[Side note: Inigo Jones and Wren.]

Be this as it may, the severe classical style introduced into England by Inigo Jones (who studied in Italy under Palladio), and continued by Sir Christopher Wren, soon swept everything before it.

Our most remarkable church in this style is S. Paul's Cathedral, which in style has two very adverse circumstances to struggle against. In the first place, it bears so great a similarity to the great church of S. Peter, at Rome, that one cannot help comparing it with that fine example, and secondly, it is the only English cathedral which is not in the Gothic style. It must, of course, be acknowledged that S. Paul's falls far short of S. Peter's, especially in its lighting, but it does not deserve the condemnation of a great German critic, who said, "It is a building marked neither by elegance of form nor vigour of style." Although the interior of its dome and clerestory of the nave and choir are extremely gloomy when compared with those of S. Peter's, the church is generally acknowledged to be far superior to the latter in its architectural details, and few, if any, Italian churches can be said to surpass it, either in general composition or external effect, although it must be admitted that everything having been sacrificed to attain the latter quality, S. Paul's taken as a whole, is neither worthy of its fine situation nor of its great architect.

Other churches which are excellent examples of this style are S. Stephen's, Walbrook, and S. Mary Abchurch, London. Both show remarkable skill. The former is divided into a nave and four aisles, transepts, and a shallow chancel, by four rows of Corinthian columns, with a small dome over the intersection. The interior is very beautiful, and this church is generally considered to be Wren's masterpiece. S. Mary Abchurch, is nearly square in plan, has no columns and is covered with a domical ceiling, but so skilfully treated that the effect is singularly pleasing.

[Side note: Hawkesmore.]

Of the Elizabethan and Jacobean buildings it is necessary to say little, as at best they are but clumsy imitations of the Flemish, French and Italian Renaissance, while the style which we now call Queen Anne came in towards the close of the XVIIth century, and belongs of right to the reign of Charles II. Hawkesmore, a pupil and follower of Wren, was a strong architect who has left us Christ Church, Spitalfields, and S. Mary Woolnoth. He also designed the western towers of Westminster Abbey, often wrongly ascribed to Wren, and the second quadrangle of All Souls' College, Oxford. This architect, like the majority of his contemporaries, misunderstood and despised the Gothic style, with which he had little real sympathy; he drew out designs, which still exist, for converting Westminster Abbey into an Italian church, just as Inigo Jones had done with the exterior of the nave of old S. Paul's, but we cannot be too thankful that this abominable suggestion was never carried out.



With King George III. on the throne our ancestors contented themselves with dull, but substantial, buildings of which some hard things have been written, but they were at least respectable and free from sham, while the churches, although not elegant, were well-built and occasionally picturesque, as we see by the perfect little building of this date at Billesley, Warwickshire.

The eighteenth century pseudo-classical abominations and sham Gothic, so favoured by Horace Walpole and his admirers, can be briefly dismissed. A more rampant piece of absurdity than that of erecting imitations of portions of Greek temples and adapting them for Christian worship it is difficult to imagine, and in the Pavilion at Brighton, Marylebone Church, and the "Extinguisher" Church in Langham Place we even surpassed in bad taste and vulgarity all the absurdities of the Continental architecture produced by the French Revolution.

[Side note: Barry and Pugin.]

Two men now came on the scene who, united, were destined to bring some kind of order out of this chaos. Barry and Pugin were both scholars and architects, for while the former rather favoured the classical style he thoroughly understood the Gothic, while Pugin was a thorough mediaevalist, a true artist, and a bold exponent in his "Contrasts" of a complete return to mediaeval architecture as the only possible cure for the evils which had crept into the art of building.

Barry's idea, which was perhaps the more practical, was to correct by careful study the errors into which the later exponents of both Classic and Gothic architecture had fallen, and endeavour by well thought out modifications to evolve a style more suitable to modern requirements. Pugin, however, would have none of the evil thing, and although he supplied his friend with designs for the details and woodwork of the Houses of Parliament which Barry was rebuilding, they did not collaborate in any further way, and both died before the Houses of Parliament were completed, in which, as a matter of fact, Barry's designs were completely ignored. The Reform Club is considered to be the best of Barry's classical buildings.

Pugin's earlier works were mostly Roman Catholic churches, and they are acknowledged to be an immense advance on any Gothic work which had been seen for centuries. In the Roman Catholic Cathedral of S. Chad, at Birmingham, there is a dignity, loftiness and simplicity surpassed by few Gothic buildings when that style was at its zenith, and from the time Pugin designed this building, architecture—notwithstanding our exhaustive study of archaeology, our immense resources of capital and labour, our science and labour-saving appliances, and the comparative accessibility of the finest materials—has neither developed nor advanced. The most erudite Gothic mason could have possessed but little art knowledge as compared with the modern architect, and yet with our learned societies, wonderful libraries, easily obtained photographs and plans of the best buildings in the world; with writers far superior in intellectual acquirements to those of the Middle Ages, our vast wealth, with our tools such as the mediaeval craftsman could never have dreamed of, and with the experience of twenty centuries to guide us we have made no advance during more than half a century. Our best architects acknowledge that until we get a new method of building, originality in architecture is an impossibility, mainly because all the existing styles of architecture have been worked out to their legitimate conclusion, and have been perfected under circumstances and conditions with which we have entirely broken; the originality in detail which pervades and permeates our Gothic buildings and gives them the greater part of their charm, must, of necessity, be out of our reach until we blend the spirit of what we are pleased to call our practical age, with a certain amount of that spirit of poetry and romance, religious fervour and devoutness, which animated the builders and craftsmen of the past.





CHAPTER VIII.

CHURCH FURNITURE AND ORNAMENTS.

The most important part of the internal furniture of a church is the altar, a name derived from the Latin altare, a high place. The altar is a raised structure on which propitiatory offerings are placed. In the Christian church the altar is a table or slab on which the instruments of the Eucharist are displayed.

[Side note: The Altar.]

The early Christian altars were portable structures of wood, and the Church of Rome still allows the use of an altar of this description, although a consecrated stone, containing an authentic relic and regarded as the true altar, must be placed upon the wooden table. The slab forming the altar was sometimes supported on pillars, but more frequently on solid masonry, and previous to the Reformation it was marked with five crosses cut into the top, in allusion to the five wounds of Christ. From the period that stone altars were introduced it was usual to enclose within them the relics of saints, so that in some cases they were the actual tombs of saints. In England the altars were generally taken down about the year 1550, set up again in the beginning of the reign of Queen Mary, and again removed in the second year of Queen Elizabeth. In the church of Porlock, Somerset, the original high altar has been preserved, though not in use, being placed against the north wall of the chancel. In Dunster Church, in the same county, there is a solid stone altar, said to have been the original high altar, and in the ruined church of S. Mary Magdalene at Ripon, the high altar has escaped destruction. Of chantry altars we have several left, including those at Abbey Dore, Herefordshire; Grosmont, Monmouthshire; Chipping Norton, Oxon.; Warmington, Warwick; S. Giles's, Oxford; Lincoln Cathedral, and many others; and it is rare to find a Gothic church without some traces of altars in their various chapels, oratories or chantries.

The altar is, of course, an adoption by the Christian church of a pagan aid to worship, and at S. Mary's church, Wareham, which is thought to stand on the site of a Roman temple, are some pieces of stone considered by antiquaries to be portions of a pagan altar, on which burnt offerings were placed.

Above many Christian altars was placed a piece of sculpture or a painting representing some religious subject. These altar pieces sometimes consist of two pictures, when they are called "diptyches," and sometimes of three pictures, when they are called "triptyches," and both forms usually fold up or are provided with shutters. They are often rare examples of the Flemish and other schools of painting, and of great value.

At the Reformation the stone altar was displaced by the communion table, which at first occupied the position vacated by the altar. This gave umbrage to the Puritan mind, and the communion table was then usually placed in the centre of the chancel, with seats all round for the communicants; which arrangement is still in vogue in some of our English churches and in Jersey, although at the Restoration the communion table was, as a general rule, replaced at the eastern wall of the Chancel.



Long before the Christian era the altar was regarded as a place of refuge for those fleeing from justice or oppression, and this custom or privilege of sanctuary was sanctioned by the English bishops and was retained for many centuries by the Christian Church. Many of our parish churches claim to possess old sanctuary rings or knockers, but it is doubtful if any of these were ever used by fugitives, for the reason that although in early days every parish church had the right to grant sanctuary, few possessed the means of feeding and housing a refugee, save in the church itself, which was expressly forbidden. This is why we find records of fugitives travelling many miles at the risk of their lives and passing hundreds of parish churches in their endeavour to reach Bury St. Edmunds, Hexham, Durham or some other of the well-recognised sanctuaries. The only sanctuary knocker remaining to-day, which is above suspicion, is that at Durham Cathedral. It is made of bronze and represents the grotesque head of a dragon, the ring coming from the mouth.



Above the door is a small room in which attendants watched by day and night, and when a fugitive was admitted a bell was rung to announce that someone had taken sanctuary.

[Side note: The Font.]

The font, as we have seen, was originally placed in a separate building called the baptistery. The only known example of anything of the kind in England is that in S. Mary's Church, Luton, fully described in The Homeland Handbook, No. 47. It is in the Decorated style, dates from the time of Edward III., and is said to have been designed by William of Wykeham for Queen Philippa. It is composed of white stone with open panels, pierced by cinquefoils and quatrefoils, while the apex of each panel terminates in a foliated finial. The font inside is octagonal in form and of 13th century date, but it has been somewhat restored. Ancient fonts were always large enough to allow for total immersion, and our present custom of baptism by affusion, or sprinkling, is only permitted, not enjoined by the rubric. In early days the sacrament of baptism was only administered by the bishops at the great festivals of Pentecost and Easter, for the reason that this afforded the greater convenience for immediate confirmation, but with the increase in the number of churches the rite was administered by the priests in every village. The font was required by the canon to be of stone, but there are a few Norman fonts made of lead, among them those at S. Mary's Church, Wareham, Walton-on-the-Hill, Surrey, and at Edburton, Parham, and Pyecombe, Sussex. A remarkable font is that at Dolton Church, Devon, made up of fragments of the churchyard cross, and there is also a somewhat similar one at Melbury Bubb, Dorset. By a constitution of Edmund, Archbishop of Canterbury (1236), fonts were required to be covered and locked, and at first these covers were little more than plain lids, but they afterwards became highly ornamental and were enriched with buttresses, pinnacles, crockets, etc. It is doubtful if any fonts exist which can reasonably be supposed to be Saxon, although a few, like that at Little Billing, Northants, may possibly be of that era. Of Norman fonts we have large numbers. They are sometimes plain hollow cylinders; others are massive squares with a large pillar in the centre, and small shafts at the corners. These fonts are generally ornamented with rudely executed carvings, consisting of foliage and grotesque animals.



The one in Winchester Cathedral is a good example, and there are three other very similar ones in Hampshire. Early English fonts are very often circular, and sometimes square, and they are often supported in much the same way as the Norman ones. In the Decorated and Perpendicular styles they are, with few exceptions, octagonal, and the details generally partake of the character of those used in the other architectural features of the period. There are hexagonal fonts of Decorated date at Rolvenden, Kent, and Heckington, Lincs. The font is usually placed close to a pillar near the entrance, generally that nearest but one to the tower in the south arcade, or, in larger buildings, in the middle of the nave.

[Side note: Stoups.]

The holy-water stoups sometimes found in our old churches are generally small niches with stone basins formed in the wall either in or just outside the porch, or within the church close to the door, or in one of the pillars nearest to the door. These niches resemble piscinas, except that they differ in situation, are smaller and plainer, and rarely have a drain. A good example of an outside stoup is that at Broadmayne, Dorset, where there is also one inside the church. They are rarely found unmutilated, but there is one in perfect condition in the north porch of Thornham Church, Kent; and a rather elaborate example at Pylle Church, near Glastonbury.



The piscina is a water-drain formerly placed near the altar and consisting of a shallow stone basin, or sink, with a drain to carry off whatever is poured into it.

[Side note: Piscinas.]

It was used to receive the water in which the priest washed his hands, as well as for that with which the chalice was rinsed at the celebration of the mass. It was usually placed within a niche, although the basin often projects from the face of the wall, and is sometimes supported on a shaft rising from the floor. In the Early English and Decorated periods there are often two basins and two drains, and occasionally three. Within the niche a wooden or stone shelf is often found, called a credence-table, on which the sacred vessels were placed previous to their being required at the altar.



Piscinas are unknown in England of earlier date than the middle of the 12th century, and of that date they are extremely rare. Of thirteenth and succeeding centuries we have many examples, more or less mutilated. Their forms and decorations are very various, but the character of their architectural features will always decide their approximate date.

[Side note: Sedilia.]

The Sedilia, from the Latin sedile, a seat, has come to be applied in modern times to the seats used by the celebrants during the pauses in the mass. They were sometimes moveable, but more usually in this country were formed of masonry and recessed in the wall. They are generally three in number, for the priest, deacon and sub-deacon, while in a few rare instances they number four seats, as at Rothwell Church, Northants, and Furness Abbey; or even five, as at Southwell Minster. Sometimes a long single seat under one arch is found, and when three seats are used the two western ones are often on the same level and the eastern one raised above them. Numerous examples remain in our churches, some being as early as the latter part of the 12th century, but they are mostly later and extend to the end of the Perpendicular style. Some of them are separated by shafts, and profusely ornamented with panelling, niches, statues, pinnacles, tabernacle work, and crowned with canopies all more or less elaborately enriched.

[Side note: Stalls.]

Stalls are fixed seats in the choir, either wholly or partially enclosed and used by the clergy. Previous to the Reformation all large and many small churches had a range of wooden stalls on each side and at the west end of the choir. In cathedrals they were enclosed at the back with panelling, and surmounted by overhanging canopies of tabernacle work, generally of oak, of which those at Winchester, Henry VII.'s Chapel at Westminster, and Manchester Cathedral are possibly our finest examples. When the stalls occupied both sides of the choir, return seats were placed at the ends for the prior, dean, precentor, and other of the officiating clergy.



Mr. Parker, in his "Glossary of Architecture," gives the following definition of the miserere, patience or pretella. "The projecting bracket on the underside of the seats of stalls in churches; these, when perfect, are fixed with hinges so they may be turned up, and when this is done the projection of the miserere is sufficient, without actually forming a seat, to afford very considerable rest to anyone leaning upon it. They were allowed as a relief to the infirm during the long services that were required to be performed by ecclesiastics in a standing posture." It is in the carving of these that one is frequently struck by the curious mixture of the sacred and the profane, the refined and the vulgar, for which it is difficult to find any adequate explanation. Of so coarse a nature are some of these carvings that it has been necessary to entirely remove them from the stalls. They are usually attributed to the mendicant and wandering monks, and they undoubtedly reflect the licentiousness which at one time pervaded the monastic and conventual establishments. Among our best examples are those at Christchurch Priory, Hants, and in Henry VII.'s Chapel. There is a remarkably complete set in Exeter Cathedral.



Of modern pews it is not necessary to say anything here, but previous to the Reformation the nave of a church was usually fitted with fixed seats, parted from each other by wainscoting, and partially enclosed at the ends by framed panelling, but more often by solid pieces of wood, either panelled or carved on the front. These bench-ends are very common in the West of England, in Somerset and Devon, and they are often very beautiful pieces of work and were in all probability executed by local craftsmen. They embrace a variety of subjects: figures, scrolls, dragons, serpents, etc., and frequently bear the arms of the family who owned the pew. Sometimes they terminate at the top with finials either in the form of heads, bunches of foliage, a chamfered fleur-de-lys and a variety of other ornaments called Poppy-heads, from the French Poupee. No examples are known to exist earlier than the Decorated style, but of Perpendicular date specimens are very numerous, especially in our cathedrals and old abbey churches.

[Side note: Pulpits.]

Pulpits were formerly placed, not only in churches, but in the refectories and occasionally in the cloisters of monasteries, and there is one in the outer court of Magdalen College, Oxford, and another at Shrewsbury. In former times pulpits were placed in the nave attached to a wall, pillar or screen, usually against the second pier from the chancel arch. Some are of wood, others of stone; the former are mostly polygonal, with the panels enriched with foliation or tracery. Few exist of earlier date than the Perpendicular style, but stone pulpits of Decorated date are sometimes met with as at Beaulieu, Hants, a very early specimen. Wooden pulpits are usually hexagonal or octagonal; some stand on slender wooden stems, others on stone bases. A few have canopies or sounding boards, and their dates can be fixed by the character of their ornamentation. At Kenton, Devon, there is an early pulpit which has retained its original paintings. Jacobean pulpits are very numerous, and are frequently gilded and painted; the one at S. Saviour's Church, Dartmouth, being a most elaborate example.



Open-air preaching is anything but a modern invention, for long before the erection of parish churches it was the recognised method of addressing the people. There is a print of some popular bishop preaching in a pulpit at Paul's Cross in S. Paul's Churchyard, and in mediaeval days open-air pulpits were erected near the roads, on bridges and often on the steps of the market crosses, which are often still known as preaching crosses.

[Side note: Squints.]

In some of our churches is to be seen a squint, an opening in an oblique direction through a wall or pier for the purpose of enabling persons in the aisles or transepts to see the elevation of the Host at the high altar. They are of frequent occurrence in our churches and are very numerous in the neighbourhood of Tenby, South Wales, also in Devon and the West generally. They are usually without any ornament, but are sometimes arched and enriched with tracery. They are mostly found on one or both sides of the chancel arch, but they sometimes occur in rooms above porches, in side-chapels and the like; in every instance they were so situated that the altar could be seen. When they occur in porches or the rooms above they are thought to have been for the use of the acolyte appointed to ring the sanctus bell, who, viewing the performance of mass, would be thus able to sound the bell at the proper time. The name hagioscope has been used to describe these oblique openings.

Cruciform marks are sometimes found on our churches, often on a stone in the porch; they are usually incised crosses or five dots in the form of a cross. They were, presumably, cut by the bishop when the building was consecrated, and are called consecration crosses.

[Side note: Screens.]

The rood-screens, separating the chancel or choir of a church from the nave, usually supported the great Rood or Crucifix, not actually on the screen itself, but on a beam called the rood-beam, or by a gallery called the rood-loft, which last was approached from the inside of the church, by a small stone staircase in the wall, as can be seen in many of our churches to-day. Although rood-lofts have been generally destroyed in England, some beautiful examples remain at Long Sutton, Barnwell, Dunster and Minehead, Somerset; Kemsing, Kent; Newark, Nottingham; Uffendon, Collumpton, Dartmouth, Kenton, Plymtree and Hartland, Devon. The general construction of wooden screens is close panelling below, from which rise tall slender balusters, or wooden mullions supporting tracery rich with cornices and crestings, frequently painted and gilded. The lower panels often depict saints and martyrs. From the top of the screen certain parts of the services and the lessons were read. They were occasionally close together and glazed, as we see by a most beautiful example at Charlton-on-Otmoor, in Oxfordshire. These screens, many of which have been over-restored, are very common, and in addition to those above mentioned, are found at S. Mary's, Stamford, Ottery S. Mary, Chudleigh, Bovey, and in nearly all the Devon parish churches. At Dunstable a screen of Queen Mary's time separates the vestry from the chancel.



Of stone screens space will permit of only the briefest mention. They were used in various situations, to enclose tombs and to separate chapels, and occasionally the rood-screen was of stone.



The oldest piece of screen work in this country is that at Compton Church, Surrey; it is of wood and shows the transition from the Norman to the Early English styles. Stone screens are often massive structures enriched with niches, statues, tabernacles, pinnacles, crestings, etc., as those at Canterbury, York and Gloucester.

[Side note: The Reredos.]

The reredos forms no part of the altar, and is often highly enriched with niches, buttresses, pinnacles, and other ornaments. Not infrequently it extends across the whole breadth of the church, and is sometimes carried nearly up to the roof, as at S. Alban's Abbey, Durham and Gloucester Cathedrals, S. Saviour's, Southwark and in that remarkably fine example at Christchurch, Hants. In village churches they are mostly very simple, and generally have no ornaments formed in the wall, though niches and corbels are sometimes provided to carry images, and that part of the wall immediately over the altar is panelled, as at S. Michael's, Oxford; Solihull, Warwickshire; Euston and Hanwell, Oxfordshire, etc.

It is interesting to note that the open fire-hearth, once used in domestic halls, was also called a "reredos."



CHAPTER IX.

BELLS AND BELFRIES.

The history of bells is lost in antiquity, and little is known about them previous to the XVth century. It is probable, however, that they were used in India and China centuries before they reached Europe.

Bells were used by the Romans for many secular purposes, and although their use was sanctioned by the Christian Church about 400 A.D., they were not in general use in England until 650 A.D.

The earliest bells were hand bells, quadrangular in shape, and made of thin plates of copper or iron riveted together, and their abominable sound when struck must have been one of their chief merits, as the early bells were much used for the purpose of frightening the devil and other evil spirits.

Our oldest bells are hand bells, S. Patrick's bell at Belfast (1091) and S. Ninian's bell at Edinburgh, which is probably of even earlier date. From 1550 to 1750 was the golden age of production for bells, more especially so in Belgium and the Low Countries, where the bells of the towers and belfries were rung to arouse the country in times of danger and invasion. It is quite possible that the bells used for secular and religious purposes were kept distinct. Bells played a very important part in mediaeval life, and next to cannon were regarded as the chief city guardians, for he who held the bells held the town, and the first thing done by the invader on taking a town was to melt the bells and thus destroy the means of communicating an alarm.

In England our old towns, being almost entirely constructed of wood, were liable to periodic and devastating conflagrations, which fact suggested to that genius, William the Conqueror, the institution of Couvre-feu, or in its more popular form, Curfew, which rang at eight o'clock in the evening, when all lights were to be extinguished. The ringing of curfew has survived in many of our towns and villages to this day, but it is doubtful if the custom has been continuous from its first institution.

The secular use of the bell is, however, only incidental, and it is in its connection with religious life that we are now concerned, for all church history, church doctrine and church custom and observances are set to bell music. Bells in fact may be said to sum up the short span of our mortal life, for the birthday, the wedding and the funeral, are all welded to religion by the church bell.

Bells were used for ecclesiastical purposes in England long before the erection of our parish churches, for Bede, speaking of the death of S. Hilda, A.D. 680, says that "one of the sisters in the distant monastery of Hackness, thought she heard as she slept, the sound of the bell which called them to prayers," and Turketul gave to Croyland Abbey a great bell called Guthlac, and afterwards six others which he called Bartholomew and Betelin, Turketul and Tatwin, and Pega and Bega.

S. Dunstan gave bells to many of the churches in Somerset, and he also seems to have introduced bell ringing into the monasteries.

A few words may be of interest concerning the number and purposes of these monastic bells, with which the life of the monks must have been completely bound up. The Signum woke up the whole community at day-break. The Squilla announced the frugal meal in the refectory; but for those working in the gardens, the cloister-bell, or Campanella, was rung. The abbot's Cordon, or handbell, summoned the brothers and novices to their Superior; whilst the Petasius was used to call in those working at a distance from the main building. At bed-time the Tiniolum was sounded, and the Noctula was rung at intervals throughout the night to call the monks to watch and pray. The Corrigiumcula was the scourging bell, while the sweet-toned Nota, a choir bell, was rung at the consecration of the elements.

The use of the bell-tower was recognised in the ancient Saxon law, which gave the title of thane to anyone who had a church with a bell-tower on his estate, and two of our most interesting Saxon churches, Brixworth and Brigstock, both in Northamptonshire, have each a semi-circular tower rising together with the bell-tower, and forming a staircase to it.

One of the most beautiful campaniles or bell-towers still standing is that at Evesham, in Worcestershire, which is a good specimen of Perpendicular architecture. It was built by Abbot Lichfield, the last abbot but one of the abbey, and took six years in building, and was not quite completed when the famous abbey, of which it was a final ornament, was pulled down.

In addition to this example at Evesham, detached bell-towers exist, or once existed, at Chichester, East Dereham, Glastonbury Abbey, Bruton, in Somerset, and in several other places.

Markland, in his Remarks on Churches, says: "The great bell-tower which once formed part of the abbey church of S. Edmundsbury was commenced about 1436. From the year 1441 to 1500 legacies were still being given towards the building. In 1461 an individual, probably a benefactor, desired to be buried in magno ostio novi campanilis."

In Protestant use church bells have been stripped of much of the former superstition and symbolism. They are no longer rung to announce the miracle of transubstantiation; neither are they called upon as of old for the purpose of scaring devils, demons, and other evil spirits which formed so prominent a feature in the faith of the early Christian communities.



Closely connected with the subject of bells and belfries are the bell-gables or bell-turrets, so frequently found at the west ends of our smaller churches which have no towers. They usually contain but one bell, but are sometimes found with two, and at Radipole Church, near Weymouth, the bell-turret was originally designed to carry three bells. They are generally most picturesque little features of which a few may be of Norman date, but by far the greater number of them are Early English, a style in which they are frequently found. In addition to these bell-turrets at the western ends of our churches one sometimes finds a similar, but smaller, erection at the eastern end of the roof of the nave, but used for a very different purpose, for while the bell at the western end was rung to summon the parishioners to service, that at the eastern end, known as the Sanctus or Mass-bell, was rung on the elevation of the Host during the celebration of mass; although usually placed on the apex of the roof, this bell sometimes occupied a position in the lantern or tower, or in a turret of larger dimensions. In churches where no turret existed it was carried in the hand, and such is now the prevailing practice on the continent. The turret for the Sanctus bell still exists at Barnstaple, Devon, and St. Peter Port, Guernsey. The Sanctus bell was generally made of silver, and occasionally a number of little bells were hung in the middle of the church, and by means of a wheel they were all made to ring at once.



CHAPTER X.

THE SPIRE; ITS ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT.

Probably the most beautiful feature of a Gothic church is the spire, raising its tapering form far above the town or village and forming a prominent landmark, denoting the location of the House of God. Although found occasionally in other styles, the spire is essentially Gothic, and one of the most marked characteristics of this period. Spires are generally of two kinds, those constructed of timber and covered with slates, lead, tiles or shingles, and those built of stone or brick. Examples of both kinds are very numerous on the continent and in England, while shingle spires are especially common in Sussex.

The spire is generally acknowledged to have originated from the small pyramidal roof so frequently found on Saxon and Norman towers. This gradually became elongated, and the towers were sometimes gabled on each side, as is the case with the remarkable Saxon church at Sompting, Sussex. This shows us very clearly the angles of the spire resting upon the apex of each gable, so that the spire itself is set obliquely to the square of the tower.



Saxon and Norman spires are very rare in England, Sompting being our best example of the former and those on the eastern transepts of Canterbury Cathedral of the latter.

Of Early English spires we have, fortunately, some good examples, among which are those at Oxford Cathedral, Wilford and Wansted, in the same county, and a very graceful one at Leighton Buzzard. These 13th century spires are very common in France, as at Chartres and S. Pierre, Caen.



Of fourteenth century, or Decorated, spires, we have many examples, of which perhaps the best is the beautiful spire of Salisbury Cathedral, although the equally fine one at S. Mary's, Oxford, runs it close for premier position. The triple group at Lichfield Cathedral belong to this period, as do the spires of Ross, Heckington, Grantham, S. Mary's, Newark, King's Sutton, Bloxham and Snettisham, Norfolk. A peculiarity of the Salisbury spire is that it never formed part of the original design of the cathedral, being added seventy years later. It is the loftiest spire in England—404 feet—about 40 ft. higher than the cross of S. Paul's. It speaks well for the Gothic builders that such a vast superstructure as this tower and spire could be imposed upon walls and piers never intended to bear it. At an early period it was found to have deflected twenty-three inches from the perpendicular, but there has been no sign of any further movement. Barnack Church, in Northamptonshire, has a curious spire showing the transition from Norman to Early English.

It will be noticed that the sides of a church spire are slightly curved, so that they swell out a little in the centre. This is called the entasis of the spire, and belongs to the study of optics in architecture. Where the spire has no entasis the same effect is produced by the introduction of small projecting gables, bands of carving, or a little coronal of pinnacles.

One of the most clearly marked differences between English and continental spires is that the latter are much shorter than the towers which support them, the towers, as a rule, being twice as high as the spires. In England, on the contrary, the spire is generally very much loftier than the tower. At Shottesbrook, Berks, and Ledbury, Herefordshire, the spires occupy as much as three-fifths of the total elevation, and the usual rule in England is for the tower to be a little less in height than the spire.

The masons lavished an extraordinary amount of care and skill on their spires. So much is this the case that there is hardly a mediaeval spire in the country which can be called ill-designed or displeasing.

Church spires are very common in some counties and very rare in others. There are, of course, exceptions, but it is in the flat counties that spires are most frequent, the most beautiful ones being found in Northamptonshire, Leicestershire, Lincolnshire, Warwickshire, Staffordshire, Nottinghamshire and Oxfordshire.

The top of the spire is usually capped with a weather vane terminating in a cock. The custom of using a cock as the flag of the vane is of very early date, for Wolfstan, in his Life of S. Ethelwold, written towards the end of the 10th century, speaks of one which surmounted Winchester Cathedral. In the Bayeux Tapestry one is shown on the gable of Westminster Abbey, and one of the early Popes ordained that every church under the papal jurisdiction should be surmounted by a cock as emblematical of the sovereignty of the church over the whole world.



CHAPTER XI.

STAINED GLASS.

The use of coloured glass in the windows of buildings devoted to religious purposes appears to have been employed as early as the ninth century, but no examples remain of anything like so old a date, and we have only illuminated missals and primitive drawings by members of the conventual bodies to guide us in determining the earliest styles of coloured glazing. It appears to have consisted of more or less primitive representations of the human form, with strong black lines to indicate the features and folds of the drapery. The backgrounds were generally masses of deep blue or red, and in the rare instances where landscapes were introduced positive colours only appear to have been used. Our oldest specimens in England are those in the choir aisles of Canterbury Cathedral, which appear to be of the 12th century, and it is thought that they are the remains of the original glazing that was put in when this part of the building was rebuilt after a fire in 1174. The general design is composed of panels of various forms, in which are depicted subjects from Holy Scripture, with backgrounds of deep blue or red; the spaces between the panels are filled with mosaic patterns in which blue and red colours predominate, and the whole design is framed in an elaborate border of leaves and scroll-work in brilliant colours.



Of thirteenth century windows we have some magnificent examples —unfortunately few unmutilated—as at York, where is the five-light lancet window situated in the north end of the transept, known as the Five Sisters of York. Of this date, also, are the large circular window of Lincoln Cathedral, and the windows at Chetwode, Bucks; Westwell, Kent; West Horsley, Surrey; and Beckett's Crown, Canterbury.

A little later, in the Decorated period, we get the great east window of York Cathedral, 75 ft. high and 32 ft. broad; the east window of Gloucester Cathedral, 72 ft. high and 38 ft. broad; and other fine windows at Tewkesbury Abbey; Merton College, Oxford; Wroxhall Abbey, Warwickshire; and the churches of Chartham, Kent; Stanford, Leicestershire; Ashchurch, Glous.; Cranley, Surrey; Norbury, Derbyshire, and others. Salisbury Cathedral has retained portions, but very lovely portions, of the glazing of its west windows, and enough is left to show that it was little inferior to the great windows of York and Gloucester. Carlisle Cathedral, too, has preserved fragments of the original glass in the tracery of the great east window, but the lower part of the glazing is modern. Windows in the Decorated style continued to be arranged in panels, with the spaces between them filled with flowing patterns of foliage, in which the vine and ivy leaves predominate. Single figures are more common than in the previous style, and when used are generally shown beneath a simple pediment or canopy. In the early examples they only occupy a portion of the window light, but later they are found occupying nearly the whole of the surface and are surmounted by large and elaborate canopies. Quarries are much used in this style, sometimes quite plain, but more often with leaves or rosettes painted on them in black lines, or painted with the vine and ivy leaves so arranged that they form a repeating pattern over the whole window. At this period, too, heraldry began to be employed in the decoration of the windows to which it is always an appropriate and artistic adjunct, and many authentic and valuable examples of our national heraldry have thus been preserved for posterity.

With the advent of the Perpendicular style the glazing became more uniform in character, the glass was thinner and lighter, the tints paler, and the whole effect more brilliant and transparent. The paintings for the most part consist of large figures under elaborate canopies, frequently occupying an entire light, and in the patterns and smaller decorations there is a greater freedom of design, and the whole treatment is more harmonious and artistic than in any other period. The use of heraldry became very common, and inscriptions on long narrow scrolls were frequently employed. Among the best examples of this period are the windows at S. Margaret's Church, Westminster; King's College Chapel, Cambridge; Fairford Church, Gloucestershire; and Morley Church, Derbyshire.

The Reformation, with its vast social and political upheaval, was not conducive to the encouragement of the fine arts, and from this period the art of glazing in England declined beyond measure, and was not the only art that received its death-blow in the triumph of Puritanism. The art has, however, revived greatly during recent years, thanks, among other artists, to William Morris and Burne-Jones. A few words must be said about the "Jesse" window found in some of our cathedrals and churches. Strictly speaking, it is a representation of the genealogy of Christ, in which the different persons forming the descent are placed on scrolls of foliage branching out of each other, intended to represent a tree. It was also wrought into a branched candlestick, thence called a Jesse, a common piece of furniture in ancient churches. The subject is found on a window at Llanrhaiadr y Kinmerch, Denbighshire, on the stone work of one of the chancel windows at Dorchester Church, Oxfordshire, and in carved stone on the reredos of Christchurch Priory, Hants.

It is not perhaps generally known that the actual colours used in early stained glass possessed each of them their own specific symbolism. Underlying the obvious story conveyed by the human figures or decorated devices, there was an inner story to be read with profit by those who understood the mystic symbolism concerning colours. Without entering at length into this interesting subject, it may yet be stated that green was the symbol of Regeneration, red of Divine Love, white of Divine Wisdom, yellow of Faith, and grey, or a mixture of black and white, the emblem of Terrestrial Death and Spiritual Immortality. These colours at different times or in different countries had other meanings as well, and ecclesiologists tell us that the colours chosen for depicting the robes of our Lord differ according to the period of His life which it was intended to represent.



CHAPTER XII.

CRYPTS.

The crypts so generally found beneath our cathedrals and abbeys, and so frequently under our churches, rarely extend beyond the choir or chancel and its aisles, and are sometimes of very small dimensions. They are often coeval with the upper parts of the building, and although not so elaborate in ornamentation as the fabric they support, they are almost without exception well constructed and well finished pieces of building. In some cases the crypt is of much older date than any portion of the superstructure, as is the case at York, Worcester and Rochester cathedrals. During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the roofs were often richly groined, and upheld by cylindrical columns or clustered piers, and furnished with handsome bases and decorated capitals. There is abundant evidence that crypts were at one time furnished with altars, piscinas, and the various fittings requisite for the celebration of the mass, and they were used as sepulchres, wherein the shrines of relics and martyrs were carefully preserved. Some authorities claim a purely Saxon origin for the crypts at Ripon Cathedral, Hexham Abbey, and Repton Church, Derbyshire. The Ripon example is a plain barrel-vaulted chamber, about 11 ft. long and 8 ft. wide, with no pillars or ornament of any kind. It is popularly known as S. Wilfrid's Needle, but the exact origin of the name is lost in obscurity. The Hexham crypt is very similar in character, but is somewhat longer, being more than 13 ft. long and 8 ft. wide. As at Ripon, there are hollows or shallow niches in the walls in which lamps may possibly have been placed. The third reputed Saxon crypt is that at Repton, but it has little in common with the other two, its superficial area being nearly twice as great and the roof is supported on four columns, with plain square capitals rudely carved, and bearing much similarity to early Norman work.

The position of the crypt varies. At Beverley Minster it is on the south side of the south-west tower; in Hereford Cathedral it is under a side chapel, while at Lastingham, in Yorkshire, the crypt extends under the whole of the church, including the apse. At Wells the crypt is beneath the chapter-house, and Durham Cathedral has three crypts, one under what was the dormitory, another beneath the refectory, and the third under the prior's chapel. Of crypts of Norman date we have many examples, of which, perhaps, our best are those at Gloucester, Worcester, Canterbury and Winchester Cathedrals, while Canterbury is probably the largest of them all. Good crypts are also found at Wimborne Minster, Christchurch Priory, and in our smaller churches at Repton and S. Peter's-in-the-East, Oxford.

The Wimborne crypt is lighted by four windows. The vaulting is supported by two pairs of pillars which form three aisles, each of three bays. Mr. Perkins, in his book on Wimborne Minster, says, "On each side of the place where the altar stood there are two openings into the choir aisles. The exteriors of these are of the same form and size as the crypt windows, but they are deeply splayed inside, and probably were used as hagioscopes or squints, to allow those kneeling in the choir aisles to see the priest celebrating mass at the crypt altar." The crypt at Christchurch is of Norman date, and now serves as a vault for the Malmesbury family. The crypt of Canterbury Cathedral is claimed and justly claimed, perhaps, as the largest and most beautiful in England. It is thought to contain fragments of Roman and Saxon work, and much of it dates from the days of S. Anselm (1096-1100). It was here that the remains of S. Thomas a Becket lay from 1170 to 1220, and "here that Henry II., fasting and discrowned, with naked feet, bared back, and streaming tears, performed on July 12th, 1174, the memorable penance for his share in the murder of the great Archbishop."

It was here too, in later times that the Walloons were granted, by Queen Elizabeth, the privilege of carrying on their silk-weaving, and it was also reserved as a place of worship for French Protestants.



CHAPTER XIII.

HOW TO DESCRIBE AN OLD CHURCH.

Having carefully read the foregoing chapters, it should be possible for anyone interested in the subject to be able to write a fairly accurate description of any old church. The record should, if possible, be amplified with sketches or photographs.

In course of time, decay, neglect and restoration will deprive our ancient buildings of every visible stone of original work which they possess, and careful records of this kind, written, photographed and sketched, may be of the highest possible value to future generations of historians and architects, long after the objects themselves have ceased to exist. The work in itself is of absorbing interest, and the more one studies these works of past ages the stronger becomes the conviction that our old buildings, whether cathedral, castle or simple village church, are the landmarks of the nation's history, and a priceless inheritance of beauty and art the conservation of which is the duty of all generations.

The principal points to be noted are—1. The name of the church. 2. Its situation. 3. Its dedication. 4. General plan. 5. The style of architecture to which each portion belongs. 6. Any peculiarity of the architecture, blocked up windows, etc. 7. Any ancient furniture, screens, bench-ends, glass. 8. Any monuments, tablets, or mural paintings. 9. Church plate, bells, registers. 10. Any local traditions. The record should be made somewhat in the following manner.

The church of —— is prettily situated on rising ground some quarter of a mile north of the village, and on the main road to —— . It is approached by a picturesque timber lych-gate, and consists of nave, aisles and chancel, having a side chapel to the north and a single transept to the south. At the west end is a Decorated tower and spire. There are two porches, one on the north side and the other on the west, which last has a niche for a figure over the doorway and seats on either side. The nave is Perpendicular, as is the greater part of the rest of the fabric. Above the nave rises a lofty and noble clerestory, divided from the aisles by five rather obtusely-pointed arches supported by richly moulded piers with small moulded capitals. Each bay of the clerestory contains two three-light windows of late Perpendicular date. The roof is flat pitched and is of oak, the principals are adorned with panelled tracery and show vestiges of ancient colour decoration. The windows of the aisles are late Decorated in style; they are of three lights, the traceries elegant and richly moulded. The east window is Perpendicular and is much sub-divided by mullions and transoms; in the upper portions are some heraldic coats of arms, which appear to have formed part of a much earlier window. The chancel is divided from the nave by a fine open oak screen, coeval with the larger part of the building. It is richly carved and gilded, and in the right-hand side of the chancel arch are the steps which formerly led up to the top of it. The chancel, together with its chapel, is vaulted in stone with well marked ribs and carved bosses. The transept, late Perpendicular, opens into the south side of the nave by a four-centred arch, and has a rich flat ceiling. In the chancel is a piscina of Early English date, together with a sedilia of the same period. On the north side of the chancel, resting on the floor, is a cross-legged effigy, in chain mail, surcoat, etc., and bearing on his left arm a shield, but all much mutilated. There is a local tradition that it represents Sir ——, but there is no evidence by which he can be identified. Features of the church are the many highly carved bench ends, all in oak, representing a great variety of subjects, such as dragons, serpents, etc., while a few bear the arms of local families who probably bore the cost of the work. The pulpit is Jacobean, and has no special feature. The font, which stands in the centre of the nave, is square in form and is supported by a modern round plinth. It is constructed of marble, the four sides being carved in low relief with intersecting patterns. It is possibly of Norman date, and is the only existing feature of a much earlier church. The tower and spire are Decorated; the latter is of stone with four pinnacles at the base, and has a little coronal of pinnacles. The belfry windows are arranged in pairs on each side of the tower. The tower or western window is of five lights, richly Decorated in style.

Illustration: KEY TO DIAGRAM OF THE INTERIOR ELEVATION OF A BAY OF A CHURCH.

CLERESTORY.

26 Boss. 25 Vaulting Rib. 24 Vault. 23 Vaulting Rib. 22 Tracery of C. Window. 21 Clerestory Window. 20 Sill of Clerestory Window. 19 Base of Jamb, C. Arch. 18 Jamb of C. Arch. 17 Clerestory String.

BLIND STOREY (TRIFORIUM).

16 Capital of Vaulting Shaft. 15 Tracery of Triforium. 14 Triforium Arch. 13 Capital of T. Pier. 12 Pier of Triforium. 11 Triforium String.

GROUND STOREY.

10 Tracery of Aisle Window. 9 Aisle Window. 8 Sill of Aisle Window. 7 Wall Arcade. 6 Vaulting Shaft. 5 Corbel. 4 Pier Arch. 3 Capital of Pier. 2 Pier. 1 Base of Pier.



FOOTNOTES.

1: So called from its "flame"-like appearance, producing forms which resemble elongated tongues of flame. There is great beauty in much of this work, but it is constructionally weak. The finest example is Chartres Cathedral.



APPENDIX.

A GLOSSARY OF THE PRINCIPAL TERMS USED IN ECCLESIASTICAL ARCHITECTURE.

ABACUS Derived from the Greek Abax—a tray or flat board, an essential feature of the Grecian and Roman orders, but now used to describe the slab forming the upper part of a column, pier, etc.

ABBEY A term for a union of ecclesiastical buildings, for the housing of those conventual bodies presided over by an abbot or abbess, supposed to be derived from the Hebrew ab, "father."

ACANTHUS A plant, the leaves of which are represented in the capitals of the Corinthian orders.

AISLE French aile, a wing, the lateral division of a church.

ALMONRY A room where alms were distributed.

ALTAR An elevated table dedicated to the Sacrament of the Holy Eucharist, and usually called the Communion Table.

ALMERY, AUMERY, and AUMBREY A recess or small cupboard in the wall of a church, used to contain the chalices, patens, etc., for the use of the priest. They are sometimes near the piscina, but are usually on the opposite side of the chancel.

ANTE-CHAPEL The outer part of a chapel.

APSE The semi-circular or polygonal recess at the east end of the choir or aisles of a church.

ARCADE A series of arches, open or closed with masonry, and supported by columns or piers.

ARCH A construction of bricks or stones so placed as by mutual pressure to support each other and a superincumbent weight. They may be semi-circular, segmental, elliptical, stilted, horse-shoe, pointed, trefoiled, cinquefoiled, or ogee.

ARCHITRAVE In classical architecture, the lowest division of the entablature resting immediately on the abacus of the capital. In Gothic buildings the ornamental mouldings round the openings of doors, windows, etc.

ARCHIVOLT The under surface of the curve of an arch, from impost to impost.

ASHLAR Shaped or squared stone used in building, as distinguished from that in the rough.

ASTRAGAL A small semi-circular bead or moulding.

BALL FLOWER An ornament resembling a ball in a circular flower with three enclosing petals. Dec.

BASE The lower member of a column, pier, or wall.

BASILICA A Roman law-court. Early Christian churches when built on the same lines were called by the same name.

BILLET An ornament much used in Norman work and formed by cutting a moulding in notches, so that the remaining parts resembled wooden billets or pieces of stick.

BLIND STOREY See Triforium.

BOSSES Ornamental projections usually of foliage and placed at the intersection of the ribs of vaults, ceilings, etc.

BRACES Timbers which brace or support the main rafters. Also called struts.

BROACH A spire, generally octagonal and springing from the square top of the tower, without a parapet. (See page 105).

BUTTRESS A projection from a wall, giving it additional strength.

CANOPY In Gothic architecture an ornamental hood or projection over doors, windows, niches, tombs, etc., and rarely found except in the Dec. and Perp. styles.

CAPITAL The head of a column or pilaster, found in a great variety of shapes.

CATHEDRAL A church presided over by a Bishop. The principal church of a diocese.

CHALICE The cup used for the wine at the celebration of the Eucharist.

CHAMFER The surface formed by cutting away the rectangular edge of wood or stone work.

CHANCEL The choir or eastern part of a church, appropriated to the use of those who officiate in the performance of the services.

CHANTRY A chapel often containing a tomb of the founder, and in which masses were said.

CHAPEL A small building attached to cathedrals and large churches.

CHAPTER-HOUSE The room where the Dean and Prebendaries meet for the transaction of business.

CHEVRON An ornament characteristic of the Norman period and divided into several equal portions chevron-wise or zig-zag.

CHOIR That part of a church to the east of the nave where the services are celebrated, also called chancel, and frequently separated from the nave by an open screen of stone or wood.

CINQUEFOIL An ornamental foliation used in arches, tracery, etc., and composed of projecting points or cusps, so arranged that the opening resembles five leaves.

CLERESTORY Possibly the clear storey. An upper storey standing above or clear of the adjacent roofs, and pierced by windows to give increased light.

CLOISTER A covered walk or ambulatory forming part of a cathedral or college quadrangle.

CLUSTERED COLUMN A pier made up of several columns or shafts in a cluster.

COLONNADE A row or rows of columns supporting a roof or building.

CORBEL Usually a moulded or carved ornament projecting from the walls, acting as a bracket and capable of bearing a super-incumbent weight.

CORNICE The horizontal termination of a building in the form of a moulded projection.

COURSE A continuous and regular line of stones or bricks in the wall of a building.

CROCKETS Projecting ornaments in the form of leaves, flowers, etc., used to embellish the angles of pinnacles, spires, gables, canopies, etc.

CROSS The accepted symbol of the Christian religion and an architectural church ornament usually placed upon the apex of the gable. A large cross called a rood was at one time always placed over the entrance to the chancel. The cross was worn as a personal ornament ages before the Christian era by the Assyrians, and we are told that the Druids also used this symbol in very early times.

CRYPT Sometimes called the Undercroft, a vaulted chamber, usually underground and, in churches, rarely extending beyond the area of the choir or chancel, and often of less dimensions.

CUSPS Projecting points giving the foliated appearance to tracery, arches, panels, etc.

DORMER A gabled window pierced through a sloping roof.

DRIPSTONE A projecting ledge or narrow moulding over the heads of doorways, windows, etc., to carry off the rain.

FAN-TRACERY Tracery in which the ribs form a fan-like appearance and diverge equally in every direction. (Peculiar to the late Perp.)

FLAMBOYANT Tracery whereof the curves assume flame-like waves and shapes.

FLYING BUTTRESS A buttress in the form of a bridge, usually transferring the thrust of the main roof from the clerestory walls to the main or aisle buttresses.

FONT The vessel for holding the consecrated water used in baptism.

GARGOYLE A projecting spout usually grotesquely carved and used to throw the water from the roof well away from the building.

GROIN The line of intersection in vaulted roofs.

IMPOST Horizontal mouldings, capping a column or pier, from which the arch springs.

JAMB The side of a window or door.

KEYSTONE The central stone at the top of an arch. The bosses in vaulted ceilings are frequently called keys.

LADY CHAPEL A chapel dedicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary, called "Our Lady."

LANTERN A small structure or erection surmounting a dome or tower to admit light. These towers are known as Lantern Towers.

LOZENGE A name given in modern times to Norman mouldings which partake of a lozenge formation.

LYCH-GATE From the Anglo-Saxon lich, a corpse. A small and often picturesque shelter at the entrance to a churchyard.

MINSTER The church usually of a monastery or abbey or one to which such has been an appendant. York and Beverley, however, are exceptions to this rule.

MISERERE A small bracket on the undersides of the seats of stalls.

MOULDING A term generally applied to the contours given to angle projections or hollows of arches, doors, windows, etc.

MULLION The dividing bars of stone or wood between the lights of windows, or the openings of screens.

MUeNSTER has now lost its simple application. (MONASTERY)

NAVE From navis, a ship, the main body of a church west of the chancel.

NICHE An alcove or recess in a wall for holding a statue or ornament.

OGEE A moulding or arch formed of a curve or curves somewhat like the letter S, the curve of contra-flexure, part being concave and part convex.

ORDERS In Gothic architecture, the receding mouldings of an arch.

PARCLOSE The screen or railings protecting a monument or chantry.

PARVISE An open space or porch at the entrance to a church, and often wrongly applied to the room over a church porch.

PATEN The small plate or salver used to hold the Consecrated Bread in the celebration of the Eucharist.

PENDANT Ornaments which hang or depend from a ceiling or roof.

PENTHOUSE A covering projecting over a door, window, etc., as a protection from the weather.

PIER The masses or clusters of masonry between doors, windows, etc.; the supports from which arches spring.

PILLAR A term frequently confounded with column, but differing from it in not being subservient to the rules of classical architecture, and in not of necessity consisting of a single circular shaft.

PINNACLE A small turreted ornament tapering towards the top, and used as a termination to many parts of Gothic architecture.

PISCINA The stone basin or sink in the chancel used for cleansing the communion vessels.

PLINTH The lower division of the base of a column, pier or wall.

POPPY-HEAD An ornament boldly carved on the tops of bench ends, etc.

PRESBYTERY A term sometimes used to include the whole of the choir, but more often meant to refer to the eastern end of the choir from which it is generally raised by several steps.

QUARRIES or QUARRELS The small diamond, square or other the shaped panes used in plain glazing.

QUATREFOIL The shape resembling four leaves formed in tracery or panels by cusps.

QUOIN The external angle of a building, generally of ashlar.

REREDOS The wall or screen at the back of an altar, often enriched with carving, niches, statues, etc.

ROOD-BEAM or ROOD-LOFT The loft or beam which, previous to the Reformation, supported the Great Rood, or Crucifix.

ROSE WINDOW A term often used to denote a circular window of several lights.

ROTUNDA A term used to describe a church or other building which is of circular formation both within and without.

SACRISTRY A room used in churches for storing the plate and valuables.

SANCTUARY See Presbytery.

SEDILIA A seat or seats, generally canopied and situated on the south side of the chancel and used in pre-Reformation days by the officiating clergy during the pauses in the mass.

SHAFT The part of a column or pillar between the capital and the base.

SHRINE Often called the feretory. The place where relics were deposited.

SOFFIT The word means literally a ceiling, but is generally used to describe the flat under-surface of arches, cornices, stairways, etc.

SPANDRELS The spaces between the arch of a doorway or window and the rectangular mouldings over it. Early tracery originated from the piercing of the spandrels of windows.

SPIRE The acutely pointed termination of towers, etc., originating by the elongation of the early pyramidal roofs.

SPLAY The slanting or sloped surface of a window opening in the thickness of the wall, also of doorways, etc.; the term is also applied to bevels and other sloped surfaces.

SPRINGER See Voussoir.

SQUINT An oblique opening or slit in the wall of a church, for the purpose of enabling persons in the aisles or transepts to see the elevation of the Host at the High Altar. They are mostly found on the sides of the chancel arch, and are frequently called hagioscopes.

STOUP A vessel for consecrated water, at or near the entrance to a church.

STRING or STRING COURSE. A horizontal projecting band of stone in the wall of a building.

STRUT See Brace.

TOOTH ORNAMENT An ornament used almost exclusively in the E.E. style, resembling a square four-leaved flower, and thought to be based on the dog-tooth violet.

TRANSOM A horizontal cross-bar in a panel or window.

TRACERY The ornamental stonework in the upper part of a window; when formed by the mullions it is called bar tracery and when the spandrel is pierced, plate tracery. Also used largely on tombs, screens, doorways, etc.

TRANSEPTS The projecting arms of a cruciform church, often wrongly called "cross-aisles."

TRANSITION A term used to describe the process of change from one style of architecture to another. The three great periods of transition are from the Romanesque and Norman to the Early English; the Early English to the Decorated, and the Decorated to the Perpendicular.

TREFOIL An ornamental foliation in the heads of windows, panels, etc., in which the spaces formed by the cusps resemble three leaves.

TRIFORIUM or Blind-Storey. An open gallery or arcade without windows immediately above the pier arcade and under the roof of the aisle.

TYMPANUM The space between the top of a square-headed door and the arch above it; frequently sculptured.

VAULT Roofing of stone constructed on the principle of the arch, the intersections of which are termed groins and are in the pointed styles usually ribbed.

VAULTING SHAFTS Small shafts sometimes rising from the floor, sometimes from the capital of a pillar and sometimes from a corbel, and intended as supports for the ribs of a vault.

VESICA PISCIS An oval shape or figure formed by two equal circles cutting each other in their centres. Very commonly found on episcopal and monastic seals.

VOUSSOIR The wedge-shaped stones forming an arch, the centre one of which is the keystone and those at the impost or starting point of the curve are the springers.

ZIG-ZAG See Chevron.



A SHORT BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ENGLISH ECCLESIASTICAL ARCHITECTURE.

Adeline, J. Art Dictionary of Terms. Bland, W. Arches, Piers, Buttresses, etc. Blomfield, R. Short History of Renaissance Architecture. Bond, Francis English Cathedrals Illustrated. Bond, Francis Gothic Architecture in England. Bonney, T. G. Cathedrals, Abbeys, and Churches of England and Wales. Carter, J. The Ancient Architecture of England. Colling, J. K. Details of Gothic Architecture. Corroyer, E. Gothic Architecture. Cram, R. Adams Church Building. Davidson, E. A. Gothic Stonework. Fergusson, J. Handbook of Architecture. Fergusson, J. History of Architecture. Fairbairns, A. Portfolio of English Cathedrals. Garbett, E. L. Principles of Design in Architecture. Markland, J. H. Remarks on Churches. Moore, C. H. Development and Character of Gothic Architecture. Paley, F. A. Manual of Gothic Architecture. Paley, F. A. Manual of Gothic Mouldings. Parker, J. H. A.B.C. of Gothic Architecture. Parker, J. H. Concise Glossary of Architecture. Parker, J. H. Introduction to the Study of Gothic Architecture. Perkins, Rev. T. Handbook of Gothic Architecture. Prior, Ed. S. History of Gothic Art. Pugin, A. W. Treatise on Chancel Screens and Rood Lofts. Rickman, Thos. Gothic Architecture. Rickman, Thos. Attempts to discriminate the Styles of Architecture in England. Sharpe, Edmund The Seven Periods of English Architecture. Sharpe, Edmund Treatise on the Rise and Progress of Window Tracery. Scott, G. History of Church Architecture. Ruskin, John Seven Lamps of Architecture. Ruskin, John Stones of Venice. Ruskin, John Poetry of Architecture. Ruskin, John Lectures on Architecture. Wall, J. C. Shrines of British Saints. Winkle British Cathedrals. Wilson, S. Romance of our Ancient Churches.

Bell's Cathedral Series. "The Builder" Portfolio of English Cathedrals. Murray's Handbooks to the Cathedrals. S.P.C.K. Illustrated Notes on English Church History. Swan, Sonnenschein & Co. Notes on the Cathedrals. "Our English Minsters." Edited by Dean Farrar.

This bibliography does not claim to be complete, but is a selection of the various books on the subject which should be studied by the student.



Index

All Souls' College, Oxford, 76 Altars, 80 Alveston Church, Warwickshire, 41 Amiens Cathedral, 57 Anne, Queen, 76 Apse, The, 27 Arches— Saxon, 35 Norman, 37 Early English, 49 Decorated, 62 Perpendicular, 66 Ashchurch, Gloucestershire, 106

Baptistery, The, 84 Barfreston Church, Kent, 39, 41 Barnack Church, Northants 32, 33, 34, 101 Barnstaple, Devon, 98 Barnwell, 92 Barry, Sir C., 78, 79 Basilica, The, 26 Bayeux Tapestry, 41, 103 Beaulieu, Hants, 90 Beckett's Crown, Canterbury, 106 Bede (quoted), 21, 23, 96 Bells and Belfries, 95 Bench Ends, 89 Bertha, Queen, 23 Beverley Minster, 109 Billesley Church, Warwickshire, 78 Bishopstone, Sussex, 32 Bloxham Church, 101 Boston, Lincs, 72 Bovey Church, 92 Bradford-on-Avon, 32 Brewer, J. W. (quoted), 28 Brighton Pavilion, 78 Brigstock Church, Northants, 97 Bristol Cathedral, 70 British Churches, Early, 19 Brixworth Church, 28, 32, 33, 97 Broadmayne Church, 86 Bruton, Som., 97 Burne-Jones, Sir E., 107 Bury St. Edmunds, 82 Buttresses— Norman, 43 Early English, 84 Decorated, 62 Perpendicular, 70 Byzantium, 27

Canterbury Cathedral, 43, 94, 101, 104, 110 Capitals— Norman, 42 Early English, 54 Decorated, 60 Perpendicular, 69 Caradoc, King, 19 Carlisle Cathedral, 60, 106 Charles II., 76 Charlton-on-Otmoor, 92 Charlton Church, Kent, 106 Chartres Cathedral, 101 Chetwode, Bucks, 106 Chichester Cathedral, 97 Chipping Norton, Oxford, 81 Christchurch Priory, 88, 94, 107, 110 Christ Church, Spitalfields, 76 Chudleigh Church, Devon, 92 Church Furniture and Ornaments, 80 Cirencester Church, Glos., 70 Classic Reverse, The, 70 Clerkenwell, 44 Collumpton, Devon, 92 Compton Church, 94 Constantine, Emperor, 27 Constantinople, 27 Cranley, Surrey, 106 Crawden's Chapel, 58 Croyland Abbey, 96 Crypts, 109 Curfew, 96

Decorated Style, The, 57 Doisnel, Juliana, 44 Dolton Church, 84 Doorways— Saxon, 30, 32 Norman, 39 Early English, 54 Decorated, 62 Perpendicular, 69 Dorchester Church, Oxford, 107 Dore Abbey, 81 Dunstable, 92 Dunster Church, 81, 92 Durham Cathedral, 43, 73, 82, 94, 112

Earl's Barton Church, 32, 33 Early English Style, The, 47 East Dereham, 97 Edburton Church, 84 Edington Church, Wilts, 72 Edington, Bp. William, 72 Edmund, Archbp. of Cant., 84 Edward I., 49 Edward III., 84 Elizabeth, Queen, 81, 110 Eltham Palace, 73 Ely Cathedral, 29, 43, 57 Ely Chapel, 60 Ethelbert, King of Kent, 23 Euston, Oxford, 94 Evesham Abbey, 73, 97 Exeter Cathedral, 89

Fairford Church, Glos., 107 Fan Vaulting, 69 Fergusson, Dr. (quoted), 75 Flying Buttresses, 56 Fonts, 84 Fordington S. George, Dorchester, 41 Fotheringay Church, Northants, 73 Fountains Abbey, 47 Fuller, Thos. (quoted), 19 Furness Abbey, 87 Furniture, Church, 80

Glass, Stained, 104 Glastonbury Abbey, 19, 97 Glossary, 115 Gloucester Cathedral, 43, 73, 94, 106, 110 Gothic Architecture, Leading Characteristics, 63 Gothic Styles, The, 47 Grantham, 101 Greenstead Church, Essex, 32, 34, 35 Grosmont, Monmouth, 81

Hackness, 96 Hanwell, Oxford, 94 Hartland Church, 92 Hawkesmore, 76 Heckington, 86, 101 Heigham, 72 Henry I., 44 Henry II., 49 Henry III., 44, 48, 49 Hereford Cathedral, 57, 110 Hexham, 82, 109 Hutchinson, Rev. J. M. (quoted), 49

Iffley Church, Oxford, 39

Jenkyns, Canon (quoted), 25 John, King, 44, 48, 49 Jones, Inigo, 75, 78

Kemsing, Kent, 92 Kenton Church, Devon, 90, 92 King's College Chapel, Cambridge, 107 King's Sutton, 101 Knights Hospitallers, 44 Knights Templars, 43

Lady Chapel, Exeter, 60 Langham Place, 78 Lastingham Church, York, 110 Laud, Archbishop, 16 Ledbury, Hereford, 103 Leighton Buzzard, 101 Lichfield, Abbot, 97 Lichfield, Cathedral, 57, 101 Lincoln Cathedral, 43, 52, 57, 63, 81, 106 Little Billing, 84 Little Maplestead, 44 Llanrhaiadr-y-Kinmerch, 107 Luidhard, Bishop, 23 Long Melford Church, Suffolk, 73 Long Sutton, 92 Luton Church, 58 Lyminge, 25

Magdalen College, Oxford, 90 Malmesbury (family), 110 Manchester Cathedral, 73, 88 Markland (quoted), 97 Mary, Queen, 81, 92 Marylebone Church, 78 Melbury Bubb, 84 Merton College, Oxford, 58, 60, 106 Minehead, 92 Morley Church, Derbyshire, 107 Morris, William, 107 Morton Church, Soms., 73 Mouldings— Norman, 37 Early English, 52 Decorated, 62 Perpendicular, 69

Newark, Notts., 92 New College, Oxford, 72 Norbury, Derbyshire, 106 Norman Architecture, 35 Norwich Cathedral, 29, 43

Ornaments— Norman, 37 Early English, 52 Decorated, 60, 62 Perpendicular, 68, 69, 70 Ornaments, Church, 80 Oxford Cathedral, 43, 101

Palladio, 74, 75 Parham, 84 Parker (quoted), 31, 35, 88 Parliament, Houses of, 78 Patrixbourne Church, Kent, 41 Perkins, Rev. T. (quoted), 110 Perpendicular Styles, 64 Perpendicular Towers, 72 Perpendicular Spires, 73 Peterborough Cathedral, 29, 43, 57 Philippa, Queen, 84 Piscinas, 87 Piers— Norman, 42 Early English, 54 Decorated, 60 Perpendicular, 68 Plymtree, 92 Pointed Arch, The, 49 Porches, 53 Porlock Church, Somerset, 81 Pugin, 78, 79 Pulpits, 90 Pyecombe, 84 Pylle Church, 86

Radipole Church, Dorset, 98 Ravenna, 33 Reculver, 25 Reform Club, 79 Renaissance, The, 74 Repton Church, Derby, 109, 110 Reredos, The, 94 Richard I., 48, 49 Richborough, 25 Rickman (quoted), 35 Ripon Cathedral, 32, 109 Rievaulx, 47 Rochester Cathedral, 42, 57, 109 Rolvenden Church, Kent, 86 Romanesque Style, The, 27 Rome, 33 Ross, 101 Rotherham Church, Yorks., 70 Rothwell Church, 87 Round Churches, The, 44 Routledge, Rev. C. F., M.A., F.S.A., 24

Saffron Walden, 73 Saint Alban's Cathedral, 54, 94 Saint Andrew's, Norwich, 73 Saint Anselm, 110 Saint Augustine, 19 Saint Benet's, Cambridge, 32 Saint Chad's Cathedral, Birmingham, 79 Saint Clement's, Norfolk, 73 Saint Cross, Winchester, 39 Saint David's, Cathedral, 57, 73 Saint Dunstan, 96 Saint Edmundsbury, 97 Saint Edmund, Martyr, 35 Saint Etheldreda, 58 Saint Ethelwold, 103 Saint Giles', Oxford, 81 Saint Hilda, 96 Saint Lawrence, Bradford-on-Avon, 32, 33 Saint Margaret's, Westminster, 107 Saint Mark's, Venice, 28 Saint Mary Abchurch, 76 Saint Mary Magdalene, Ripon, 81 Saint Mary Redcliffe, Bristol, 73 Saint Mary's, Cambridge, 73 Saint Mary's, Dover, 22 Saint Mary's, Lincoln, 32 Saint Mary's, Luton, 84 Saint Mary's, Newark, 101 Saint Mary's, Norwich, 73 Saint Mary's, Ottery, 92 Saint Mary's, Oxford, 73, 101 Saint Mary's, Stamford, 92 Saint Mary's, Taunton, 73 Saint Mary's, Wareham, 81, 84 Saint Mary's, Woolnoth, 76 Saint Mary's, York, 32 Saint Martin's, Canterbury, 22 Saint Martin's, Wareham, 32 Saint Michael's, Coventry, 73 Saint Michael's, Oxford, 32, 34, 94 Saint Nicholas, Lynn, 73 Saint Nicholas, Newcastle, 73 Saint Nicholas, Yarmouth, 63 Saint Paul the Apostle, 19 Saint Paul's Cathedral, 75, 76, 101 Saint Paul's Churchyard, 90 Saint Patrick, 21 Saint Peter Port, Guernsey, 98 Saint Peter's in the East, Oxford 110 Saint Peter's, Lincoln, 32 Saint Peter's, Norwich, 73 Saint Peter's, Rome, 75, 76 Saint Pierre, Caen, 101 Saint Piran's, Perranporth, 21 Saint Saviour's, Dartmouth, 90, 92 Saint Saviour's Southwark, 94 Saint Sepulchre, Cambridge, 44 Saint Sepulchre, Northampton, 44 Saint Sophia, Constantinople, 28 Saint Stephen's, Bristol, 73 Saint Stephen's Chapel, Westminster, 58 Saint Stephen's, Walbrook, 76 Saint Thomas a Becket, 110 Saint Wilfrid's Needle, 109 Saint Wolfstan, 103 Salisbury Cathedral, 47, 57, 101, 106 Sanctuary Knockers, 82 Saxon Architecture, 31 Saxon Churches, 32 Scott (quoted), 31 Screens, 92 Sedilia, 87 Shottesbrook Church, Berks, 66, 103 Shrewsbury, 90 Silchester, 25 Snettisham, Norfolk, 101 Solihull, Warwickshire, 94 Sompting, Sussex, 32, 99 Southwell, 57, 87 Southwold Church, Suffolk, 73 Speyer Cathedral, 29 Spires, 73, 99 Squints, 90 Stalls, 88 Stanford, Leicester, 106 Stone Church, Kent, 54 Stoups, 86

Temple Balsall, 44 Temple Church, London, 44 Tenby, 90 Tewkesbury Abbey, 106 Thaxted Church, Essex, 73 Thornham Church, Kent, 86 Towers, 33, 72 Transom, The, 46, 49 Trinity Church, Ely, 58 Tympana, 41

Uffendon, Devon, 92

Vitruvius, 74

Wakefield Church, Yorkshire, 73 Walpole, Horace, 78 Walton-on-the-Hill, Surrey, 84 Wansted, Oxford, 101 Wantsume, 25 Warmington, Warwickshire, 81 Wells Cathedral, 53, 57, 110 West Horsley, Surrey, 106 Westminster Abbey, 48, 57, 63, 76, 78, 103 Westminster Hall, 73 Westminster, Henry's VII.'s Chapel, 68, 88, 89 Westwell, Kent, 106 Wilford Church, Oxford, 101 William the Conqueror, 96 Wimborne Minster, 110 Wimmington Church, Bedfordshire, 66 Winchester Cathedral, 43, 63, 72, 85, 88, 103, 110 Winchester College, 72 Windows— Saxon, 32 Norman, 39 Early English, 52 Decorated, 58 Perpendicular, 68 Wing, 32 Wootton Wawen, 32 Worcester Cathedral, 57, 109, 110 Worms Cathedral, 29 Wren, Sir Christopher, 75, 76 Wrexham Church, 72 Wroxhall Abbey, 106 Wykeham, William of, 72, 84 Wymondham Church, 72

York Minster, 32, 57, 63, 66, 73, 94, 106, 109



THE HOMELAND HANDBOOKS

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