Every boy knows that a baseball team consists of nine players, the positions being pitcher, catcher, first base, second base, third base, and shortstop, which are called the in-field, and right-field, centre-field, and left-field, which positions are called the out-field. The umpire has a very important position in baseball, as his decisions in a close game may result either in defeat or victory for a team. An umpire should always be some one who knows the rules thoroughly and who is not too greatly interested in either team. He should always try to be fair, and having once made a decision be sure enough of himself to hold to it even if the whole opposing team may try by "kicking" to cause him to change. Much of the rowdyism in baseball can be attributed to this cause. A good ball player is first of all a boy or man who shows himself to be a gentleman under, all circumstances.

In baseball, like many games where winning is sometimes the important thing rather than fair play, the real benefits of the game are lost sight of in the desire to have a higher score than one's opponents. Probably the most clean-cut games are played by school and college teams, which should always be strictly amateur.

The pitcher has the most important position on the team. If by his skill he is able to deceive the opposing batsmen and cause them to strike out or to make feeble hits, the rest of the team will have but little to do except of course to bat when their turn comes and try to score runs. Baseball has become a very scientific game in recent years and the sustained interest in it year after year is largely due to the fact that the regular attendants at a game have learned to understand and to appreciate the finer points of the game almost as well as the players themselves. While it might appear to a beginner that the battery does all the work in a game, as a matter of fact every man on the nine is supposed to do his part in backing up every play and to be in the right place at the right time.



A good pitcher must be able to pitch a curved ball. This art will only come with constant practice. Until about forty years ago a curve was unknown. In the old days the number of runs scored in a game was very high, it being a common thing for a winning team to make twenty to thirty runs. The rules of baseball are changed frequently and almost every change has been made with a view to restricting the batsman. As a consequence, in modern games the scores are very low and sometimes neither side will score a single run in a tie game of ten or twelve innings.



In modern baseball a team that plays together frequently has a prearranged code of signals that are understood by each member of the team. It is very important for every player on a side to know whether the pitcher intends to deliver a high or a low ball or one that may either be batted well into the out-field or probably be a grounder that will be taken care of by some one on the in-field. Of course these things do not always work out as is planned. The pitcher may not have good control of the ball or pitch wild, the catcher may make a bad "muff" and let the ball get by him, or what we expect to be a bunted ball may be a home run, but all of this is part of the sport and helps to make baseball one of the most interesting and exciting of games. In any case there is no question that nine boys who are accustomed to play together and who understand each other's methods of play and signals will have a better chance of winning a close game than nine other players who may have a shade the better of it in individual work but who do not play together.

Most games are won or lost in a single instant at a crucial moment when some one fails to make good, or who, usually in the case of a pitcher, lets up on his speed or accuracy just at the critical time. The National Championship of 1908 was decided in favour of Chicago because one of New York's players in the deciding game of the season failed to touch second base when the last man was out. The game had been won by New York except for this mistake, and the result was that another game was played, which Chicago won before the largest crowd that probably ever assembled to witness a game of baseball.

When a baseball team is organized, the first thing to do is to elect a captain from one of the players, and after this is decided every boy on the team should give him absolute support and obedience. A team should also have a manager whose duties are to arrange games with other teams of the same class, to arrange for the transportation of players and, in fact, to attend to all the business duties of games that come outside of actual playing. Usually a boy is chosen for manager who is not a ball player himself, but who has shown an interest in the team. The captain should be a boy who first of all knows the game and who has the respect and cooperation of the other players. The position that he may play on the team is not so important, but usually it is better to have some one from the in-field as captain, as he will be in a better position to keep close watch on the progress of the game and to give directions to the other players.

In case of a disputed point it is better to allow your captain to make a protest if such is necessary. Observance of this rule will prevent much of the rowdyism that has characterized the game of baseball. No boy should ever attempt to win games by unfair tactics. The day of tripping, spiking, and holding is gone. If you are not able by your playing to hold up your end on a ball team you had better give up the game and devote your attention to something that you can do without being guilty of rowdyism.

Strict rules of training are not as necessary for baseball players as for some other branches of sport, because the game is not so strenuous nor does it involve such sustained physical exertion, but any boy will make a better ball player as well as a better man if he observes the rules of training, such as early hours for retiring, simple food, and regular systematic exercise.

The battery of a team is an exception to the rule regarding strict training. Both the pitcher and catcher should be in the best physical condition. A pitcher who stands up for nine innings is obliged to do a tremendous amount of work and if he becomes tired or stiff toward the end of the game he will probably be at the mercy of the opposing batsmen.

Usually the pitcher of a team is a boy who is physically strong and who can stand hard work. The other positions, however, are usually assigned because of the build of the individual player. The pitcher, however, may be tall or short, fat or thin, so long as he can pitch.

The pitcher is the most important member of a ball team. Most of the work falls to him, and a good pitcher, even with a comparatively weak team behind him, can sometimes win games where a good team with a weak pitcher would lose. A good pitcher must first of all have a cool head and keep his nerve even under the most trying circumstances. He must also have good control of the ball and be able to pitch it where he wants it to go. After that he must have a knowledge of curves and know how by causing the ball to spin in a certain way to cause it to change its course and thus to deceive the batsman. The art of curving a ball was discovered in 1867. Before that time all that a pitcher needed was a straight, swift delivery. The three general classes of curved balls used to-day are the out-curve, the in-curve, and the drop. There are also other modifications called "the fade away," "the spitball," and others. Curve pitching will only come with the hardest kind of practice.

In general the spin is given to the ball by a certain use of the fingers and the method of releasing it. It is necessary to conceal your intentions from the batsman in preparing to deliver a curve or he will divine your intention and the effort may be wasted. All curves are produced by a snap of the wrist at the instant of releasing the ball. Excellent practice may be had in curving by pitching at a post from a sixty-foot mark and watching to see the effect of various twists and snaps. Pitching is extremely hard on the arm and practice should be very light at first until the muscles become hardened. Even the best professional pitchers are not worked as a rule oftener than two or three games a week.

A good baseball captain always tries to develop several pitchers from his team. It is of course very desirable to have a "star pitcher" who can be depended on, but if the star should happen to be ill or to injure his fingers on a hot liner or for some reason cannot play, unless there is a substitute, the effect of his absence on his team will be to demoralize it. For that reason every encouragement should be given to any boy who wants to try his hand at pitching. If a game is well in hand it is usually safe to put in a substitute pitcher to finish it. This is done in college teams for the reason that no amount of practice is quite like playing in an actual game.

It may be said to guide the beginner that the method of producing curves varies greatly with different pitchers, but that in general the out-curve is produced by grasping the ball with the first and second fingers and the thumb. The grip for this curve should be tight and the back of the hand turned downward. The out-curve can be produced either with a fast ball or a slow one.

For the in-curve a swinging sidearm motion is used, the ball being released over the tips of the first two fingers with a snap to set it spinning. It may also be produced by releasing the ball over all four fingers.

The grip of the ball for the drop is very similar to the out-curve, but in delivery the hand is brought almost directly over the shoulder. In all curves the pitcher must have extremely sensitive fingers and be able to control them with almost as much skill as one requires in playing a piano. We must keep in mind which way we desire the ball to spin to produce the required curve and then to give it just as much of this spin as we can without interfering with our accuracy.

No two pitchers will have the same form or manner of delivery. In learning to pitch, the main thing is to adopt the delivery that seems most natural to you without especial regard to form, and with no unnecessary motions.

A pitcher must always be on the alert and keep a close watch on the bases when they are occupied. He must not, however, allow the remarks of coacher or spectators to cause him to become rattled or confused. Baseball at best is a noisy game, and a pitcher who is sensitive to outside remarks or joshing will never be a real success.

The catcher is usually a short, stocky player with a good reach and a quick, accurate throw. He is usually the acting general in a game and signals to the whole team. The principal test of a good catcher is to be able to make a quick, swift throw to second base without being obliged to draw his arm fully back. Such a ball is snapped from the wrist and should be aimed to catch the base runner who is attempting to steal the base. This play is very common in ball games, and as there is only a difference of an instant in the time that it takes a runner to go from first base to second, who starts just as the pitcher delivers the ball, and the time it takes a pitched ball to be caught by the catcher and snapped to second, a game may be won or lost just on this play alone. If the opposing team finds that it can make second in safety by going down with the pitcher's arm, it will surely take full advantage of the knowledge. To have a man on second is disconcerting to the pitcher as well as a difficult man to handle. It therefore follows that a catcher who cannot throw accurately to the bases becomes a serious disadvantage to his team. In the old days a catcher had to be able to catch either with bare hand or with a light glove, but the modern catcher's mitt, mask, chest-protector, and shin-guards make the position far safer, and almost any boy who is quick and has nerve can be trained to become a fairly good catcher so long as he has a good throw and is a good general.

The first baseman is usually a tall boy who is active and who can cover his position both in reaching for high balls and in picking up grounders. Of course in a baseball score the first baseman will score the largest number of "put outs," because practically all he is obliged to do is to cover the base and to catch the ball before the runner gets there. It is in fielding his position and in pulling down balls that are thrown wildly that the first baseman can show his chief skill.

The positions of second base and shortstop are practically the same, and these two players should understand each other perfectly and know just when to cover the base and when to back up the other. Neglect of this precaution often results in the most stupid errors, which are discouraging alike to the team and the spectators. Both players should be quick and active, with an ability to throw both over and under handed as well as to toss the ball after picking it up on the run. The shortstop is often the smallest man on a team, due no doubt to the theory that his work is largely in picking up grounders.

The shortstop is often led into habits which are commonly known as "grand-stand plays"; that is, he attempts to make difficult plays or one-handed stops with an unnecessary display of motions, to bring the applause of the spectators. No ball player was ever made by playing to the audience. Good form is not only very desirable but very necessary, but the main thing in ball playing is to play your part and to forget that there is such a thing as an audience or applause. If your form is good so much the better, but if by paying too much attention to it you miss the ball and score an error, your team may suffer defeat on account of your pride. The main thing is to get the ball and after that to to do it as gracefully as possible. One-handed stops are well enough when you cannot get both hands on the ball, but an error made in this way is not only the most humiliating kind but also the most inexcusable.

It must not be inferred that grand-stand playing is confined to the shortstop. Any member of the team can be guilty of it. No player, no matter how good he may be, should be allowed to hold his position on a team unless he is willing to do his best at all times and unless he feels that the game is not lost nor won until the last man is out.

Many experienced players consider that the most difficult position to play well is third base. This player has to be ready for slow bunts as well as hard drives; he must cover a lot of ground and try to get every ball that comes near him. At the same time he must cover his base to stop the base runner from advancing home. He will be obliged to stop hot liners with one hand and often while on the run to make an accurate throw to first base.

Out-fielders are usually chosen because of their ability to bat as well as to be quick on their feet and catch fly balls on the run. Fielders should practise if possible to catch the ball in a throwing position, so that no unnecessary time may be lost in getting the ball back to the in-field. Of the three fielding positions, right-field is by far the most important. He must be sure of ground balls as well as flies and also, in common with all the fielders, be a good judge of the batsmen and try to be where the batted ball is going. The centre-fielder must be especially quick on his feet, as he is expected to back up both shortstop and second base as well as to run in for line hits that just go over the in-fielders' heads. The ability to start quickly when running for a ball can be greatly developed by practice and will greatly improve the player's game.

Very often a fly ball will fall in such a position that the out-fielders will be in doubt who is to take it. The result is usually a collision, a missed ball and a chorus of groans from the spectators. The remedy for this is to arrange beforehand for the second baseman to call out who in the case of a doubtful ball is to take it. All of these things are part of the finer points of the game and will only come from practice. A boy who really desires to become proficient in his position will try to avoid changing from one position to another, but decide which position he likes to play best or is best fitted for and try to get all the practice possible. An excellent opportunity will come from studying the methods of a good player in the same position, noting carefully what he does on each play, how he backs up the other players and how he fits in the general plan of team work.

It is a great advantage to any player to learn as much as he can about the skill and methods of his opponents. Some men cannot hit a low ball or a high one, some will flinch when the ball comes close to them, giving the pitcher a chance to deliver a straight, swift ball over the inside of the plate, which the umpire will call a strike even though the batsman devotes all of his energy to getting out of the way.

A left-handed thrower will seldom make a success as a ball player except as pitcher or on first base. Left-handed batsmen, however, are a distinct advantage to a team, as nothing will so disconcert a green pitcher as to have batsmen standing first on one side of the plate and then on the other.

Every boy who plays baseball must know the rules thoroughly to be a success. It is in this way that advantage of every fair opportunity can be taken. Nothing is so disheartening to a team as to lose a closely contested game on a technicality of rules.

Batting and base running are two departments of the game where one member of the team is as important as another. A good batsman must have a quick eye and a quick brain. When he decides to strike at a ball he must not change his mind and simply swing at it feebly after it is in the catcher's hands. The best batters are not those who hit the ball the hardest. Judgment in placing hits is far more important than trying to knock out a home run every time you are at the bat. You must remember that the pitcher is studying your batting methods and you must try just as hard to deceive him as he is trying to deceive you. Many a game has been won by a man who knew how to wait at the bat instead of swinging wildly at everything just for fear of having strikes called.

When you hit the ball there is only one rule—run. You will very soon find out whether the ball is fair or foul or whether there is any chance of making first base. A base runner should never stop trying to make a base until the ball is in the hands of the baseman. One never can tell when a ball may be fumbled or muffed.

A baseball diamond should be a part of a town just as is the public square or a town hall. The distance between the bases should be ninety feet and the four base-lines should form a square and all the angles should be right angles. The three bases should be canvas bags filled with sawdust and fastened to their positions by pegs that are driven into the ground. The home plate should if possible be a piece of whitened rubber. A board securely fastened will do.



The pitcher's box should be denoted by a strip of wood or rubber 24 inches long and 6 inches wide. This and home plate should be buried so that they are flush with the surface of the field. The pitcher's box on a full-sized field is exactly 60-1/2 feet from home plate.

The standard baseball is the kind used by professional players. It is covered with horsehide, and is warranted to last an entire game without ripping or getting out of shape. Baseball bats are made of a variety of woods, the common materials being ash, willow, and hickory. A bat must not exceed 2-3/4 inches in thickness at its thickest part. There are a great many shapes and models named after the professional players who use them. The shape of a bat does not make as much difference as some poor batters are inclined to think. The manufacturers of sporting goods make all the accessories for playing baseball both in men's and boys' sizes. Every ball player should own his own mitt or glove and become accustomed to it. The same is true of his bat.

The art of becoming a good ball player depends largely on the boy himself. No one plays ball naturally. It all comes with practice, and it follows that the more practice we can get the better ball players we shall become. It is a game where a loss of nerve is absolutely fatal to good work. A player must keep his head no matter how trying the circumstances may be. Cool-headedness is especially important and the surest way to develop it is to be just as indifferent to the criticism of the crowd or your fellow-players, so long as you know that you have done your best, as you should be to their applause. Just play the game for all there is in it, and you will be sure to become a moderately good player even though you may not be a star. In field practice, when some one is batting out balls to you, try just as hard to stop and field each ball that comes within reach as you would if the result of the game depended on it. It is only by this means that you can hope to become a finished ball player. You can never learn by lying around in the shade and telling your friends how good you are going to be in the coming match game.

A regularly organized ball team should always adopt some club colours and be provided with uniforms. Very good ones complete with shirt, pants, stockings, belt, and cap can be purchased of sporting goods outfitters for two or three dollars a suit (when ordered in lots of nine or more). They can also sometimes be made more cheaply at home if mothers and sisters are willing. The shirt should always be lettered with the name or initials of the team. Baseball shoes are usually provided with steel plates or leather knobs. Spikes are very dangerous and should not be permitted. The regulation baseball shoe reaches just under the instep.

The rules of baseball are too long and complicated to be published here. Almost every year many important changes are made to improve the sport and to make it harder for the batsmen to make runs. All of this tends to make the game more interesting and to develop it from a scientific side.

When a team is playing away from its home grounds the choice of innings—i.e., who is to bat first—goes to the home team.

A game consists of nine full innings unless called by rain, darkness or for some other cause. If five complete innings have been played when the game stops, the score always stands and the team ahead is declared the winner. In case of a tie at the end of the game the play continues until at the completion of a full inning one team is ahead. That ends the game and the team ahead is the winner.

In arranging games with visiting teams it is customary to make some arrangement as to expenses, share of gate receipts or other guarantee. It is very important in order to avoid unpleasant disputes to have this matter fully understood and agreed upon by the managers of each team before the game starts.

On account of fences, houses, and other obstacles that some baseball fields have it is customary for the umpire to decide what are called "ground rules" before the game starts. The principal thing that mars a good game of ball next to kicking and wrangling is the tendency of the crowd to get on the field and to interfere with the players. An easy remedy for this is simply to call the game until the spectators take their proper places.

Baseball is a good game if it is properly played. It is unfortunate that so many amateur games are spoiled because some of the players lose their tempers in their anxiety to have their wrongs righted. No matter how good a ball player a boy is he will never get the real benefit of the game unless he remembers that it is not the one who loses his temper but "he who ruleth his spirit" that is really entitled to the respect of his fellows. Make up your mind to abide by the decision of the umpire just as a soldier obeys the orders of his superior officer. It is the easiest thing in the world for an umpire to make a mistake, but he will be far less likely to correct his errors if nine angry boys are all talking to him at once than if your captain quietly goes to him with the rules or the facts behind him and states the case. It is an old saying but none the less true that "oil catches more flies than vinegar."

A boy who has developed a healthy interest in baseball while young will probably never lose it in after life even though his opportunities to play or even to see a game are few. I once met a mining man in the interior of Mexico, a hundred miles from a railroad and in a town where only three people spoke the English language, and this man had not been to his home town in ten years, but he had followed his baseball team through the papers all those years and could tell you more about the players than many a man living in the town where the team played.

Such a man is what the newspapers call a "fan," which is an abbreviation of the word "fanatic." There is no harm in being a baseball enthusiast, provided that we do not allow it to interfere with our work or allow our desire to witness games to take the place of systematic exercise for ourselves.



XVI

HOW TO PLAY FOOTBALL

The various positions and how to select men for them—Team, work and signals—The rules

Football is usually played in the fall of the year because the exercise that it involves is so violent that to attempt it at any other time would probably result in injury to the players. The cool, frosty days of October and November make baseball out of season, and such weather is ideal for football.

So much has been said and written about the dangers of football as a sport that many parents have strong objections to permitting their sons to play. There is no question that it is a hard game and not suited to weaklings, but a strong, healthy boy can play football under proper conditions and with proper training quite as safely as he can do many other things to which parents raise no objections, such as wrestling, climbing trees, playing hockey, or even performing difficult feats of gymnastics or acrobatics in a gymnasium. Every year there are a number of serious accidents from football, but there are also injuries from other games, and people are injured who play no games at all, so it simply is a question whether we are willing to take the chances of a sprained ankle or broken bone for the love of one of the best of outdoor sports.



The recent changes in rules have made football a much safer game than it was in the early nineties, when such plays as the "flying wedge" and line bucking were practically all there was to the game. To any one who does not understand football it seems as though it were played with practically no science and with but few rules. As a matter of fact a well-coached college team will sometimes have sixty or seventy separate plays each of which has been carefully practised and which requires each man on the team to do something to help make the play successful, while on the other hand each man on the opposing team is doing his best to cause the play to fail. The result to any one not understanding the game is simply a confused mass of struggling men and a final tumble with a pile of legs and arms flying about.

The American game of football called Rugby is a development of the English game, but the present game is very different from the English game of soccer or association football, in which kicking predominates and where a round ball is used instead of the oval-shaped American football.

Numerous efforts have been made to introduce the game of soccer into this country, but the long popularity of the American game and the strong support that has been given to it by the colleges have prevented soccer from gaining much of a foothold.

Football is played by two opposing teams of eleven men each. The positions are right and left end, right and left tackle, right and left guard, centre rush, quarter-back, right and left half-backs and full-back.

The manner in which they line up is shown in the accompanying diagram.

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 l.e. l.t. l.g. c. r.g. r.t. r.e.

0 q.

0 0 l.h.-b. r.h.-b.

0 f-b.

The weight and size of the men on a football team largely govern the positions where they play. The centre rush and the two guards are usually the heaviest men on the team, as extra weight in the centre of the line is important to prevent what is called "bucking the centre." The two tackles should be strong, stocky players, not too tall, but still with sufficient weight to enable them to keep their feet in a mass play and to offer strong resistance to a united attack on their position. They should also be quick and agile and be able to advance the ball by rushing when called upon. The two ends must be fleet of foot and quick, sure tacklers. With the constant changes in football rules the position of end has become more and more important, until now a team with weak, slow ends is almost like a baseball team with a poor pitcher.

Many people regard the position of quarter-back as the most important on the team. He is virtually the field captain. A good quarter-back must be an all around player of the highest order. He must first of all have a good head and be able to run off the plays of his team without confusion. He must keep his head under the most trying circumstances. He must watch for weak places in the opposing team and direct the play of his men against them. He must offer encouragement to his own team and be always on the alert to capture a fumbled ball, stop a runner who has eluded the tacklers or to catch a punt that may come within his reach. In nearly all the big college games the quarter-back is one of the star players. The nature of his many duties is such that he is forced to be a grand-stand player and to be conspicuous even though he may not desire to. In running back punts the quarter-back will often be used because he is sure in catching them, which is a matter of the greatest importance. And all of this work is required of a man who is usually the smallest, lightest man on the team and who alongside of the giant guards and centre sometimes looks like a pigmy. There is no higher honour in football than to be a good all around quarter-back.

The half-backs are chosen because of their speed and their ability to advance the ball and to elude the tackling of the opposing team. They come in for a very large share of the work and must be boys of superior strength and agility.

Next to the quarter-back the player of the greatest importance is full-back. His duty first of all is to attend to the kicking end of the game. For that reason he must practise constantly both with punts and drop kicks and be able to put the ball between the goal-posts from all angles and distances within reason. A great many games are won by a good drop kicker making a field goal at a critical time, and such a man is of the highest value to a team. As drop kicking, like pitching in baseball, comes largely from practice, the captain or manager of a team should see to it that any member of his team who shows any ability at all in this department should be given every opportunity and encouragement to develop his skill. A good drop kicker can be used temporarily from almost any position in the line, whether he be guard, tackle or end. As a rule, however, the full-back is the player who does most of the kicking. He must also be a good line bucker and be able to gain the required distance when called upon.

In general, then, we choose the three centre men because of their weight, the tackles and ends for speed and ability in tackling, the quarter-back for his all around ability and his generalship, the half-backs because of their skill in rushing the ball, and the full-back for the kicking department. Any man on the team may be chosen captain. As his work is largely done in practice and in perfecting plays, unless a team is in the hands of a coach it is better not to add the duties of captain to the already overburdened quarter-back. Otherwise he is the logical and ideal man for the position.



There is no game in which team work is more important than in football. Eleven boys of moderate ability and comparative light weight who can execute their plays with skill and precision can beat a team of heavier boys or superior players who may lack their skill and organization. In the case of a school team it is almost always possible to secure the services of a coach from among the graduates. If such a one has had experience on a college team so much the better.

A football field is 330 feet long by 160 feet wide. At each end are goal posts set 18 feet 6 inches apart, with a crossbar 10 feet above the ground. The field is marked off in chalk lines similar to a tennis court, these lines being 5 yards apart. The centre of the field where the play starts is 55 yards from either end. It is usually customary to run lines parallel to the sides of the field, also 5 yards apart, but as a field is but 160 feet wide the first and last of these lines are but 5 feet from the side lines instead of 5 yards. The lines on a football field make a checkerboard effect and have given to the field the name of "gridiron."

Football is a game where eleven men try to force the ball back of the opposing players' goal line by various efforts in running with it or in kicking, while the opposing team meanwhile, by throwing the runner or by pushing him back, try to prevent any gain being made. Each team is allowed a certain number of attempts to make a certain distance and, if they fail to do this the ball becomes the property of the other team to make a similar attempt. Each of these attempts is called a "down," and, according to the rules, after three attempts, if the runners have failed to gain the required distance, the ball is given to their opponents. In practice it is customary for a team to kick the ball on its last down and thus to surrender it just as far from its own goal line as possible. The distance that must be made in three downs according to the present rules is ten yards. Sometimes a team will not kick on its last down because the distance remaining to be gained is so little that the quarter-back feels sure that one of his men can make it, but this is an exception. When ten or more yards are gained the ball becomes at first down again and the team has three more attempts to make another ten yards figured from where the ball was finally downed.

The ultimate object of "rushing the ball," as this play is called, is to place it on the ground behind the enemy's goal line, which is called a "touchdown." Sometimes a team will succeed in getting the ball almost over the goal line and then because of the superior resistance of its opponents will find that it can advance it no further. It is then customary for one of the players who has had practice in drop kicking to attempt to kick what is called a "goal from the field" or "field goal." This play counts less than a touchdown in the score, counting but three points, while a touchdown counts five, but many a game has been won by a field goal.

Football scores between evenly matched teams who play scientifically are usually low, one or two scores in a game being all that are made. It frequently happens that neither side will score, but, unlike baseball, the game does not continue after the time limit has expired, but simply becomes a tie game. The game is divided into four periods of fifteen minutes each. There are resting periods of three minutes each between the first and second and third and fourth periods, and fifteen minutes between the second and third periods.

At the beginning of the game the two opposing captains toss up a coin and the winner of the toss has the choice of goals or of the ball. His decision will be governed by the position of the sun and the wind conditions, two very important things in football. After each score the sides change goals, however; so the choice is not so important unless the game happens to be scoreless.

At the first play the ball is placed in the centre of the field and is kicked off, a man on the opposing team trying to catch it and to run back as far as possible before he is tackled and the ball "downed." The next lineup takes place at this point and the game proceeds until a score is made. After each score the ball is put in play just as at the beginning of the game.

The quarter-back calls out a series of numbers and letters called "signals" before the ball is put into play. These signals will tell his team what the play is to be, whether a run around end, a kick, or a mass play on centre, for example. The matter of thorough coaching in signals is very important and must be practised by the team until it can tell in an instant just what the play is to be when the play starts. The centre stoops low and holds the ball in an upright position on the ground between his feet. The quarter-back is directly behind him with outstretched hands ready to receive it. After the signal is given the team must be ready to execute the play, but must not by look or motion permit its opponents know what the play is to be. At a touch or word from the quarter-back, the full-back snaps the ball back and the play starts.

The position of the men on a team is generally as the diagram shows but for various plays other formations are used, provided that they do not violate the rules, which specify just how many men must be in the lineup and how many are permitted behind the line.

The first requirement of signals is to have them simple. In the heat and stress of a game the players will have but little time to figure out what the play is to be, even though it may all have seemed very simple on paper.

To begin a code of signals each position on the team is given a letter. The eleven positions will require eleven letters and no two must be alike. It would be possible of course to simply start with the letter "a" and go to "k," but this system would be too simple and easily understood by your opponents. A better way is to take a word easily remembered in which no letter occurs twice, such as "B-l-a-c-k-h-o-r-s-e-x" or any other combination. "Buy and trade" "importance," "formidable," and many others are used. The same principle is used by tradesmen in putting private price marks on their goods.

Take the words "buy and trade" for example. Their positions right and left end, abbreviated (r.e. and l.e.), right and left tackle (r.t. and l.t.), right and left guard (r.g. and l.g.), centre (c.), quarter-back (q.), right and left half-backs (r.h. and l.h.), and full-back (f.b.), would be assigned letters as follows:

l.e. l.t. l.g. c. r.g. r.t. r.e. q. l.h. f.b. r.h. B U Y A N D T R A D E

The letters denote not only players but holes in the line, as the spaces between the players are called. The quarter-back always adds to his signal a number of other letters or figures which have no meaning, simply to confuse the opposing players. For example the signal given is "24-E-N-72-X." The figures 24 and 72 mean nothing, nor does the "X." The signal says "E will take the ball and go through N," or right half-back through right guard. Any number of other plays can be denoted by letters or numbers, for example all punts by figures which are a multiple of ten, as 10-20, 150-300, and so on.

The beginner in football should first of all be provided with a suitable uniform; there is no game in which this is more important. The game is rough and many and harsh are the jolts we receive; consequently we must use whatever padding and guards we can to provide against injury.

The custom is to wear a tight jersey with elbow pads, a tight-fitting canvas jacket and well-padded canvas khaki or moleskin trousers. The appearance of our uniform is of little consequence, as football players are not noted for the beauty of their costumes. Heavy woollen stockings and football shoes complete the outfit. The shoes are the most important part of the uniform. They should lace with eyelets and be well provided with leather cleats to prevent slipping.



A beginner at football can gain a lot of valuable points by carefully watching the practice of his team from the side lines. He is then in a position when called upon to fill a given position which he may be trying for, without obliging the coach or captain to give him instruction in many rudiments which he can just as well learn from observation. He must also be thoroughly familiar with the rules and their interpretation. A violation of the rules in football carries with it a severe penalty for the team, provided of course that the referee sees it, consequently, a beginner must be especially careful not to permit his anxiety to make a good showing to result in being offside when the ball is put in play, interfering with a man about to make a fair catch or in doing many other things which the excitement of the game may occasion.

The moment of putting the ball into play is called a "scrimmage" and the scrimmage continues until the ball is downed. A ball is "down" when the runner is brought to a standstill or when he touches the ground with any part of his body except his hands or feet. At this point the referee will blow his whistle and a lineup for a new scrimmage will take place.



When the ball is kicked, a member of the opposing team who raises his hand and stands in one spot is entitled to make a catch without interference, which if successful gives his team a free kick. In a free kick his opponents may not come within ten yards of where the ball was caught and some member of his team may kick either a drop kick, punt or place kick as he sees fit. After a touchdown, which counts five, a place kick for goal is attempted. If the ball goes between the goal-posts and above the crossbar it counts one point additional for the team making the touchdown, or six in all. A score of one alone cannot be made in football, as the attempt for goal cannot be made until after a touchdown. This of course does not apply to a field goal, which may be attempted at any time while the ball is in possession of the team and which counts three.

The smallest score is from a "safety," which results when a member of a team is forced to touch the ball down behind his own goal or is downed there by the opposing team. This play counts two for his opponents and is an evidence of weakness of the team. It has the advantage, however, of permitting the ball to be brought out twenty-five yards to be put into play.

The rules of football were practically unchanged for a number of years, but the game developed so many dangerous features that nearly all the colleges recently agreed to certain important changes especially directed to abolishing mass play and line bucking. For that reason the rules for the present game may be changed considerably within a few years. A boy taking up football should therefore acquaint himself with the latest rules governing the sport.

Football requires careful training, but the best training will come from actual play itself. In the beginning of the season a period of ten minutes' hard play is all that a boy should be called upon to do, unless he is in excellent physical shape. After that the time of practice should be lengthened until a candidate can go through a game of two full halves without being exhausted. One reason for many football injuries is that the players become so completely winded that the ordinary power of resistance is lost.

Besides actual play the best training is in taking long runs to improve the wind, one of the most essential things in football. In the colleges training for nearly all athletic events is done in this way and a candidate who cannot go out with his squad and run four or five miles at a stiff dog trot will have but little chance of making his team.



XVII

LAWN TENNIS

How to make and mark a tennis court—Clay and sod courts—The proper grip of the racket—Golf—The strokes and equipment

The steady growth in popularity of lawn tennis as well as the splendid exercise that results from playing this game has given it a sure place in the field of athletic sports. It is a game that requires a great deal of skill, and as no one realizes this fact more than those who are experts, a beginner should not be deterred from playing tennis simply because he may fear the criticism of the more experienced. The only way to learn the various strokes and to be able to play a good game is to practise at every opportunity. It is better to play against some one who is more skilful than ourselves and who will keep us on our mettle to make a good showing.

The eye and the muscles must work automatically and with precision. No amount of written instructions can give us this skill. The personal outfit for playing tennis is of course very simple. Every player should own his racket and become accustomed to it. They cost almost any price up to eight dollars, which will buy the very best rackets made. The weight and size of the racket will depend on our strength. The average weight for a man is about fourteen ounces and for a boy an ounce or two lighter. A skilful player becomes so accustomed to the feeling and weight of his own racket that often he will play an indifferent game if he is forced to use any other.

The game of lawn tennis was first played on a lawn or grass court, and many players still prefer this kind of a court, but the difficulty of obtaining a good sod, and after having obtained it the greater difficulty of keeping it in good condition, have increased the popularity of a skinned or clay court, which is always in fair condition except immediately after a heavy rain. The expense of maintaining a tennis court is more than most boys or most families would care to undertake.

As a rule, tennis courts fall in the same general class with golf links in that they lend themselves readily to the joint ownership of a club or school, where the expense falls on a number rather than on an individual. In a great many places the boys of a town or village have clubbed together and have obtained permission from some one owning a piece of vacant ground that is not likely to be sold or improved within a few years and have built a tennis court on it. This arrangement helps the appearance of the land, that should be secured at a very low rental, or none at all if the owner is public spirited and prefers to see the boys of his town grow up as healthy, athletic men rather than weaklings who have no place for recreation but in the village streets, where passing trucks and automobiles will endanger their lives, or at least cause them to be a nuisance to the public.



To build a tennis court properly means a lot of work and it should only be attempted under the direction of some one who understands it. The things most important are good drainage, good light, and sufficient room. A double court is 36 feet wide by 72 feet long, but in tournament games or on courts where experts play it is customary to have an open space about 60 feet wide by 110 to 120 feet long, to give the players plenty of room to run back and otherwise to play a fast game. A court should always be laid out north and south or as near these points of the compass as possible. In courts running east and west the sun is sure to be in the eyes of one of the players nearly all day; this is of course a very serious objection. While it is very pleasant to play tennis in the shade of a tree or building, a court should never be located under these conditions if it is possible to avoid it. A properly placed court should be fully exposed to the sun all day.

First of all it will be necessary to decide whether a grass or "dirt" court is to be built. If the grass is fine and the place where the court is to be happens to be level, there is little to do but to cut the sod very short with a lawn-mower and to mark out the court. If, on the contrary, there is much grading or levelling to be done, a dirt court will be much cheaper and better in the end, as constant playing on turf soon wears bare spots. The upkeep of a grass court will be expensive unless it is feasible to move its position from time to time.

Whatever the court is to be, the first question to consider is proper drainage. If the subsoil is sandy the chances are that the natural soakage will take care of the surplus water, but on the contrary, if the court is at the bottom of a hill or in a low place where clay predominates, it is necessary to provide some means of getting rid of the surplus water from rainfalls or our court may be a sea of mud just when it would be most useful to us. To level a court properly we shall need the services of some one expert with a levelling instrument of some kind. It is not safe to depend on what seems to be level to our eye, as our judgment is often influenced by leaning trees, the horizon, and other natural objects. With a few stakes driven into the ground, the tops of which are level, we are enabled to stretch lines which will give us our levels accurately.

A court should have a slope of a few inches from one end to the other to carry off water. After the level is determined, all there is to making a court is to fill in or cut away soil and earth until the proper level space is obtained. As a rule it is better to dig away for a court rather than to fill in, as we thus obtain a better bottom and one that will require but little rolling. In the case of a slope, it is well so to locate the court that the amount of earth excavated from one end will be just about sufficient to fill in the other.

The final surfacing of a court is done by means of clay and sand in the proportion of about four or five to one, the clay of course being in excess. To mix clay and sand thoroughly, the former should first be pulverized thoroughly when dry and the mixture sifted over the court carefully and evenly. The next step is rolling and wetting, and more rolling and wetting until finally the whole is allowed to dry and is ready for play. The slight irregularities and roller ridges that often appear in a court will soon be worn off by the players' feet, but playing of course will not change the grade. A new court will be greatly improved by use, but no one should be allowed on a court except with rubber-soled shoes. Heeled shoes will soon ruin a court, and it is bad practice even to allow any one to walk over a court unless with proper footwear.

The preliminary levelling of a court can be accomplished with a rake and a straight-edged board, but after the clay has become packed and hard it will be necessary to use considerable force in scraping off the inequalities. A metal cutting edge, such as a hoe or scraper, will be found useful. A court should be swept with a coarse broom to distribute the fine material evenly. Another very good sweeper can be made from a piece of wood about six or eight feet long to which several thicknesses of bagging have been tacked or fastened. The final step in making a court consists in marking it out. Most courts are marked so that they will be suitable either for singles or doubles or so that either two or four people can play at a time. Where tape markers are to be used, the proper distances will appear on the tape without measuring, but if lime is used for marking a careful plotting will be necessary to secure the proper distances, after which the corners should be indicated by angle irons, so that the court may be re-marked at any time without re-measuring.



Considerable difficulty is often experienced by beginners in marking out a court, and, in fact, it is not a simple matter. The first thing of importance is to determine generally one corner of the court and to get a base line and a side line at a true right angle of ninety degrees. The same principle may be employed that is used by builders and surveyors in "squaring a building," as it is called. You will need a ten-foot pole with marks for the feet indicated on it in lead pencil, and in addition to this a few 20-penny spikes and a ball of stout twine. Drive a nail into the ground where you want one corner of the court and fasten the line to it; then stretch the line to another nail to mark either a side line or back line. You will then have one side and the corner fixed, and the problem is to get another line at right angles to it. Boys who have studied geometry know that "in a right-angle triangle the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides." It isn't necessary to understand this, but it is the principle employed in "squaring." You next stretch another line and have some one hold it. On the fixed side line you measure eight feet from the corner nail and mark it with a piece of twine tied around the line. You also make a six-foot mark on the line to be at right angles to it, the exact direction of which is yet to be determined. Both of these measurements must be accurate. The boy on the end of the loose line moves it until the distance between the two pieces of twine is exactly the length of your ten-foot pole. The angle thus formed is exactly ninety degrees, or a right angle. Having obtained one side and one end, to finish marking is simply a matter of making the necessary measurements of a court as shown on the diagram and marking each intersecting point with a nail driven into the ground.



Another way to lay out a court is to drive two stakes or nails into the ground 27 feet apart. (The line of these stakes should be the position of the net.) Then take two pieces of twine, one 47 feet 5 inches long, and the other 39 feet. Fasten one line to each of the spikes that you have placed 27 feet apart. Where the two lines meet as they are pulled taut are the true corners of the court, as there are only four points where they can meet. The various measurements can then be marked as above by referring to the diagram. It is customary to mark a double court and to indicate the lines for singles afterward.

The game of tennis may be played either by two or four persons, or sometimes an expert player will stand two beginners. The ball used is rubber filled with air and covered with white felt and is 2-1/2 inches in diameter. It is necessary to play with two balls, and to save time in chasing those that go wild it is customary to play with three or four.

One of the players begins by serving. The selection of the court is usually chosen by lot or by tossing up a racket in a way similar to tossing a cent. The side of the racket where the woven gut appears is called "rough," and the other side "smooth." This practice is not to be recommended, as it injures the racket. It is better to toss a coin. The game of tennis consists in knocking the ball over the net and into the court of your opponent, keeping up this volley until one side or player fails to make the return properly or at all, which scores his opponent a point. While a game in tennis consists of four points, the simple numbers from one to four are not used. The points run 15,30, 40, game, when one side makes them all. Or it may be "15-30," "15 all," and so on, the score of the server being mentioned first. Where one side has nothing their score is called "love." When one side has scored four points the game is won—with this exception: When both sides are tied at 40, or "deuce," as it is called, the winners must make two points more than their opponents to win. In this way the game may be continued for a long time as the points are won first by one side and then by the other. The score at deuce, or "40 all," will be denoted as "vantage in" or "vantage out," depending upon whether the server's side or the other wins one of the two points necessary to win from "deuce." If first one side, then the other, obtains one of these points the score will be "vantage in" or "out," as the case may be, and then "deuce" again, until finally when two points clear are made it is "game." A set of tennis consists in winning six games, but in this case also there is a peculiar condition. Where each side wins five games it is necessary in order to win the set to obtain a lead of two games. The score in games is then denoted just as in a single game, "deuce" and "vantage" games being played until a majority of two is won.



To learn the game of tennis, first obtain a proper grip of the racket. It should always be held firmly and as near the end as possible, the leather butt being inside the hand. A loose grip will absolutely prevent a player from becoming expert, as the accuracy and quickness that are a part of tennis can never be obtained unless we have the racket under perfect control. The various backhand, high and low strokes will only come from constant practice. The most important stroke to master as well as the most difficult is a swift, accurate service. A player who is otherwise a fair player can easily lose game after game by not having mastered his service stroke, and thus he beats himself without any effort on the part of his opponent. The various "twist" services have almost passed out of use. Even the best players employ a straight, swift overhand ball. To fail to serve the ball over the net and in the proper place is called a "fault." The player has two chances and to fail in both is called "a double fault." A common mistake is to attempt a swift smash on the first ball, which may fail half the time, and then to make sure of the second ball by an easy stroke which a skilful opponent can return almost at will and thus either extend us to the utmost to return it or else make us fail altogether. It is better to make sure of the first serve than to attempt a more difficult serve than our skill will permit.

GOLF

The game of golf, while of comparatively recent introduction in this country, has sprung rapidly into popularity. It is hard to say just why it should be such a popular game except that it combines a certain amount of healthful outdoor exercise with an unlimited opportunity for skill, and in addition to this, unlike the more violent games, it can be joined in by old as well as young. The proper construction and maintenance of a golf course is an expensive proposition. A private course is altogether out of the question except for the very wealthy. A club in starting with a limited amount of money will find it more satisfactory to begin with the construction of a nine-hole or even a six-hole course rather than to attempt a full course of eighteen holes which will be indifferently constructed or kept up. The average eighteen-hole course is about three miles long and is built according to the general lay of the land. A hole in golf consists in the stretch between the "tee," from which the ball is knocked off, and the "putting green," where the player "putts" the ball into the "hole"—a can sunk into the ground which has about the same diameter as a tomato can. The score consists in the number of strokes required to make the hole, and of course the player making the fewest number of strokes is the winner of the hole or match.



Golf has but few rules. The secret of playing well consists in being able to swing the clubs with accuracy and precision. There is no game where proper form counts for more and none in which more careful preliminary instruction by an expert is so important. If one can at the very outset obtain the services of a professional or a skilful player for a few lessons, it will do far more good than ten times as many lessons after we have contracted bad habits which will have to be unlearned.



The surest way to be a poor golfer is first to think that it is a sort of "old man's game," or, as one boy said, "a game of knocking a pill around a ten-acre lot"; then when the chance to play our first game comes along to do it indifferently, only to learn later that there is a lot more to the skill of a good player than we ever realized. Another very common mistake is to buy a complete outfit of clubs, which a beginner always improperly calls "sticks," before we really know just what shape and weight of club is best adapted to our needs.



The common clubs in most players' outfits consist of a driver, brassie, cleek, iron, and putter. We can add to this list almost indefinitely if we wish, as there are all sorts of clubs made for various shots and with various angles. The game of golf consists in covering a certain fixed course in the fewest number of shots. We shall have to practise both for distance and accuracy. The first few shots on a hole of average length will give us an opportunity for distance. This is especially true of the first shot, or drive, but after that we make what are known as approach shots—that is to say, we are approaching the putting green where we complete the hole by "putting" the ball into the tin cup sunk into the ground. On the green we shall need to be very careful, as a stroke wasted or poorly played counts just as much against our score if the ball goes only a few feet as if we sliced or "foozled" our drive.

In scoring for golf there are two methods: Either the score of each hole is taken and the winner of a majority of holes wins the match, or the total score in counted as in "medal" or "tournament play."

"Bogie score" is a fictitious score for the course that is supposed to denote perfect playing without flukes or luck. The mysterious "Colonel Bogie" is an imaginary player who always makes this score.



XVIII

PHOTOGRAPHY

The selection of a camera—Snapshots vs. real pictures—How to make a photograph from start to finish

Aside from our own pleasant recollections, an album of photographs can be the most satisfactory reminder of the good times we have had on some vacation or outdoor trip.

Photography has been made so easy and so inexpensive by modern methods that every one should have some kind of a camera. Small instruments capable of taking really excellent pictures within their limits can be bought for five dollars or even less. Of course we cannot hope often to obtain pictures that will be really artistic with such a small outfit, but sometimes the inexpensive cameras will give remarkably good results.

Snapshot pictures seem to fill such an important place in our outdoor life that no vacation or excursion trip seems to be complete unless some one takes along a camera.

The modern way of taking pictures, which is simply pressing a button and sending a film to the professional to "do the rest," including developing, printing and mounting, is really not photography. Almost any one can take pictures with a small hand camera. The manufacturers have perfected instruments so complete for this kind of work that there is very little for us to do beyond being sure that we have an unexposed section of film in place and that we have sufficient light to obtain a picture. Of course we must have the focus right and must be sure we are pointing at what we wish to take.

Real photography is quite different from snapshot work. It is a hobby so fascinating and with such great possibilities that there is scarcely anything that will give a boy or girl more real pleasure in life and a better opportunity to be outdoors than to become an expert outdoor photographer. Unfortunately it is a rather expensive pastime, but even with a moderate priced instrument we can obtain excellent results under the right conditions. I have seen a prize-winning picture in an exhibition that was made with a cigar box, with a pinhole in one end for a lens.

Even though one does not care to become an expert photographer, by all means get a camera and make snapshots. It is quite a common idea for an amateur to attribute his failures to defects in his material or outfit. You may be sure when you fail it is your own fault. Dealers in photographic supplies constantly have complaints from customers about defective materials, and certainly nine out of every ten of these cases are simply due to the carelessness of the operator with perfectly good material.

It is well for a beginner in photography to start with a simple snapshot camera. They can be bought for three or four dollars up to twenty-five. Such cameras are used with films, and simply require the operator to expose his film in plenty of light and with the proper attention to the distance that the object to be photographed may be from the camera. Until we can accurately estimate distances, such as 8, 15, 25 or more feet, it will be far safer to pace off the distance, remembering that a long step for a boy is about equivalent to three feet. Some cameras have a universal focus and require no adjusting, but an adjustable camera will usually give better results.

Some cameras are so constructed that they may be used either as a hand machine or on a tripod for view work. They can also be adapted either to films or plates and be operated with the ground glass for focussing, or if desired, the focussing scale and view finder may be used.

The size of our camera will depend largely upon our purse. The cost of the camera itself is not the only thing to consider. All the plates and supplies increase in proportion to the size of our instrument. A good all around size is 4x5, or if we really wish to become photographers the 5x7 is a standard. A number of new sizes have recently been introduced and have proven very satisfactory. Perhaps the best size for a snapshot camera is 3-1/4 x 5-1/2.

There are a great many makes of cameras on the market, but even at the risk of advertising one firm more than another it is only fair to say that there is really nothing better in pocket snapshot machines than the kodaks. In view cameras it is different. There are instruments of a dozen makes any of which will produce excellent results. The tests to apply in selecting a view camera are its workmanship, compactness, and the various attachments and conveniences it has. The salesman from whom you purchase will explain fully just what its possibilities are, especially if you take some experienced person with you who can ask questions.

Suppose you begin photographing with a simple "snapshot" outfit. The first thing to remember is that there is absolutely no excuse for the large percentages of failures that beginners have in making pictures, and which are due solely to their own carelessness and inattention to simple details. First of all, immediately after making an exposure, be sure to form the habit of turning the key until a fresh film comes into place; then you will never be troubled with the question whether you have exposed the film or not. Every professional photographer who develops for amateurs handles many films in which some of the negatives are blank and some are double negatives with two pictures on one film. This is solely the fault of the photographer, who was never quite sure and would first make the mistake of exposing a film twice, then turning the roll without exposing it at all. If you are really in doubt, it is better to turn the roll to the next number, as you thus simply lose a film but preserve both negatives; if, on the other hand, you make a double exposure, you will lose both pictures.

The snapshot photographer should never take a picture unless he really wants it and unless he is pretty certain of making a picture. Snapping here and there without a proper condition of light, focus, or subject is a very bad habit to contract. Until you can make at least eight good pictures out of ten you are not a photographer. No average lower than this should satisfy you. Do not blame the lens for your failures. In recent years the art of making lenses has advanced wonderfully, and while the one in your camera may not be an expensive one or capable of a wide range of use, it is at least adapted to the purpose of your instrument or you may be sure that the manufacturers would never have used it.

We should not consider the snapshot expert who merely presses the button as a real photographer, even though he obtains fine pictures. No one deserves this name who does not understand the operations of the dark room. One who has experienced the wonderful sensation of working in a faint yellow-ruby light and by the application of certain mysterious chemicals of seeing a picture gradually come into view on the creamy surface of a dry plate will never again be satisfied to push the button and allow some one else "to do the rest." However, if you do not wish to go into photography extensively you may at least learn just what limits your hand camera has, and at the end of the season in place of a lot of ill-timed pictures you can have an album full of creditable prints for which no apology will be necessary.

It is quite beyond the limits of this chapter to go into photography fully, but some of the simple principles may be of use to the boy or girl who has taken up the subject. The modern snapshot camera even of small size has great possibilities. With a clear negative we can have an enlargement made on bromide paper that will be a source of great satisfaction. The actual making of enlargements is usually beyond the limits of an amateur's outfit. In this part of photographic work it will be better to patronize a professional.

To become an expert photographer and one whose work will be worth while, we must really make a study of the subject. The modern outfits and chemicals make it very easy for us if we do our part.

The basis of successful work is a good lens, which is really the eye of the camera. In selecting it we should get just as good a one as we can afford. There are a great many excellent makes of lenses on the market and even the stock types that are supplied with moderate-priced cameras are of very good quality. The two distinct types of lenses are the "rapid rectilinear" and the "anastigmatic," which names refer to their optical properties in distributing the light. For our purpose all we need to know is that the higher price we pay the better our lenses will be, and in addition to this the further fact that the best kind of results can be obtained by any lens provided that we do not try to force it to do work for which it is not adapted.

To understand photography we must first of all get a clear notion of the use and purpose of the stops, as the various openings or apertures are called that the lens is provided with. A "fast" lens is one that will give a sharp picture at a maximum opening, and such lenses are both the most expensive and the most universal in their application. Lenses of this class are used in making instantaneous pictures with very rapid exposures, and for ordinary view or portrait work will produce no better results than much slower and less expensive types.

Perhaps the best way to understand photography as an art rather than a "push the button" pastime is to take up the process of making a picture step by step. To begin with, the real photographer will use plates instead of films, as much better pictures usually are possible by their use. Dry plates come a dozen in a box, usually packed face to face—that is, with the film or sensitive sides facing. The plate-holder must be loaded in a dark room or dark closet, with absolutely no exposure to daylight or any artificial light whatever except a very faint light from a dark-room lantern, a combination of ruby and yellow glass or paper. We should always test our dark room and light by means of a plate before we trust them to actual working conditions. Take a fresh plate and cover it half with a piece of cardboard, or if it is in a holder draw the slide half way out and allow the dark-room light to strike it for five minutes, then develop the plate just as you would an exposed negative, and if the test plate shows the effect of the exposure and darkens, we shall need to make our light safer either by adding a sheet or two of yellow or ruby paper or we must examine our room carefully to stop up any cracks where rays of white light may enter. We must remember that a plate sensitive enough to record instantaneous exposures of 1-500 of a second must be sensitive to any tiny ray of outside light also. Almost any room will make a dark room, especially if it is used at night. By drawing the shades and by doing our work in a far corner of the room away from outside light we are comparatively safe. Of course an electric street lamp or other bright light would have to be shut out, but this can easily be done by pinning up a blanket over the window. When we have loaded our plate-holders we are ready to make a picture. Suppose, for example, it is to be a house or a vista of some kind such as a group of trees or a bit of water: the first thing of importance is to obtain a point of view that will not only give us the picture we desire but that will leave out any undesirable features that we do not care to take. Some cameras are provided with a small view finder for snapshot work, and this may often be used to get a general idea of what the picture will be.

Successful photography consists largely in knowing just what to take and what to omit. Sometimes an ugly piece of fence or a post will spoil an otherwise excellent picture. We must also remember that in a photograph our colours are expressed in black and white, and therefore a picture that depends on its colour contrast for its beauty, such as autumn foliage or a sunset, may be disappointing as a photograph.

When we have decided upon our subject, the next step is to set our camera in the proper position to permit the plate to take in what we wish. Usually it will be necessary to shift our position several times until we find the proper position. The tripod should be firmly set on the ground and the camera made as level as possible. The camera should then be focussed with the stop or diaphragm wide open. The fact that the image is inverted as it appears on the ground glass will at first be confusing to a beginner, but we soon become accustomed to it and never give it a thought. Our focussing cloth should be tightly drawn about the head to keep out as much outside light as possible. At first we have some difficulty in seeing the image on the ground glass, but after we learn to look at the glass and not through it we should have no further trouble in this respect. By moving the lens backward and forward we finally strike a position where the principal image to be photographed will appear sharp and clear. The camera is then in focus, but we shall discover that other objects more in the background or foreground will appear blurred and confused. Often it is desirable to have a blurred or "fuzzy" background, but if we desire to bring the indistinct objects in focus we must "stop down" our lens first by trying the No. 8 stop, and if this does not accomplish the results the No. 16, and so on until we get what we wish. As we look at the image on the ground glass, it will be evident that as we stop down our lens, the more remote objects are gradually brought into view with a sharp outline, we shall discover that the image on the ground glass becomes less and less distinct, which shows very clearly that we are admitting less light, and the lesson to be learned is that when we make the exposure we must give a corresponding increase in time as the amount of light admitted decreases. An exposure that would give a perfect picture at No. 8 may be very much under-exposed at No. 32 diaphragm.

Having focussed our camera and set the stop, we then close the shutter, insert the plate-holder in the back of the camera and carefully draw the slide. Omitting to pull the slide is a common mistake with beginners. We are now ready to decide just what exposure to give our plate. Rules for exposure are almost useless, but in general it may be said that the modern plates are lightning fast and that in bright sunlight at midday the average exposures will not be over 1-25 of a second. An "exposure meter" will prove to be of great assistance to a beginner, but such arrangements are not often used by experts except in doubtful cases. We soon find that we can guess at average exposures with considerable accuracy, especially if we adopt a certain brand of plate and become accustomed to its working qualities. Of course all of these speeds must be indicated on the shutter, and all we can do is to set our shutter at this point and squeeze the bulb. Correct judgment in exposure will only come after experience. In taking interior views or making pictures on dark days we shall be less likely to make a mistake than in bright sunlight. I have made two interior views, to one of which I gave ten minutes and the other an hour, with practically the same result in the negative. An over-exposed plate is flat, which means that the print will lack contrast and be unsatisfactory as a photograph.

After the bulb is squeezed and the exposure made we are ready to develop our plate and to see what result we have obtained. Of course in practice we make a number of exposures before we begin to develop. Some photographers use numbered plate-holders and keep a record of the pictures, time of day and of exposure, stop and any other items of interest. We now take the plate-holder in our dark room and prepare our developer. There are a great many developers on the market and we can scarcely make a mistake with any of them. Probably the best of all is "pyro," but the fact that it stains the fingers is a serious objection to it for amateur use, and almost any other developer, such as metol, eikonogen or hydroquinon will be better.

These stock developers usually come in dry salts, which must be dissolved and mixed. All of this work must be done in the light so we can see that we are getting the proper proportions and that the chemicals are thoroughly in solution. The developing trays should be washed thoroughly and placed conveniently at hand so that we can find them in the dark. In addition to developers we must have what is called the "hypo" fixing bath. This is a solution of hyposulphite of soda, a chemical which is used in development and which renders the plate no longer sensitive to light, but dissolves that part which has not been acted upon by the developer. The hypo should be in a tray or box placed conveniently at hand but not so located that it will be liable to become mixed with the developer or in any way to splash or spot the plate. We must always wash the hands thoroughly after immersing a plate in the hypo before handling a fresh plate, as a very few drops will ruin a negative.

After we have prepared the hypo and the developer we are ready to develop the plate. Place it face side up in the tray and quickly pour the developer over it, being sure that the solution covers the surface immediately, to avoid unequal development. While we should not develop in a strong red or yellow light we can at least place our tray in such a position that we may watch the process of bringing up the image out of the creamy surface of the plate. This is the most fascinating part of photography. First the high lights will appear and then the shadows, and then after an instant the whole image will come into view and then begin to fade away. To know at what point development should stop will only come by experience with negatives of all sorts of classes. Generally speaking, when the image fades from view and begins to appear through the film on the glass side we should wash it quickly and immerse it in the hypo. The "fixing" in hypo will take probably five minutes and should be continued until the white coating is thoroughly dissolved. The plate may then be brought safely to the light and should be washed thoroughly either in running water for half an hour or in at least twelve changes of fresh water. Care must be taken not to touch the film side of the plate during development or fixing, as the gelatine coating becomes very soft and will show the slightest scratch or abrasion. We must dry the plate away from dust, sunlight, or artificial heat. After it is dry we are ready to make a print.

Photographic printing papers are of two classes—those which are used in direct sunlight and upon which the image gradually appears, and those which are similar to plates and which are given a very short time exposure in artificial light and the picture developed just as we should a plate. The beginner will probably have more uniform success with sunlight paper after the simple process of toning and fixing is learned, although the developing papers are extremely simple to handle and give better results.

The final step of trimming and mounting the print is too simple to require explanation.

There are a great many things that might be said about photography, but in a book of this kind only the most simple facts are stated. If you become a photographer you will soon learn many of the fine points.

Our negatives should all be kept carefully in labelled envelopes and a record kept in a book of some kind.

When we really become expert as a photographer, there are many opportunities to make our hobby pay. The publishers of nearly all the magazines experience the greatest difficulty in securing the kind of pictures they wish to reproduce. This is remarkable when so many people are taking pictures. If one wishes to sell pictures, it is important to study the class of materials that the magazines use. Then, if we can secure good results, we can be almost sure of disposing of some of our work and, in addition to the money, have the satisfaction of seeing our pictures published.



XIX

OUTDOOR SPORTS FOR GIRLS

What to wear—Confidence—Horseback riding—Tennis—Golf—Camping

A generation ago the girl who joined her brother in his sports would have been considered a "tom boy," but in recent years girls have discovered that with comparatively few exceptions they can join in the sports and recreations of their brothers and in some cases attain a remarkable degree of skill.

Girls' schools have done much to spread this idea. A rational outdoor costume and a desire to be physically well also has helped "the outdoor girl" to be regarded as the highest type of womanhood. Only her grandmother sighs over tanned cheeks and muscular arms.