is only appended in case of transferment of remains, archaeologists have suggested the theory that the bodies of the apostles may possibly have found shelter in the catacombs of the Appian Way a second time, during the persecution of Valerian (A. D. 258). Marchi asserts that the evidences of a double concealment are still to be found in the frescoes of the crypt, some of which belong to the first, others to the third, century; but this hardly seems to be the case. I lowered myself into the hiding-place on February 23 of the present year, and, after careful examination, have come to the conclusion that its paintings are by one hand and of one epoch, the epoch of Damasus. However, whether they were laid there once or twice, its temporary connection with the apostles made the "locus ad catacumbas" one of the great suburban sanctuaries. The cubiculum, called Platonia, was decorated by Damasus with marble incrustations. According to the Acts of S. Sebastian (January 20) he expressed the wish to be buried "ad catacumbas, at the entrance of the crypt, near the memorial of the apostles." These events were represented in the frescoes of the old portico of S. Peter's, destroyed in 1606-1607 by Paul V. One of them showed the bodies of the apostles, bandaged like mummies, being lowered into the place of concealment; the other, Lucina and Cornelius bringing back the bodies to their original graves in the Via Cornelia and the Via Ostiensis.

A remarkable monument was discovered in the crypt four years ago. It is a marble bust, or rather the fragment of a bust, of the Redeemer, with locks of hair descending on each shoulder,[165] a work of the fourth century.

It is well known that the oldest representations of the Redeemer are purely ideal. He appears as a young man, with no beard, his hair arranged in the Roman style, wearing a short tunic, and showing the amiable countenance of the Good Shepherd. I give here a characteristic specimen of this type, a statue of the first quarter of the third century, now in the Lateran Museum.[166] Whether performing one of the miracles which prove his divinity, or teaching the new doctrine to the disciples, the type never varies. It is evident that the Christian painters or sculptors of the first three centuries, in drawing or modelling the head of Jesus, had no intention of making a likeness, but only a conventional type, noble and classic, and suggestive of the eternal youth of the Word. A new tendency appears in Christian art towards the middle of the fourth century, the attempt to reproduce the genuine portrait of Christ, or what was regarded as such by the Orientals. The change was a consequence of the peace and freedom given to the Church, and of the cessation of that overbearing contempt in which the Gentiles had held a religion which they believed to be that of the vile followers of a crucified Jew. It had been considered prudent, at the outset, to present the Redeemer to the neophytes, who were not yet entirely free from pagan ideas, in a type which was familiar and pleasing to the Roman eye, rather than with the characteristics of a despised race. The triumph of the Church made these precautions unnecessary, and then arose the desire of exhibiting a truer portraiture of Christ. The first addition to the conventional type was that of the beard, and probably of the hair parted in the middle.



Ancient writers have left but little information about the personal appearance of the Saviour; and the vagueness of their accounts proves the absence of a type which was universally recognized as authentic. Many documents concerning this subject must be rejected as forgeries of a later age. Such is the pretended letter of Lentulus, governor of Judaea, to the Senate, describing the appearance of Jesus. In the same way we should regard the images attributed to Nicodemus and Luke, and those called acheiropitae (not painted by human hands), like the famous one of the chapel of the Sancta Sanctorum,[167] the first historical mention of which dates from A. D. 752, when Pope Stephen II. carried it in a procession from the Lateran to S. Maria Maggiore, to obtain divine protection against Aistulphus. Garrucci questions whether it may not be that of Camulianus, described by Gregory of Nyssa; or a copy of the image alleged to have been sent by the Saviour himself to Abgar, king of Edessa,[168] with an autograph letter. Must we consider these and other portraits, like the "Volto Santo" in the Vatican, as fanciful as the old youthful Roman type of the Good Shepherd? There can be no doubt that in some provinces of the East, like Palestine, Syria, and Phoenicia, the oral traditions about the personal appearance of the Saviour were kept for many generations. It is also probable that the tradition was confirmed by some work of art, like the celebrated group of Paneas (Banias). With regard to this, Eusebius says that the woman with the issue of blood, grateful to the Saviour for her cure (Mark v., 25-34), caused a statue, representing Him in the act of performing the miracle, to be set up in front of her house; that it still existed when he wrote, and was held in great veneration throughout Palestine and the whole East. Sozomenos adds that Julian the Apostate substituted his own statue for it, but that the imperial image was struck by lightning. This excited the wrath of the pagans to such an extent that they destroyed the group of Christ and the Woman, which Julian had caused to be removed. Cassiodorus, Rufinus, Kedrenos, and Malala, assert that the head was saved from destruction. It has been suggested that the group did not represent the woman at the feet of the Saviour, but a conquered province kneeling before the Roman emperor and addressing him as her Saviour ([Greek: SOTERI]). But this explanation seems more ingenious than probable, because it implies that Christians, Eusebius included, had mistaken the portrait of a Roman conqueror for that of

Christ, which would have been so different in type, dress, and attitude. At all events, the belief that the group of Banias was a genuine likeness was general in the fourth century. Eusebius contributed to make it known in the Western world; and to this diffusion we probably owe the second type of the Saviour's physiognomy, the bearded face, the large impressive eyes, the hair parted in the middle, and falling in locks on the shoulders.[169]

To this type belongs the bust discovered four years ago in the "locus ad catacumbas." According to an ingenious hypothesis of Bottari, adopted by de Rossi, the Paneas group is represented on the Lateran sarcophagus, engraved by Roller in the second volume of his "Catacombs," plate 58.



THE CEMETERY OF CYRIACA. This, the principal cemetery of the Via Tiburtina, was excavated in the hill above the basilica of S. Lorenzo fuori le Mura. It is the one with which I have had most to do, because the building of the new Camposanto, together with the sinking of the foundations of the new tombs, has been the occasion of frequent discoveries. One of the characteristic features of Cyriaca's cemetery is the large number of military inscriptions from the praetorian camp which were used to close the graves, the name of the deceased Christian being engraved on the blank side of the slab. On December 23, 1876, a landslide of considerable extent took place along the southern face of the rock in which the catacombs are excavated, in consequence of which many loculi, arcosolia, and painted cubicula were laid open. I happened to witness the accident, and was able to direct the exploration of the graves. Among the objects discovered, I remember a pair of silver earrings, a necklace of gold and emeralds, sixteen inches long, clay objects of various kinds, gladiatorial and theatrical lamps, and nine Christian tombstones. One of them was engraved on the back of a slab from the praetorian camp, containing the roster of one hundred and fifty soldiers from the twelfth and fourteenth city cohorts (cohortes urbanae). Each individual has his praenomen, nomen, and cognomen, carefully indicated, together with the names of his father, tribe, and country. The men are grouped in companies, which are indicated by the name of their captains, such as the "company of Marcellus" or the "company of Tranquillinus," with the consular date of the year in which Marcellus and Tranquillinus were in command of that company. Another part of the same roster, engraved on a slab of the same marble and size, and containing many more names, was found a century and a half ago in the same place, and removed to the Vatican Museum.

One of the tombs, discovered during the following January, seems to have belonged to a lady of rank. A gold necklace and a pair of opal earrings were found in the earth which filled the grave. Relatives or friends of the occupants of the cubiculum had written on the plaster words of affection and devotion, such as "Gaianus, live in Christ with Procula;" "Semplicius, live in Christ."

It is to be regretted that, in order to make room for the daily victims of death, the municipality of Rome should be obliged to turn out of their graves the faithful of the third and fourth centuries who were buried in the neighborhood of S. Lorenzo. In 1876 I witnessed the discovery of a section of the old cemetery at the foot of the hill of Cyriaca. The tombs were mostly sarcophagi, with reliefs, the subjects of which are taken from the Bible. One of them, carved in the rude but pathetic style of the fifth century, represents the crossing of the Red Sea, and the Egyptian hosts, led by Pharaoh, following closely on the Jews. The waves are closing over the persecutors, just as the last of the fugitives emerges safely on the land. The "column of fire" is represented, according to the Vitruvian rules, with base and capital; and the costumes of the warriors of the Nile are those of Roman gregarii, or privates, under Constantine. Another sarcophagus shows the Virgin Mary, with the infant Saviour in her arms, receiving the offering of the Eastern kings. A third represents a sort of pageant of court dignitaries of one of the Valentinians. Besides these and many other pieces of sculpture seventy-two inscriptions or fragments of inscriptions were dug up, mostly from the pavement of a ruined chapel, one of the seven by which the basilica of S. Lorenzo was surrounded in ancient times.



Another inscription, discovered in 1864, deserves attention on account of the instruments which are engraved upon it. It is a fragment from the tomb of a dentist named Victorinus, or Celerinus, with the representation of the instruments he used in extracting teeth. Such representations are by no means rare on gravestones. The other two specimens reproduced here are also from the catacombs. Alexander was a dentist; the unknown owner of the other slab was a general surgeon, yet the symbol of dentistry occupies the prominent place in his display of tools. In my experience of Roman or Latin excavations, in which thousands of tombs have been brought to light, I have hardly ever met with a skull the teeth of which showed symptoms of decay, or evidence of having been operated upon by a professional hand. Specimens of filling are even more rare than those of gold plating. Of this latter process we have now a beautiful sample in a skull discovered in the excavations of Faleria, and exhibited in the Faliscan Museum at the Villa Giulia, outside the Porta del Popolo. The gold socket or plating of three molar teeth is still in excellent condition. And here I may recall the ancient law, mentioned by Cicero (De Leg. ii. 24), which made it illegal to bury a body with gold, except such as had been used in fastening the teeth.

THE CEMETERY AD DUAS LAUROS (of SS. Peter and Marcellinus).[170] To the left of the second milestone of the Via Labicana there was an imperial villa, named ad Duas Lauros (the two laurels), where the empress Helena was buried by Constantine, and Valentinian III. was murdered when playing with other youths, in 455. Adjoining the tomb of the empress, which was described in chapter iv., pp. 197 sq., were two cemeteries,—one above ground, belonging to the "Equites Singulares," or body guards; the other, below. The latter was the largest of the Via Labicana, and was known in early Church annals under the same name as the imperial villa. In 1880-82 a third and deeper network of galleries was excavated for the sake of extracting the pozzolana, the beds of which support the tufa and the catacombs excavated in it. Some damage was done to the tombs, but the Italian proverb Non tutto il male viene per nuocere proved true once more on this occasion. The excavation of the catacombs, which is generally a difficult and costly work, and sometimes impossible, when the owner of the ground above them objects to this form of trespassing on his estate, here became an easy matter, the earth being simply thrown into the sandpits from the catacombs above. The discoveries made on this occasion, added to the descriptions and drawings left by former explorers, give us a thorough knowledge of these labyrinths. The impression which they make at first is rather poor; but this is due chiefly to the ravages committed by early explorers.

The inscriptions are few and not particularly interesting, excepting one, which was discovered in 1873, and is written in excellent style: "Aurelius Theophilus, a citizen of Carrhae, a man of pure mind and great innocence, at the age of twenty-three has rendered his soul to God, his body to the earth." His native city, the Haran, or Charan of the Bible, where Abraham lived, is known in Church annals as one of the strongholds of paganism in Mesopotamia. When Julian the Apostate led the Roman armies against the Persians, in 362, he halted for some time at Carrhae, to perform impious and cruel sacrifices in the sanctuary of Luno. A description of the crime is given by Theodoretus in Book III. ch. xxvi. At that time Carrhae, in spite of its devotion to the old religion, had a bishop named Vitus, who died in 381, and was succeeded by Protogenes. According to Theodoretus, he succeeded in "cultivating that wild field which had been covered with idolatrous thorns." Aurelius Theophilus was probably a contemporary of these events, as the inscription on his tombstone belongs undoubtedly to the end of the fourth century. There are also a few inscriptions scratched on plaster, by pilgrims who visited the three historical crypts of Marcellinus and Peter, Gorgonius, and Tiburtius. To save devout visitors the trouble and danger of crossing the labyrinths, each of these crypts was made accessible directly from the ground above by means of a staircase. The graffiti are found mostly on the sides or at the foot of these staircases, or else on the door-posts of the crypts themselves.

The historical and religious associations of this catacomb are summed up and illustrated in a beautiful picture representing the Saviour with S. Paul on his right and S. Peter on his left: and, on a line below, the four martyrs who were buried in the cemetery, Gorgonius, Peter, Marcellinus, and Tiburtius, pointing with their right hands to the Divine Lamb on the mountain. The heads of the two apostles are particularly fine, and the shape of their beards most characteristic. This well-known fresco, preserved in cubiculum no. 25 of Bosio's plan, was discovered in 1851 by de Rossi, in a curious manner. Having obtained from padre Marchi permission to carry the excavations towards the cubiculum, and finding that the work proceeded too slowly for his impatience, he crept on his hands and feet for fifty yards along the narrow gap between the ceiling of the galleries and the earth with which they were filled, and reached the cubiculum nearly suffocated. Here, by means of a skylight which was not obstructed by rubbish, he found that the place was used as a deposit for carrion, as the half-putrefied carcass of a bull was lying under the famous fresco.

Many cubiculi were painted by one artist, whose power of invention was rather restricted. He has but two subjects: the story of Jonah, and the Symbolic Supper. Of this last there are four representations, all reproduced from the same pattern, of which I give an example. A family consisting of father, mother, and children, are sitting around a table, upon which the [Greek: ichthus] or fish is served; the banquet is presided over by two mystic figures, Irene or Peace on the left, Agape or Love on the right. The head of the family addresses Peace with these words: "Irene, da calda!" and Love, "Agape, misce mi!" The last words are easily understood: "Give me to drink," the verb mescere being still used in the same sense in Tuscany, where a wine-shop is sometimes called a mescita di vino. The meaning of the word calda is not certain. There is no doubt, as Boetticher says, that the ancients had something to correspond to our tea: but the calda seems to have been more than an infusion; apparently it was a mixture of hot water, wine, and drugs, that is, a sort of punch, which was drunk mostly in winter.[171] The names written in charcoal above the principal inscriptions in this illustration are those of Pomponio Leto and his academicians.[172]



Another artist distinguished himself in these catacombs, not from skill in design and color, but from the beautiful subjects chosen by him for the decoration of the walls and ceilings of three cubiculi,—compositions which may be called "The Gospel Illustrated." They have been admirably described and reproduced by photographs and in outline by monsignore Joseph Wilpert, in his book referred to in the note on page 354. The intuition of this learned man in detecting paintings which have been effaced by age, dampness, and smoke is fully appreciated by students of Christian archaeology: but on this occasion he accomplished a real tour de force. When, on December 19, I entered the cubiculum no. 54, in which the paintings are, and he began to point out to me outlines of figures and objects, I thought he was laboring under an optical delusion; I could see nothing beyond a blackened and mouldy plaster surface. My eyes, however, soon became initiated to the new experience, and able to read the lines of this curious palimpsest. The dark spots soon grew into shape, and lovely groups, inspired by the purest Christian symbolism, appeared on the walls. There are thirteen pictures, representing the following-named subjects: the annunciation, the three magi following the star (which is shaped like the monogram [Symbol: Chi Rho]), their adoration at Bethlehem, the baptism of our Lord, the last judgment, the healing of the blind, the crippled, and the woman with the issue of blood, the woman of Samaria, the Good Shepherd (twice), the Orantes (twice).

The catacombs of SS. Peter and Marcellinus have another attraction for students. Poor as they are in epitaphs and works of art, they contain hundreds of names of celebrated humanists, archaeologists, and artists who explored these depths in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and made record of their visits. When one walks between two lines of graves, in the almost oppressive stillness of the cemetery, with no other company than one's thoughts, the names of Pomponius Letus and his academicians, of Bosio, Panvinio, Avanzini, Severano, Marangoni, Marchi, and d'Agincourt, written in bold letters, give the lonely wanderer the impression of meeting living and dear friends; and one wonders at the great love which these pioneers of "humanism" must have had for antiquities, to have spent days and days, and to have held their conferences and banquets, in places like these.

In chapter i., page 10, of "Ancient Rome," I mentioned Pomponio's Academy, and its visits to the crypts of Callixtus. Since the publication of my book, the subject has been investigated again and illustrated by Giacomo Lombroso[173] and de Rossi.[174] It appears that after the trial which the Academicians underwent at the time of Paul II., and their unexpected liberation from the Castle of S. Angelo, they decided to turn over a new leaf. From a fraternity which was pagan in manners and instincts, which had made itself conspicuous by the use of profane language, and by the celebration of profane meetings over the tombs of the martyrs, they became the "Societas literatorum S. Victoris et sociorum in Esquiliis," a literary society under the patronage of S. Victor and his companion saints, namely, Fortunatus and Genesius. Their pontifex maximus became a president; their sacerdos a priest, whose duty it was to say mass on certain anniversaries. The most important celebration fell, as before, on April 21, the birthday of Rome. We have a description by an eye-witness, Jacopo Volaterrano, of that which took place in 1483: "On the Esquiline,[175] near the house of Pomponius, the society of literary men has celebrated the birthday of Rome. Divine service was performed by Peter Demetrius of Lucca; Paul Marsus delivered the oration. The dinner was served in the hall adjoining the chapel of S. Salvatore de Cornutis," etc. In 1501, after the death of Pomponius, the anniversary meetings were held on the Capitol; the solemn mass was sung in the church of the Aracoeli, while the banquet took place in the Palazzo dei Conservatori. The convivial feast of 1501 was not a success. Burckhardt describes it as satis feriale et sine bono vino (commonplace and with no good wine).

Was the conversion of the Academicians a sincere one? We believe it was not; they manifested under Sixtus V. the same feelings which had brought them to justice under Paul II.

In the calendars of the Church of Rome only one name is registered on April 21, that of Pope Victor. His alleged companions, Fortunatus and Genesius, were singled out of old, disused calendars of the church of Africa, unknown to the Latins. Why did the academicians select such enigmatic and obscure protectors? The reason is evident. Genesius was chosen because his name suggested an allusion to the genesis (natalis) or birthday of Rome; Victor and Fortunatus, likewise, were considered names of good omen, with a suggestion of the Victory and Fortune who presided over the destinies of ancient Rome.

Under the protection of these alleged saints, Pomponius and his friends worshipped, and celebrated the birthday of Rome, and the goddesses connected with the city.[176]

This state of things did not wholly escape the attention of contemporary observers. One of them, Raffaele Volaterrano, expressly says: "Pomponius Laetus worshipped Romulus and kept the birthday of Rome; the beginning of a campaign against religion (initium abolendae fidei)."

The Roman academy found the means of keeping faithful to its traditions, and to the spirit of its institutions, in spite of the reform of its statutes. Victor, Fortunatus, Genesius, in whose honor divine service was performed on April 20, did not represent to the initiated the saints of the Church, but the fortunes of ancient Rome, its founder, the Paliliae. Still, we are not yet able to discover whether all this was done simply out of love and admiration for the ancient world, under the influence of the Renaissance of classical studies; or from hatred and contempt of Christian faith: initium abolendae fidei.

THE END.

FOOTNOTES:

[141] Principal authorities:—Philip de Winghe: Cod. biblioth. Bruxell. 17872.—Panvinius: De Coemeteriis Urbis Romae. Rome, 1568.—Antonio Bosio: Roma sotterranea; opera postuma. Roma, 1632-34.—Paolo Aringhi: Roma subterranea novissima. Roma, 1651 fol. Cologne, 1659 fol.—M. A. Boldetti: Osservazioni sopra i cimiteri de' SS. martiri. Roma, Salvioni, 1720.—Giovanni Bottari: Sculture e pitture estratte dai cimiteri di Roma. 3 vol. Roma, 1737-54.—Filippo Buonarroti: Vasi antichi di vetro ornati di figure, etc. Firenze, 1716, 4.—Raoul Rochette: Le catacombe di Roma. Milano, 1841.—Giuseppe Marchi: Monumenti delle arti cristiane primitive. Roma, Puccinelli, 1844.—Raffaele Garrucci: Storia dell' arte cristiana. Roma: 6 vol. fol.; Vetri ornati di figure in oro, trovati nei cimiteri dei Cristiani. Rome, Salviucci, 1858.—Louis Perret: Les catacombes de Rome, etc. 6 vol. fol. Paris, 1852-1856.—De Rossi: Roma sotterranea cristiana. 3 vol. fol. Roma, Salviucci, 1864; Inscriptiones Christianae Urbis Romae. 2 vol. fol. Rome, 1861-1887; Bullettino di archeologia cristiana. Roma, Salviucci, 1863-1891.—Northcote and Brownlow: Roma sotterranea. 2 volumes 8vo, 2d ed. London, Longmans, 1878.—Northcote: Epitaphs of the Catacombs. London, Longmans, 1878.—Henry Parker: The Catacombs of Rome. Oxford, Parker, 1877.

[142] See Cod. Theodos. ix. 17, 2.

[143] On the subject of the Jewish colony in Rome, see:—Emmanuel Rodocanachi: Le saint-siege et les Juifs: le Ghetto a Rome. Paris, Didot, 1891.—A. Bertolotti: Les Juifs a Rome. Revue des etudes juives, 1881, fasc. 4.—Raffaele Garrucci: Cimiterio degli antichi Ebrei. Roma, 1862.—Pietro Manfrin: Gli Ebrei sotto la dominazione romana. Roma, 1888-1890.—Ettore Natali: Il Ghetto di Roma. Roma, 1887.—Perreau: Education et culture des Israelites en Italie au moyen age. Corfou, 1885.

[144] This "poster," painted in red letters, which is now in the Museo Nazionale, Naples, was published by Zangemeister in vol. iv., p. 13, n. 117, of the Corpus inscriptionum latinarum.—Prof. Mommsen, in the Rheinisches Museum, xix. (1864), p. 456, contradicts the opinion of de Rossi as regards the religious persuasion of this Fabius Eupor (Bullettino di archeologia cristiana, 1864, pp. 70, 92).

[145] See Champagny: Rome et la Judee, p. 31, of the first edition.

[146] See Suetonius, Domitian, chap. 92; Dion Cassius, lxvii. 13.

[147] See Pliny, Epistolae, x. 67.

[148] See de Rossi: Bullettino di archeologia cristiana, 1868, p. 19.

[149] See Bullettino di archeologia cristiana, 1867, p. 76.

[150] See Atti dell' Accademia dei Nuovi Lincei, sessione 6 maggio, 1860.

[151] Bullettino di archeologia cristiana, 1863, p. 75.

[152] ... passim corpora condens Plurima sanctorum subter haec moenia ponit.

[153] The attention of learned men had been directed towards Christian underground Rome just ten years before this event, by the publication of Panvinio's pamphlet De caemeteriis urbis Romae, 1566.

[154] Ad ann. 575; 130, 226.

[155] See Bullettino di archeologia cristiana, 1865, p. 36.

[156] See Fea: Miscellanea, vol. i., pp. 238, 245, etc.

[157] It is now in the Vatican Library. A good engraving is to be found in Buonarroti's Osservazioni sui medaglioni, p. 497.

[158] Historiar., iii. 65.

[159] Historiae, iii. 65.

[160] The name Ampliatus belongs to servants and freedmen; it was never used by men of rank, whether pagans or Christians.

[161] Baronius ad Martyr. 31 October.

[162] See Renan's St. Paul, lxvii.

[163] Orazio Marucchi: Di un ipogeo scoperto nel cimitero di S. Sebastiano. Roma, 1879; Un antico busto del Salvatore, etc., in the Melanges de l'Ecole francaise, 1888, p. 403.—Pietro d' Achille: Il sepolcro di S. Pietro. Roma, 1867.—Giovanni B. Lugari: Le catacombe ossia il sepolcro apostolico dell' Appia. Roma, 1888.—De Rossi: Roma sotterranea cristiana, vol. iii., p. 427; Il sepolcro degli Uranii cristiani a S. Sebastiano, in the Bullettino di archeologia cristiana, 1886, p. 24.—Pietro Marchi: Monumenti primitivi delle arti cristiane, p. 212, tav. xxxix-xli.

[164] Inscriptiones Christianae, vol. ii. 32, 77.

[165] Represented in plate ix. of the Melanges de l'Ecole francaise de Rome, 1888.

[166] This is also illustrated by Martigny: Dictionnaire, 2d ed. p. 586.—Kraus: Realencyclopaedie, ii. p. 580.—Northcote and Brownlow: Roma Sotterranea. London, 1879. (ii. p. 29.)—Roller: Catacombes, planche i., xl. n. 2.—Garrucci: Arte cristiana, tav. 428, 5.—Duchesne: Bullettino critique, Decembre, 1882, p. 288.—De Rossi: Bullettino comunale, 1889, p. 131, tav. v., vi.

[167] See:—Giovanni Marangoni: Istoria dell' oratorio appellato Sancta Sanctorum. Roma, 1747.—Gaspare Bambi: Memorie sacre della cappella di Sancta Sanctorum. Roma, 1775.—Giuseppe Soresini: Dell' immagine del SS. Salvatore ad Sancta Sanctorum. Roma, 1675.—Benedetto Millini: Oratorio di S. Lorenzo ad Sancta Sanctorum. Roma, 1616.—Raffaele Garrucci: Storia dell' arte cristiana, vol. i. p. 408.—Rohault de Fleury: Le Latran.

[168] A pious but unfounded tradition identifies this picture of Edessa with the one preserved in Genoa, in the church of S. Bartolomeo degli Armeni.

[169] On the subject of the Paneas group see:—Andre Perate: Note sur le groupe de Paneas, in Melanges de l'Ecole francaise de Rome, 1885, p. 302.—Raoul-Rochette: Discours sur les types imitatifs qui constituent l'art du Christianisme, 1834.—Bayet: Recherches pour servir a l'histoire de la peinture en Orient, p. 29.—Orazio Marucchi: Di un busto del Salvatore, etc., in the Melanges, 1888, p. 403.—Eusebius: H. E. VII., 185, edition Teubner, p. 315.—Grimouard de St. Laurent: Guide de l'art Chretien, ii. p. 215.

[170] See:—Bossio: Roma sotterranea, p. 591, D.—Bruder: Die heiligen Martyren Marcellinus und Petrus. Mainz, 1878.—De Rossi: Bullettino di archeologia cristiana. 1882, p. 111.—Wilpert: Ein Cyclus christologischer Gemaelde aus der Katacombe der heiligen Petrus und Marcellinus. Freiburg, 1891.

[171] See Becker: Gallus, p. 4.

[172] See Ancient Rome, p. 10.

[173] Giacomo Lombroso: Gli accademici nelle catacombe, in the Archivio della societa romana di storia patria, 1889, p. 219.

[174] Bullettino di archeologia cristiana, 1890, p. 81.—See also: de Nollae: Melanges de l'Ecole francaise de Rome, 1866, p. 165.

[175] The house of Pomponius and the seat of the Academy was not on the Esquiline, but on the Quirinal, on the area of the Baths of Constantine, opposite the gate of the Colonna Gardens. The mistake in the name of the hill must be attributed to Pomponius himself, who had written on the door of the house:—POMPONI . LAETI . ET . SOCIETATIS . ESCVVILINAI. After the reform of the statutes, another sign, less classic in style, was put up: SOCIETAS-LITERATORUM-S-VICTORIS-IN-ESQUILIIS.

[176] The Temple of Fortune in Rome was dedicated on this very day. See Mommsen, in the Corpus inscriptionum latinarum, vol. i. p. 392.



INSCRIPTION COMMEMORATING THE

LUDI SAECULARES

CELEBRATED IN THE YEAR 17, B. C.



TEXT AS EDITED BY MOMMSEN

(See Chapter II., pp. 73-82)



INDEX.

For the names of individual arches, basilicas, catacombs, churches, forums, palaces, piazzas, statues, streets, temples, tombs, and villas, see the headings, Arch, Basilica, Catacombs, Churches, etc.

Academy of Pomponio, 359.

Achilleus, martyr, bas-relief representing his execution, 339 (cut).

Acilii Glabriones. See Glabriones.

AErarium Saturni, 163.

Agapae, 42, 336.

Ager Fonteianus, 270.

Agrippa, M., 79, 82, 99; edifices due to, 176.

Agrippina, fate of her pedestal once in the ustrinum, 183, 184 (cut); her death, 183.

Aius Locutius, 72.

Albanum, amphitheatre of, 6.

Alexamenos, 12.

Alexander VII., Pope, 36.

Altars, ancient, 33; their usual form, 67. See also Arae.

—— of Aius Locutius, 71, 72 (cut); —— of Dis and Proserpina, 73; its foundation, 74; its discovery, 76 (cut); its shape and surroundings, 77; —— of Hercules, 59; —— Incendii Neroniani, 83; —— Maxima Herculis, 69; —— of Mercurius Sobrius, 34 (cut); —— Pacis Augustae, 82, 83 (cut); —— Roma Quadrata, 70; —— of Vedjovis, at Bovillae, 68; —— of Verminus, 68.

Amasis, King, sphinx of, 94 (cut).

Ambrose, S., 43.

Amphitheatre at Albanum, 6.

Ampliatus, his tomb, 342; possibly the friend of S. Paul, 343.

Anagni, basilica of, 25.

Anastasius IV., Pope, his sarcophagus, 197.

Ancyra, Augusteum at, 173.

Anisson, Charles d', 36.

Annius, a maker of lamps, in Ostia, 17.

Annona, 27.

Antinous, statue of, 240, 241 (cut).

Apollo, in Christian art, 25.

Appian Way. See Via Appia.

Aqueduct of Damasus, 121.

Aquila and Prisca, 110; their house and oratory, 111, 126.

Arae compitales, 33. See Altars.

Arch of Claudius, 99; of Constantine, 101; testimony of its inscription to the position of Christianity, 20 (plate); of Marcus Aurelius, panel, 90 (plate).

Arco di S. Lazaro, 181.

Argeorum sacraria, 33.

Artemisium Nemorense, 59.

Arx, 85.

Athens, Acropolis, probable origin of the gold found here by Herodes Atticus, 289.

Atrium sutorium, 275.

Atticus, Herodes, bibliography, 288 n.; his father's discovery of riches, 288; his liberality and public spirit, 289; the buildings erected in memory of his wife, 290.

Atticus, Pomponius, house of, 191.

Atys, 27.

Augustea, 173.

Augustine, S., his pupil Licentius, 14; on eating and drinking in honor of martyrs, 43; on the celebration of S. Peter's day, 44.

Augustus, Emperor, strenae calendariae offered to, 34; offerings in the temple of Concord, 54; his house, 71 n.; celebrates the Secular games, 79; dedicates an altar to Peace on the Campus Martius, 82; death and funeral, 168; resolutions in the senate, 169; mausoleum, 172; his Res gestae, 172; his army, 174; his liberalities, 175; public improvements in his time, 176; his mausoleum destroyed, 179; other members of the imperial family buried here, 182.

Banqueting-halls, 42.

Basilica, origin of its plan in that of the private house, 114 (cut); its form derived from the schola, 118.

—— of Constantine, 162; Julia, 163; of Junius Bassus, 28; of Nereus, Achilleus and Petronilla, 338 (cut).

Bassus, Junius, basilica of, 28.

Bassus, Pomponius, 192.

Baths, in connection with Christian churches, 37; of Diocletian, 38, 48, 74.

Bayazid, his gift of the holy lance, 243.

Beatrix, martyr, 333; the name corrupted from Viatrix, 334 (cut).

Belloni, Paolo, 151.

Benedict VII., Pope, tomb, 234.

Benedict XII., Pope, 138.

Benedict XIV., Pope, 37.

Bernini, influence of his school, 250.

Bidentalia, 106.

Biga, in the Vatican, 27.

Bologna, monumental crosses, 35.

Boniface I., Pope, 319.

Bonifatius, origin of the name, 344.

Bosio, Ant., investigator of the Catacombs, 329.

Bovillae, altar to Vedjovis, 68.

Bridge of Caligula, 101.

Brattius Praesens, 10.

Burial, rights of, accorded the Christians, 119; more common than cremation in prehistoric times, 253; early burial in the trunks of trees, 254; clay coffins in the same form, 254; difficulties encountered by the Christians, 308; within the city walls, 325.

Burial companies, 258.

Byzantine princes, their images in Rome, 162.

Caecilia, S., her tomb discovered by Pope Paschal I., 326.

Caepio, Aulus Crispinius, his tomb, 267.

Caesar, Caius, beloved by Augustus, 184.

Caesar, Julius, his offerings in the temple of Concord, 54.

Caffarella, Valle della, 286.

Calda, 357.

Caligarii, 274.

Caligula, his bridge, so-called, 101; places his mother's ashes in the mausoleum, 184.

Callixtus, death, 220.

——, Catacombs of. See Catacombs.

Calpurnii, their tomb, 276; their history, 277.

Cambyses, conquest of Egypt, 94.

Camillus, capture of Veii, 64.

Campagna, 286 (plate).

Campo dell' Augusta, 179.

Campus Esquilinus, 256.

Campus Martius, 74; early excavations in, 98.

Candelabrum, in church of SS. Nereo ed Achilleo, 26 (cut); in Church of S. Paolo, 239 (cut).

Canevari, Ant., 159.

Canova, his tomb of Clement XIII., 250.

Capitoline games, 281.

Capitoline Hill, 85; the western summit, 86 (plate).

Capitoline museum, 15, 42, 59, 70, 93, 106, 190, 255, 290 n. See, also, dei Conservatori, under Palaces.

Capitolium. See Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus.

Caracalla, 12.

Carrhae, 355.

Carthage, excitement against the Christians in, 318.

Castel S. Angelo, 234.

Catacombs. Crypt of the Acilii Glabriones, 4; its devastation in the 17th cent., 8; burial of Christian martyrs, 119; injury occasioned by the building of churches over the tombs of martyrs, 122; preferred by the early Christians to open-air cemeteries, 308; their development in the 2d century, 317; the names given them, 317; their secret entrances, 318; not habitable, 319; their extent, 319; compared to the tombs of the kings at Thebes, 321; their use declined in the 4th century, 321; pillaged by the Goths, 324; restored by Pope Vigilius, 325; unmentioned by later Church annals, 327; discovered in 1578, 328; their wholesale pillage, 329; the treasures found in them, 331; the number of the Catacombs, 332.

—— of Callixtus, 50, 117, 216, 219, 339; —— ad Catacumbas or of S. Sebastiano, 345; the bodies of SS. Peter and Paul concealed here, 346; —— of Cyriaca, 350; —— of Domitilla, 335; the Flavian crypt, 316 (cut), 330, 336; the basilica of Nereus and Achilleus, 338; the tomb of Ampliatus, 342; —— ad Duas Lauros, or of SS. Peter and Marcellinus, 354; a fresco of the Saviour with SS. Paul and Peter, 356; relics of Renaissance humanists, 358; —— of Generosa, 332; —— of Pontianus, 221; —— of Praetextatus, the cubiculum of S. Januarius, 322 (cut); —— of Priscilla (map), 7, 23, 42, 111, 221; —— of the Via Salaria, 285.

Catacumba, derivation of the word, 345.

Caves for burial on the Viminal and Esquiline, 255.

Ceadwalla, King, baptism and death, 231; tomb, 232.

Celibacy discouraged, 80.

Cellae, 42.

Cellini, Benvenuto, the cause of his imprisonment, 247.

Cemeteries, pagan, 253-305; prehistoric cemeteries of the Viminal and the Esquiline, 254, 255; extensive cemeteries along the high roads, 260; on the Via Aurelia, 262; on the Via Triumphalis, 270; on the Via Salaria, 275; buried under twenty-five feet of earth, 284; on the Via Appia, 286; Christian cemeteries, 306-361; under the authority of the pontiffs, 307; underground cemeteries preferred by the early Christians, 308; their use revives after Constantine, 321, 323; at Concordia Sagittaria, 323, 324 (plate); suburban cemeteries abandoned on account of insecurity, 325. See also, Catacombs; Columbaria; Tombs; Ustrinum.

Chartres, cathedral, labyrinth, 31.

Christ, type of the early representations of, 347, 348 (cut and plate); early traditions of his appearance, 349.

Christian archaeology, dates from the discovery of the Catacombs, 329.

Christian art, adoption of pagan symbolism, 23.

Christianity, early patrician converts in Rome, 2; attitude of the government toward, 11; evidence of the graffiti on, 12; difficulties and inconstancy of Christian converts, 14; mixed marriages, 15; friendly relations between pagans and Christians, 16; military service under the Empire, 18; the gradual change under Constantine, 20; spread of Christianity under Gregory the Great, 228; the persecutions under Nero and later emperors, 312. See also Church; Churches; Martyrs.

Christians, at first identified with the Jews by the Romans, 310.

Church, adoption of pagan rites and customs, 23; love-feasts, 42; public granaries, 44; flower festivals, 49; its simple origin, 109; adopted the institution of funeral colleges from the pagans, 117.

Churches, objects of pagan art preserved in, 23, 26; pagan decorations not destroyed, 28; private contributions to the decoration of churches, 30; labyrinths in the pavements, 31; bathing accommodations, 37; sets of weights and measures in, 39, 41; the great number and variety of churches, 108; the names of churches, 109; private oratories, 109; the steps of the transition from private halls to regular churches, 114; the schola as a predecessor of the Christian church, 116; churches built over the tombs of martyrs and confessors, 119; frequently sunk in the ground, 120; those connected with the houses of confessors and martyrs, 158; those formed from pagan monuments, 160.

Churches. S. Adriano, 48. S. Andrea, decorations, 28 (cut). S. Andrea del Noviziato, 83. S. Andrea al Quirinale, 84. S. Antonio, 30. S. Antonio all' Esquilino, 36. SS. Apostoli, 38. Aracoeli, 85, 360; figures of Augustus and the Sibyl, 24; altar previously dedicated to Isis, 27. S. Biviana, 333. S. Caecilia, kantharos in its court, 38, 39 (cut); bodies of martyrs transferred to it, 326. S. Cesareo, 36. S. Cesareus de Palatio, 162. Chapel of the Crucifixion, 127. S. Clemente, fresco, 32 (plate). S. Cosimato in Trastevere, 38. SS. Cosma e Damiano, 28 (cut), 162. S. Croce in Gerusalemme, 234. S. Croce a Monte Mario, 166. Demetrias, 116. S. Felicitas, 221. S. Francesca Romana, discovery of the body of a girl, 299. S. Francesco a Ripa, 36. S. Giovanni dei Fiorentini, 81. S. Giovanni in Laterano, 109, 236; the cloisters as now restored, 238 (plate). SS. Giovanni e Paolo, 158; the tomb of Card. Luke, 159; the garden, 160. S. Hermes, 120. Lateran basilica, 109, S. Lorenzo in Lucina, 164. S. Lorenzo fuori le Mura, 32, 36, 121, 135 (cut), 221; sarcophagus of Licentius, 14; chapel of SS. Abundius and Irenaeus, 41; the large number of tombs, 323, 350. S. Marcello, 180. S. Maria Antiqua, 3. S. Maria in Cosmedin, 32. S. Maria de Foro, 163. S. Maria Liberatrice, 92, 102. S. Maria Maggiore, 32, 36, 136. S. Maria Nova, 161; discovery of the body of a girl, 295. S. Maria della Pace, 25, 89. S. Maria del Popolo, 189. S. Maria de Porticu, 32. S. Maria in Trastevere, 27, 31, 330; ponderaria, 41. S. Martina, bas-relief, 30 (plate), 48. S. Martino, 38. S. Menna, 156. S. Michele in Borgo, 27. SS. Nereo ed Achilleo, 36; candelabrum, 26 (cut). S. Nicola in Carcere, 5. Oratorium Sanctae Crucis, 163; a new chapel built in 1470, 166. S. Pancrazio, 36, 37. S. Paolo fuori le Mura, 27, 38; the plans of the original and later structures compared, 150 (plate); its size and plan limited by its position, 151; its destruction in 1823, 152 (cut); its exposed situation, 153; fortified by John VIII., 154; the quadri-portico, 155; the grave of S. Paul, 157; the portraits of the Popes, 210; a candelabrum, 239 (cut); the large number of tombs about it, 323. S. Paolo alle Tre Fontane, 156; mosaics, 25 (cut). S. Peter's, 25, 84, 103, 271; its early system of drainage, 121; the abundant literature of the subject, 122; plan of the old church, 128 (plate); Constantine's basilica, 132; plan of the graves of Peter and others, 132 (plate); the Colonna Santa, 133 (cut); the nave in 1588, 134 (cut), 146 (plate); the doors of the atrium, 134; the fountain in the atrium, 135, 136 (cut); the tomb of Otho II., 136; the doors of the church, 137; the interior and roof, 138; the triumphal arch, 139; the baptistery, 139; the chair of S. Peter, 140 (cut); the bronze statue of Peter, 141, 142 (cut); the destruction of the old church and its rebuilding, 143; Grimaldi's account of its progress, 145; the building of the dome, 146 (plate); statistics and measurements, 147; the illumination, 148; the body of S. Peter probably still here, 148; Constantine's cross seen in 1594, 149; the imperial mausoleum on its site, 200 (cut), 202 (plate); excavations in, in 15th and 16th centuries, 202, 203; atrium of the old church, 222 (cut); the tomb of Ceadwalla, 231; the Porticus Pontificum, 233; the tomb of Innocent VIII., 242; of Paul III., 245; panel from the bronze door, 272 (cut). S. Pietro in Montorio, 128. S. Prassede, bodies of martyrs transferred to it, 326. S. Prisca, 111. S. Pudentiana, 109, 112; restored in 1588, 113. SS. Quattro Coronati, 27. S. Saba, 32. S. Salvatore in AErario, 163. Sancta Sanctorum chapel, portrait head of Jesus, 348 (cut). S. Sebastiano, 36. S. Sebastiano, in Pallara, 32. Sistine Chapel, 25. S. Stefano, 41, 178. S. Stefano del Cacco, 97. S. Stefano del Trullo, 99. S. Sylvester, 38. SS. Syxtus and Caecilia, 118. S. Teodoro, altar, 27. S. Tommaso a' Cenci, 180. S. Urbano alla Caffarella, 32, 292, 294 (cut). S. Valentine, 164, 327; the tombs in its cemetery, 323.

Ciborio della santa lancia, 243.

Cippus of Agrippina the Elder, 184 (cut).

Circus of Nero and Caligula, 127.

Clemens, Flavius, martyr, 3, 6, 7.

Clement VIII., 150.

Clement IX., 37.

Clement XI., 48.

Clement XIII., 48; his tomb by Canova, 249, 250 (plate); and the suppression of the Jesuits, 252.

Clivus Rutarius, 270.

Cocumelle, 172.

Coliseum, Christian churches on the site of, 161.

Colonnas, banished from Rome, 179.

Columbaria, 256; the cost of loculi, 257; the three kinds of columbaria, 257; that on the Via Latina owned by shareholders, 258; the loculi drawn by lot, 259; interior, 260 (plate).

Columbus, Christopher, birthplace of, 245 n.

Column of Antoninus, bas-reliefs, 170, 171 (cuts).

Commodus, 313.

Concordia Sagittaria, its cemetery, 323.

Constantia, S., her mausoleum, 199.

Constantine, Emperor, 50; date of his profession of Christianity, 21; relation to his pagan subjects, 22; builds a basilica over the tomb of Peter, 132; his cross on S. Peter's tomb seen in 1594, 149; the memorial chapel of his victory over Maxentius, 163; the battle (front.); statue of, 164 (cut); discovery of his sarcophagus in 1458, 202; the edict of Milan, 314.

Consul suffectus, 10 n.

Convent of the Visitation, 71 n.

Cornelii, their family vaults, 218.

Cornelius, Pope, his tomb, 215 (cut), 218 (plate); portrait, 219 (cut).

Cortile di S. Damaso, 121.

Crassus Frugi, M. Licinius, 277.

Cremation, introduced in the 5th century

of Rome, 255; the ustrinum on the Appian Way, 256.

Crescentius de Theodora, 234.

Crispina, Bruttia, Empress, 10.

Cross of Henry IV. of France, 36.

Crosses, monumental, 35.

Crows, a platform dedicated to, 268.

Cups, 43.

Cybele, 27.

Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, 217.

Cyril, S., fresco showing the translation of his remains, 32 (plate).

Damasus, Pope, 139, 217, 219; his aqueduct, 121; built an oratory to the memory of Simplicius and Faustinus, 333.

Decursiones, 171.

Demetrius, 116.

Dentists, inscriptions from the tombs of, 353 (cuts).

Destruction of Roman monuments in the Middle Ages, 8, 53, 66, 87, 90, 98, 103, 113, 136, 137, 143, 155, 156, 177, 182, 185, 195, 202, 233, 237, 256, 269, 286, 301, 320, 324, 329.

Diocletian, persecution of the Christians, 314.

Diplomata, 91.

Discoveries. See Excavations and discoveries.

Doll, found in the sarcophagus of Crepereia Tryphaena, 305.

Domitian, 5, 6, 281; dedicates the Ara Incendii Neroniani, 84; his birthplace, 193; his death, 193.

Domitilla Flavia, 10; her villa, 335; the catacombs on her estate, 336; her family and relationship, 337.

Domitillae, 3.

Donatists, 21.

Donnus I., Pope, 271.

Drinking cups, 43.

Egeria, grotto of, 293.

Egyptian art, specimens found near the Iseum, 92; its influence in Rome, 239.

Elagabalus, included Christ among the other gods, 13; his extravagances, 131.

Episcopus, a municipal officer, 12.

Epitaphs, 261, 262; on the tombs of the Popes in S. Peter's, 222; on Pope Sylvester II., 237; imprecations expressed in, 262, 317; of Pompeius Magnus Crassi f., 279; of Q. Sulpicius Maximus, 282; of Julia Prisca, 300; of a pilgrim from Thrace, 328; of Aurelius Theophilus, 355.

Eugenius IV., Pope, 92, 138.

Eupor, Fabius, 310.

Excavations and discoveries, in the Campus Martius, 98; in 1374, obelisk of the Piazza della Rotonda, 92; in 1435, Egyptian lions, 92; in 1440, figure of a river-god, 93; in 1458, sarcophagus of Constantine, 202; cir. 1480, temple of Hercules, 69: in 1485, the long-buried body of a woman near the Casale Rotondo, 295, 298 (cut); in 1519, in S. Peter's, 202; in 1527, the mausoleum of Augustus, 182; in 1544, the tomb of Maria in S. Peter's, 203; in 1546, the Baths of Caracalla, 249; in 1549, the temple of Augustus, 103; in 1554, the Ara Pacis Augustae, 82; in 1556, statue of Oceanus, 93; in 1555, house of Pomponius Atticus, 191; in 1578, in the Catacombs, 328; in 1588, fragments of a Laocooen under S. Pudentiana, 113; in 1594, the grave of S. Peter, 150; in 1599, on the Via Latina, 258; in 1614-16, in S. Peter's, 129; in 1660, on the site of the Villa Pamfili-Doria, 269; in 1695-1741, in the Naro vineyard, 276; in 1713-17, in the Catacombs, 330; in 1719, an Isiac altar, 93; Egyptian antiquities, 96; in 1776, near church of S. Prisca, 111; in 1777, the ustrinum under the Corso, 182; in 1780, remains of the temple of Jupiter Maximus, 89; in 1793, in the Via di S. Lucia in Selci, 206; in 1810, silver near Civita Castellana, 207; in 1817, the temple of Concord, 53; in 1817-22, remains of the villa Amaranthiana, by the Duchess of Chablais, 335; in 1820, altar of Aius Locutius, 71; in 1821, at Parma, 207; in 1849-52, near the Appian Way, 215; in 1851, the fresco of the Saviour in the Catacomb ad Duas Lauros, 356; in 1858, Egyptian sculptures, 93; in 1859, the Ara Pacis Augustae, 82; five capitals in the Via di S. Ignazio, 93; in 1862, sarcophagus of Licentius, 14; temple of Hercules, 59; in 1864, a schola of the citizens of Serrae, 41; in 1867, foundations of a memorial chapel to S. Paul, 156; in the cemetery of Callixtus, 318; in the cemetery of Generosa, 332; in 1869, the altar of Roma Quadrata, 71; in 1871, inventory of gifts in the temple of Diana Nemorensis, 54; in 1875, temple of Jupiter Maximus, 85; coins of Nero, under the abbey of the Tre Fontane, 157; in 1876, favissae of the temple of Hercules, 59; in 1877, coins at Belinzago, 208; in 1878, remains of the temple of Neptune, 99; in 1879, fragments of a bedstead (?) on the Esquiline, 208; in 1880-82, in the Catacombs ad Duas Lauros, 354; in 1881, shrine of Semo Sancus, 105; in the catacombs of Domitilla, 342; in 1883, mensae ponderariae, at Tivoli, 40; Egyptian remains from the temple of Isis, 92, 94; in 1884, house of Vegetus, 192; in the Via di Porta Salaria, 276; in 1885, temple of Diana Nemorensis, by Lord Savile, 59; in the Villa Bertone, 283; in 1886, a stonecutter's house, under the Palazzo della Banca Naz., 240; in 1886-87, altar of Dis and Proserpina, 75; in 1887, on the Corso d' Italia, 276; in 1888, crypt of the Acilii Glabriones, 4, 8; in 1889, ex-votos at Veii, by the Empress of Brazil, 65; under the new Halls of Justice, 301; in 1890, inscriptions describing the Secular games, 73.

Exedrae, 42.

Ex-votos, found on the sites of temples, 58; anatomical specimens, 62; shops for the sale of, 62; deposits found near the Tiber, 62.

Faliscan Museum, 354.

Farnesina gardens, house discovered in, 263, 264 (plate).

Favissae, 58.

Flavians, the members of the family who became Christians, 337; their crypt in the Catacombs of Domitilla, 316 (cut), 330, 336

Flowers, feasts of, in ancient times, 49.

Fortunatus, S., 360.

Forum Julium, 54; Romanum, Caligula's bridge, 101; Olitorium, 5; Trajanum, the earth taken from it placed over the cemetery of the Via Salaria, 284.

Foundation of a city, ceremonies of, 70.

Fountain, in the atrium of S. Peter's, 135, 136 (cut); in front of S. Paolo, 155.

Frescos. See Paintings.

Funeral ceremonies and memorial feasts, 117, 171. See also Burial.

Funerary banquets, 42.

Funeraticia collegia, 116.

Furnilla, Marcia, wife of Titus, 207; statue (plate).

Gauls, their invasion foretold by a mysterious voice, 72.

Genesius, S., 360.

Germano, Padre, 158.

Geta, remains of his mausoleum, 196 (cut).

Giardino delle Tre Pile, 101.

Glabrio, Manius Acilius, consul A. D. 91, 5; his martyrdom, 6.

Glabriones, Acilii, discovery of their burial place, 4; history of the family, 5.

Gods, the name and sex of those little known, seldom mentioned, 72.

Goths, their pillage of the Catacombs, 324.

Graecina, Pomponia, a Christian convert, 9.

Graffiti, evidence on the position of the church, 12; in the catacombs, 42, 219, 327, 356.

Granaries, 44; belonging to the church, 46; the grain sold by Pope Sabinianus, 47; the institution long survived, 48; the granary at Ostia, 47 (cut).

Great litany, 165.

Greek language used by the church, 216.

Gregorian chant, 229.

Gregorovius, Ferdinand, 213.

Gregory I. (the Great), 47; his tomb, 221, 223; statue of, 225 (cut); his work, 228; the monastery founded by him, 229, 230 (cut); in the basilica of Nereus and Achilleus, 345.

Gregory XIII., Pope, 48.

Grimaldi, 122.

Hadrian, Emperor, 49, 99; attitude toward Christianity, 11.

Hadrian's Mole, and apartments built by Paul III., 247.

Hair, restoration of, ascribed to Minerva, 63.

Haran, or Charan, 355.

Helena, tomb of, 197 (cut), 198 (plate).

Henry IV. of France, column of, 36.

Hercules, 104; labors of, 25; bronze statue of, 69.

Hermes Trismegistos, 25.

Hermione, Claudia, her tomb, 129.

Herod, King, profaned the tomb of David, 205.

Herodes Atticus. See Atticus.

Hierones, 67.

Hippolytus, statue of, 141, 143 (cut).

Hispellum, temple dedicated to Constantine, 22.

Honorius I., Pope, 137.

Horace, the Carmen Saeculare, 78, 81.

Horrea publica, 44; advertisement for leasing and regulations for use found, 45.

House of a patrician, discovered in the Farnesina gardens, 263 (cut).

Improvvisatori, 281, 283.

Innocent VIII., Pope, his tomb, 145, 242 (plate).

Inscription, to Acilius Glabrio (cut), 4; to Pomponius, 9; found near Porta del Popolo in 1877, 15 (cut); to M. Anneus Paulus Petrus, 16 (cut); to Publia AElia Proba, 19; to Petro Lilluti Paulo, 18 n; on arch of Constantine, 20; on the pyramid of Louis XIV., 36; on the column of Henry IV., 37 n; in baths of the churches of SS. Sylvester and Martin, 38; in temple of Hercules; Tivoli, 40; on pagan tombs relating to libations, 42; inventory of works of art in the temple of Diana Nemorensis, 55; tariff for sacrifices, 57; mentioning the Roma Quadrata, 71; altar of Aius Locutius, 72; to the Genius of Rome, 72; descriptive of the Ludi Saeculares, 73, 79 (text in appendix); of the Ara Incendii Neroniani, 84; on the foundation walls of the temple of Jupiter, 88; pedestal of statue of Semo Sancus, 106; on the label of a dog's collar, 153; S. Paul's tombstone, 157 (cut); spurious inscriptions, 301; the immense number that have been lost, 320; military inscriptions, from the Praetorian camp, 351. See, also, Epitaphs; Graffiti.

Iseum. See Temple of Isis.

Isis, altar to, in church of Aracoeli, 27; statue of, 55.

Italians, tolerant in matters of religion, 16.

Januarius, S., his grave in the Catacombs, 322 (cut).

Jerome, S., on the celebration of S. Peter's day, 44.

Jesuits, expelled from Portugal, Spain, and France, 251.

Jews, position in the Roman Empire, 12; toleration enjoyed in Rome, 16, 309; responsible for the first Christian persecution, 311.

Johannipolis, 153.

John III., Pope, 38.

John VIII., Pope, builds the defences of S. Paolo, 154; defeats the Saracens off Cape Circeo, 154

John X., Pope, death and burial, 235.

Jubilee of 1350, 166.

Julian the Apostate, 355.

Jupiter, statue of, in Constantine, Algeria, 56.

Labyrinths, in church pavements, 31.

Lamps, ornamented with figure of the Good Shepherd, 18 (cut); found in the Catacombs, 218.

Lance, Holy, story of, 243.

Laocooen, fragments found under the church of S. Pudentiana, 113.

Lateran museum, 141.

Lateran palace, its early occupation by the Church, 21.

Leo I. (the Great), 155; his tomb, 223.

Leo IV., Pope, 137.

Leo X., Pope, 93.

Leto, Pomponio, his academy, 359.

Licentius, a pupil of S. Augustine, his career, 14; his tomb discovered, 14.

Licinianus, Calpurnius, 278.

Licinii Calpurnii, their tomb, 276; their history, 277.

Linus, the successor of Peter and Paul, 125; his tomb discovered, 130.

Lipsanotheca, 166.

Locanda della Gaiffa, 181.

Loretto, Santa Casa, 25.

Louis XIV., pyramid of, in Rome, 36.

Love-feasts, 42.

Lucca, Cathedral, 31.

Lucina, a Christian matron, 9.

Ludi saeculares. See Secular games.

Ludi Tarentini, 75.

Luke, cardinal, his tomb, 159.

Mamertine prison, 163.

Map of Rome, the author's, 163 n.

Marius, pillages the ruins of the Temple of Jupiter, 87.

Mark, Pope, 50.

Marriages, mixed, in pagan Rome, 15; Tertullian on, 15.

Martial, Valerius, house of, 192.

Martyrs, early, 3; their alleged stupidity, 7; stones said to be tied to the necks of, 39, 41; love-feasts celebrated near their tombs, 42; their tombs decorated with flowers, 49; their burial and tombs, 119; scene of the first martyrdoms, 127; churches connected with their houses, 158; their tombs in the Catacombs, 322; their bodies translated from suburban cemeteries to the city, 325; bas-relief representing an execution, 339 (cut).

Mausolea. See Tombs.

Mellini, Pietro and Mario, 166.

Memoriae, 42.

Messalina, 277.

Meta, its signification lost, 128.

Meta di Borgo, 27.

Michael, archangel, summits of hills consecrated to, 226; the statue on the mausoleum of Hadrian, 227, 228 (cut).

Michelangelo, his first design for S. Peter's, 146.

Military inscriptions from the Praetorian camp, 351.

Military service of Christians under the Roman Empire, 18.

Minerva in Christian art, 25; honored as a restorer of hair, 63.

Monastery of S. Alessio, 235; of S. Andrew, 229, 230 (cut).

Monte Mario, 165.

Monte Testaccio, 181.

Mosaics, in church of S. Paolo alle Tre Fontane, 25; in church of S. Andrea, 29 (cut); in church of S. Pudentiana, 113; in S. Peter's, 139.

Mundus muliebris, 204.

Museo delle Terme, 268.

Museums. See Capitoline, Lateran, Vatican; also dei Conservatori, under Palaces.

Music, religious, school of, established by Gregory, 229.

Naples, church of the Olivetans, 25.

Nemi, the site of a temple of Diana, 60 (cut).

Neptunium. See Temple of Neptune, 99.

Nereus and Achilleus, martyrs, 337.

Nero, 127, 287; relation to Christianity, 11; deserted by the legions, 185; head of, 186 (cut); his flight and death, 187; his funeral, 189; his tomb, 189.

Nerva, 177.

Nicomachus Flavianus, attempt to restore paganism, 97.

Oaths, 105.

Obelisks, discovered in Rome, 92, 97, 172; of Rameses the Great, discovered in 1883, 95.

Oils, 218.

Oratories, private, of the early Christians, 109.

Orientation of churches, 120, 152.

Orpheus, in Christian art, 23 (cut).

Ossaria, 256.

Ostia, imperial palace at, 25; granary at, 47 (cut).

Otho II., his tomb, 136.

Pacuvius, 69.

Paetus, Lucilius, tomb of, 283.

Pagan rites and customs adopted by the Church, 23.

Paintings, fresco in S. Clemente, translation of Cyril's remains, 32 (plate); in a patrician house in the Farnesina gardens, 263, 264 (plate), 265 (cut); in the Catacombs, discovered in 1714, 330; in the Villa Amaranthiana, 335; of the Saviour with SS. Paul and Peter in the Catacomb ad Duas Lauros, 356; of the story of Jonah and the Symbolic Supper, 356, 357 (cut); illustrations of the Gospel in the Catacombs, 358; battle between Constantine and Maxentius, frontispiece.

Palaces: Albani del Drago, 30; Altieri, 101; Caffarelli, 85; dei Conservatori, 30, 53, 77, 100, 185 (see also Capitoline museum); Farnese, 100; Fiano, 82; Lateran (see Lateran); Maraini, 280; Moroni, 88; Odescalchi, 100.

Pammachius, 158.

Pantheon, 56.

Parenzo, Dalmatia, basilica of, 30.

Paschal I., Pope, 326.

Passion-plays in Rome, 181.

Paul, the apostle, his friendship with Seneca, 17; silver-gilt statue of, 26; proofs of his death in Rome, 123; position of his tomb, 151; place of his execution, 156; his grave and tombstone, 157 (cut); portrait head, 212 (cut); his liberty to preach in Rome, 311; his friend Ampliatus, 343; his body transferred temporarily to the Catacombs, 345.

Paul, S., basilica of. See S. Paolo fuori le Mura, under Churches.

Paul and Peter, names on a pagan tomb, 16.

Paul III., tomb, 245; character, 246; his patronage of art, 247; his apartments on Hadrian's Mole, 247; and Cellini, 247; excavates the Baths of Caracalla, 249.

Paul V., Pope, 48, 136, 144.

Paulinus of Nola, 43; his epistles to Licentius, 14.

Pavements, basilica of Parenzo, 30.

Pavia, Church of S. Michele Maggiore, 31.

Pelagius II., Pope, 121.

Pentecost, celebration of, 50.

Perpetua, Acts of, 49.

Persecution under Claudius, 310; under Nero, 312; under later emperors, 313; under Diocletian, 314.

Peter, S., celebration of the feast of, 43; his presence in Rome proved by documents, 123; by monumental evidence, 125; the exact place of his execution determined, 127; his tomb, 129; his chair, 140 (cut); the bronze statue, 141, 142 (cut); his body probably still under the altar in his church, 148; portrait head, 212 (cut); his body transferred temporarily to the Catacombs, 345.

Peter and Paul, houses connected with their stay in Rome, 110, 112.

Petronilla, 3, 200; her burial-place, 340; represented in a fresco, 341 (cut); not a daughter of S. Peter, 342.

Phaon, Nero's flight to villa of, 186; remains of villa of, 188 (map).

Philip the Arab, Emperor, a Christian, 13.

Philip the Younger, son of Philip the Arab, bust, 13 (cut).

Piacenza, church of S. Sevino, 31; votive tablet to Minerva found at, 63.

Piazza di S. Maria Maggiore, 172, 182; di Santa Maria in Trastevere, 220; della Minerva, 95, 97; del Pantheon, 95; di Pietra, 99; del Quirinale, 172; della Rotonda, 92, 97; della Stazione, 97; di Termini, 48.

Pilate, house of, 180.

Pincian Hill, palace of the Acilii Glabriones, 5.

Piso Frugi Licinianus, L. Calpurnius, 277.

Platorinus, C. Sulpicius, his tomb, 265, 268 (plate).

Poetical contests on the Capitol, 282.

Polla, Lucilia, tomb of, 283.

Polla, Minasia, 267 (plate).

Pompeius Magnus, son of Licinius Crassus, 277; his epitaph, 279.

Pomponius Laetus, 246; his academy, 359.

Ponderaria, in churches, 39.

Pons Vaticanus, 126.

Ponte Nomentano, 187 (cut).

Pontius, Bishop, 167.

Popes, their portraits in the basilicas of Rome, 209; their tombs, 213.

Porta Sanqualis, 104.

Portico of the Argonauts, 99; of church of S. Paolo, 156; of the Danaids, 71, 80.

Poseidonion. See Temple of Neptune.

Praesens, Bruttius, 10.

"Preaching of Peter," 124.

Priscilla, wife of Abascantus, tomb of, 300.

Pudens, 110; his house, 112, 114 (cut), 115 (cut).

Pudens, L. Valerius, 282.

Pyramids on the Via Triumphalis, 271.

Quadragesima Sunday, 50.

Quietus, Postumius, 9.

Quindecemviri, call for the celebration of the Secular games, 75.

Ravenna, church of S. Vitale, 31.

Regilla, Annia, wife of Herodes Atticus, 290; her supposed tomb, 291 (cut).

Renaissance, the interest in archaeology, 101.

Renzo di Maitano, 32.

Rhodismos, 49.

Ricci, Lorenzo, 252.

Rienzi, 155; his funeral pyre, 179; his birthplace, 180.

Robigalia, 165.

Roma Quadrata, 70.

Rome, its transformation to a Christian city, 1; early Christian buildings, 3; the freedom enjoyed by the church, 11; the change gradual, 19; evidences of it, 20; artistic feeling among the lower classes, 32; substitution of chapels and shrines for the arae compitales, 33; monumental crosses, 35; warehouses, 44; the calamities of the year 605, 46; pagan shrines and temples, 51; capture by the Gauls, B. C. 390, 73; the conflagration under Nero, 83; occupation by the Saracens in 846, 149; the author's archaeological map of, 163 n.; population under Augustus, 175; public improvements in his time, 176; the city in the time of Gregory the Great, 226; the charming surroundings of the city, 286; the invasions of the Goths in the 5th and 6th centuries, 324; the itineraries of pilgrims, 327.