279. In case either lock or primer should entirely fail, recourse will be had to the friction-primers or to the spur-tubes. In using the first, the Captain of the gun, after taking the primer from the box, will raise up the twisted wire-loop until it is on a line with the spur; place the tube in the vent with the spur towards the muzzle of the gun, and so that this spur will rest on the lock-piece; then hook the lanyard into the raised loop, and pull it, when otherwise ready to fire the gun, as though it were a lock-string, using, however, a less degree of force. The lanyard may be hooked to the loop before the tube is put into the vent. When the spur-tubes are used, the Gun Captain exposes the priming and the 2d Captain applies the match.

280. The men should be practised at unloaded guns, in placing the primers, both percussion and friction, properly, and in pulling the lock-string so as to insure their explosion, until this very essential knowledge and skill have been perfectly attained.

EIGHTH COMMAND.

"POINT!"

"His eye ranging over the sights!"

281. The Gun Captain gives the necessary order, "Right" or "Left," "Raise" or "Lower," by voice or sign. He alone should speak, giving his orders in a sharp, clear tone, but not louder than necessary for his own crew to hear him.

282. He should make use of the following signs to assist in making himself understood, which, when the crew become well drilled, are sufficient without the verbal orders.

IN POINTING.—He should move the left hand, held vertically, to the right or left, according as he wishes the right or left tackle hauled upon.

IN ELEVATING.—He should move the hand, held horizontally, up or down, according as he wishes the breech raised or lowered.

283. Officers of divisions, while instructing the men in aiming, should be particular in impressing upon their minds the necessity of bringing the eye to an exact level with the bottom of the sight-notch, as otherwise they will fire too high.

284. In lateral training, when the direction of the gun is frequently changed by the coming up or falling off of the ship, or when the position of the object to be fired at is rapidly changing by passing in opposite directions, or from other causes, it is better to train a little beyond, and then watch the proper moment for firing, instead of endeavoring to train at once directly on the object.

285. The lateral training, or pointing, when considerable, should always precede the elevation; because, the jarring of the gun is apt to alter the elevation.

286. "If roller handspike is not used in training." A great difference of opinion exists on this point. The use of the roller handspike somewhat facilitates extreme train, but the gun cannot be fired until it is unshipped, which alters the elevation and consumes time. It is perhaps preferable to use one handspike under the bracket, manned by two men, and the other to lift and slue the gun, manned by one man, under the transom.

287. "Elevate or Depress as directed!" If the carriage is fitted with a quoin, handspikemen standing between the handspikes and the side of the ship, place their handspikes on the steps of the carriage and raise the breech. As soon as the quoin is free, the 2d Captain takes hold of it with both hands and withdraws the quoin to the full extent; handspikemen "raise" or "lower" the gun slowly and steadily. When the proper elevation is given, the Gun Captain gives the word "Well!" and the 2d Captain forces the quoin tight under the breech, giving the word "Down!"

288. To facilitate the operation of pointing guns according to the distance of the object aimed at, sights are prepared and fitted to each gun; and breast-sweeps for all truck-carriages of heavy guns.

The ordinary sights consist of two pieces of bronze gun-metal, one of which, called the reinforce-sight, is a fixed point, firmly secured to the sight-mass, upon the upper surface of the gun between the trunnions. The heads of the sights should not be bright, otherwise it interferes with the aim when they are exposed to a bright sun.

289. The other, or breech-sight, is a square bar or stem, with a head, in the top of which is a sight-notch. It is set diagonally, so as to expose two faces to the rear; the rear angle chamfered, to afford a bearing for the clamp-screw. This bar or stem is made to slide in a vertical plane, in the sight-box fixed to the breech sight-mass, and is held at the various elevations for which it is graduated by means of a thumb-screw. Its length is sufficient for all the elevation which can be given—about 5 deg.—before the muzzle appears above the front sight, after which a long wooden sight must be used, graduated for the whole length of the gun, using the notch in the muzzle.

The bar or stem of the sight has lines across its faces denoting for all the old guns degrees of elevation, each of which is marked with the number of yards at which a shot or shell will strike the point aimed at, when that line is brought to a level with the top of the sight-box, and the gun is loaded with a specified charge of powder; for the guns of the new system, the ranges are marked in even hundreds of yards.

The uppermost line on the stem marked level is the zero of the other graduations, and when adjusted to the level of the top of the sight-box, the bottom of the notch in the head of the breech-sight and the apex of the reinforce-sight show the dispart of the gun. When the line of sight coincides with these points, it is parallel to the bore, and when continued to a distant horizon, the gun is laid level or horizontal.

Sights should invariably be made so that the level line on the stem will correspond with the bottom of the head when it rests on the sight-box, and thus secure a dispart-sight in case of accident to the screw in the sight-box.

A white line, one-fourth (.25) of an inch wide, drawn on top of the gun from the breech-sight to the notch on the swell of the muzzle, has been found to greatly facilitate the aim. For night-firing a broad wooden block, painted dead-white, to ship over the reinforce-sight, leaving 1/4 of an inch of the sight exposed, will assist in preventing the aim from being too high.

290. For shot-guns the ranges in yards for one shot with the distant-firing charge of powder are marked for each degree of elevation on the right in-board face of the sight-bar; for the ordinary firing, on the left face.

291. The gun being placed a certain height above the water, depending on the class of vessel and the deck on which it is mounted, it is evident that, when the axis of the bore is horizontal, the shot will have a range proportionate to this height. This range or distance is commonly called point-blank, or point-blank range, and is the number noted in the column marked P.B., or 0 deg., or level in range tables.

This point-blank, therefore, depends on the class of gun, the charge, and the height above the water.

292. A preferable definition of this distance is "range at level."

293. The aim is always supposed to be directed at the water-line. But, with the sight-bar at level, if a gun is aimed by it at the water-line of a vessel at point-blank range, the shot would strike short of the point aimed at by about one-quarter of the distance; or, if aimed, under similar conditions, at the upper part of the hull, the shot would fall a distance below the point aimed at equal to the height of the gun.

294. In firing at small objects, particularly boats, within point-blank range, it is therefore important to attend to this source of error. It is desirable that all sights should be marked, from 100 yards to the greatest range, and thus avoid all consideration of point-blank.

In fitting new guns, or those upon which the sights require replacing, the sight-bar will be fitted as described in Article 289, and graduated from 100 yards downwards.

For shell-guns the ranges are marked for shells on the sight-bars, in the same manner as those for the shot of shot-guns.

295. These sights being each adjusted to a particular gun, and marked with its class and number, do not, in strictness, admit of being transferred to other guns, even of the same class.

296. When used, the stem of the breech-sight must be raised or lowered, to correspond with the ascertained or estimated distance, in yards, of the object aimed at, and firmly secured there by the thumb-screw. Then, if the ship be steady, elevate or depress the gun until the line of sight from the bottom of the notch of the breech-sight, the top of the reinforce-sight, and the point to be struck, will coincide; but if the ship have a rolling motion the gun must be so laid, after the sight is set for the distance, that this coincidence may be obtained, if possible, at the most favorable part of every roll which the ship makes.

297. The inclination of the line of metal to the axis of the bore varies in guns of the same class, as well as in those of different classes. Aiming, therefore, by the line of metal cannot be relied on for definite ranges; besides that, within those ranges, it is apt to mislead by giving too much elevation to the piece. Therefore, when the established sights are not furnished, or have become unserviceable, wooden dispart-sights lashed on the reinforce should be immediately substituted. A narrow groove in the upper surface of the wooden sight, made to coincide with the plane of the line of sight marked on the gun, will assist the Gun Captain in getting the true direction quickly.

Half the difference between the diameters of the gun at the base-ring and swell of the muzzle, or at any intermediate point on the line of metal, will give the proper height of the dispart-sight at the point where the least diameter was taken, to which must be added the height of the lock-piece above the base-ring, in order to get a line of sight over it, parallel to the axis of the bore.

The guns of the Dahlgren pattern are cylindrical for a certain distance forward of the base-line, always giving a line of sight parallel to the axis of the bore.

298. All the new guns are marked on the top of the lock-piece, base-ring, the reinforce sight-mass, and the swell of the muzzle, by notches which indicate a vertical plane passing through the axis of the bore, at right angles to the axis of the trunnions.

299. Pivot-guns have been supplied with trunnion-sights, designed to be used when the ordinary sights do not give the required elevation. This instrument, however, gives but a rude approximation in either elevation or direction.

300. The rifled cannon in service have the breech-sight on the side of the breech and the front sight on the rimbase, which permits the gun to be accurately aimed and the object kept in view at all elevations. It is intended in future to apply this arrangement to all cannon mounted on pivot-carriages.

301. Various modes have been practised to ascertain at sea the distance from the object aimed at, so as to regulate the elevation of guns, but none can be depended upon for giving it with minute accuracy, and even when obtained it is continually varying; therefore, when the projectile is seen to exceed or fall short of the object considerably, the sight-bar must be readjusted accordingly. It thus becomes, under ordinary circumstances, the best instrument for approximating distances. In correcting the elevation, however, the variation of range to the first graze, attributable to eccentricity, differences of windage, and other causes, must be taken into consideration, as, under the most favorable circumstances, at the Experimental Battery of the Ordnance Yard, this variation is found to equal fifty yards, more or less.

302. In addition to the errors arising from these sources, we have also those due to the direction and force of the wind, the movement of the ship across the line of fire, and to sheering round a pivot when performing evolutions.

303. They can be obviated or diminished by the following means:

1st. Allow the Gun Captain to estimate the distance to windward or to leeward, right or left, to be allowed for the deflection; or,

2d. Indicate the number of yards right or left of the object; which, after all, depends on his estimation of distance.

3d. Furnish a sight which, in addition to the elevation, allows for the deviation, and permits the Gun Captain in all cases to aim directly at the target.

Such a sight is furnished to the Parrott rifles, and is desirable for all guns.

304. In case the ordinary sights should be lost or rendered useless, tangent firing may be resorted to against ships, by pointing with the wooden dispart-sight at such part of the ship as the Tables indicate for the distance, and according to the class of gun in use at the time.

A Table of this kind is appended, which has been calculated for the 8-inch and some of the heavier of the 32-pounder guns when loaded with single shot and distant-firing charges.

The different classes of sailing ships-of-war, whether of the same or of different nations, are not of the same length, nor are their masts of the same height from the deck, or from the water. They, however, correspond so nearly, for the same class of ships of the same nation, that calculations made from the angles subtended by the average height of their masts, will generally give their distance with sufficient accuracy for general firing.

Tables are inserted at the end of the book, in which the distances corresponding to different angles made by the masts of English and French ships-of-war are shown—from which the intermediate distances due to other angles may be estimated, and the sights regulated accordingly, if circumstances should render it desirable. Also an abridged Table, in which the height of our own mast is used as the base.

305. Officers of divisions and Captains of guns should be occasionally practised in measuring the distances of objects by the eye, at times when opportunities offer of verifying the accuracy of their estimate by comparing it with the distance obtained by the foregoing methods, or any other which will afford the best means of comparison.

306. Within point-blank range, if the hull of an enemy's vessel is obscured by smoke or darkness, the aim may be directed by the flashes of his guns.

307. Most naval guns are now fitted with elevating screws, passing through a hole in the cascabel of the Dahlgren system, and for those of the old system attached to the carriage: but the ordinary beds and quoins are also still in use; they are arranged to allow the extreme elevation and depression of the guns which the ports will admit with safety. When the inner or thick end of the quoin is fair with the end of the bed in place, the gun is level in the carriage; or horizontal, when the ship is upright. The degrees of elevation above this level, which may be given to the gun by drawing out the quoin when laid on its base, are marked on the side or edge, and those of depression on the flat part of the quoin, so that when the quoin is turned on its side for depressing, the marks may be seen. The level mark on the quoin is to correspond with the end of the bed. When the quoin is entirely removed, and the breech of the gun rests on the bed, the gun has its greatest safe elevation; and when the quoin is pushed home on its side, the gun has the greatest safe depression that the port will admit.

Care must be taken that the stop on the quoin is always properly lodged, to prevent the quoin from flying out or changing its position, and that the bed is secured to the bed-bolt.

Porter's bed and quoin has been adopted for all carriages requiring quoins. This quoin, being graduated to whole degrees, requires a small additional quoin for slight differences of elevation in smooth water.

When the elevating screw is used, a quoin should be at hand to place under the breech of the gun, when at extreme elevation, to relieve the screw from the shock of the discharge, and prevent a change of the elevation, as well as to take the place of the screw if it should be disabled. When the fire is continuous at the same distance, the lever of the elevating screw should be secured by a lanyard, to prevent the screw from turning and altering the elevation.

308. If a greater elevation for broadside-guns should be desired for any special purpose, it may be obtained by placing inclined planes behind the rear trucks, for them to recoil over and produce a corresponding depression of the muzzle of the gun as it comes within the port. But it will be observed that, beyond the elevation which the ports will admit of, the sights can no longer be taken by the tangent or any other top sight, as the upper sill of the port interferes. The gun must therefore be laid by the quoin and pendulum.

Additional depression may also be obtained by placing inclined planes for the front trucks to recoil upon, or by raising the breech by means of a wooden toggle placed vertically under it. One end of a tripping-line is fastened to the middle of the toggle, and the other to the breeching-bolt in the side of the ship; by this arrangement the toggle is tripped from its place at the commencement of the recoil, and the muzzle is raised so as to clear the port-sill by the preponderance of the breech.

NINTH COMMAND.

"READY—FIRE!"

"Waits patiently for the coincidence of the sights upon the object."

309. The exact moment for firing, at sea, necessarily varies with circumstances; but when these are favorable the following general principles should govern:

310. When the ship is steady, the gun should be fired when the line of sight is brought upon the object; but when the ship has much rolling motion, the moment for firing should be chosen a little before, so that the shot will probably leave the gun when the roll brings the line of sight upon the object aimed at.

When practicable, and too much time will not be lost, it will be best to fire when the vessel is on the top of a wave and just begins to roll towards the object. If the loss of time should be found objectionable, the gun may be fired at any other instant, when properly pointed, giving a preference, however, to the moment when rolling towards rather than when rolling from the object, and making due allowance for the probable change of elevation by the roll of the ship before the shot leaves the gun.

311. If, from any cause, the firing should be delayed after the gun has been pointed, it should be carefully pointed again before the order to fire is given.

312. The great object is to fire low enough to strike the hull if the shot preserve the intended direction, and as a general rule to strike it near the water-line.

313. To avoid loss of shot from lateral deviations, it is recommended to direct all the guns to be pointed to strike somewhere between the fore and mizzen masts of an enemy; when quite near, the guns of the forward divisions should be pointed in preference to that part of the hull about the foremast, and one or two of the after guns at the rudder, if it should be fairly exposed.

REMARKS ON THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF FIRING.

314. FIRING AT WILL.—By this is meant firing the guns independently of each other, each Captain of a gun seizing the most favorable opportunity. This firing should always be used in action—unless ordered to the contrary—whenever the object is visible, the smoke from one gun not greatly impeding the firing of another.

315. FIRING IN SUCCESSION.—By this is meant firing one gun after another in regular order, commencing from the foremost or after gun, according as the wind is blowing from aft or forward. This firing may be used with advantage in the commencement of an action, or whenever a continuous, steady fire is desired, as the smoke from one gun will not impede the firing of the next.

316. QUICK FIRING.—By this is meant rapid firing at will, the tangent-sight not being raised. This firing should be used only when close alongside an enemy, as then but little pointing would be required.

317. When the guns are laid for the projectile to strike the object aimed at without grazing between the gun and the object, the firing is said to be direct. This mode of firing is to be preferred when the object fired at is so near that the chances of hitting it are very great, and also when the intervening surface between the gun and object is so rough or irregular that a projectile striking it would have its velocity much diminished or destroyed, and its direction injuriously affected.

DIRECT FIRING requires a good knowledge of distance, and precision both of elevation and lateral direction, in order to strike an object which is comparatively a point. It is always to be preferred when the distance is accurately known.

318. When the guns are so laid that the projectile makes numerous grazes between the gun and the object, and continues its flight, the firing is denominated ricochet.

That properly so called is performed at level, or at most at three degrees of elevation; shot will often ricochet at much greater angles, but it is not what is meant by ricochet firing.

RICOCHET FIRING, upon a smooth surface within certain distances, has some important advantages over direct firing. When the guns have very little or no elevation, and are near the water, as they are in a ship's battery, the projectile strikes the water at a very small angle; its flight is not greatly retarded by the graze, and it rises but little above the surface in its course. The distant charge should always be used, but the penetration is not to be depended on beyond 1,500 yards against ships-of-war.

Ricochet firing at low elevations requires only correct lateral direction, since the projectile would rarely pass over and would probably strike a vessel if within its effective range, whether the actual distance had been correctly ascertained or not.

The deviation of projectiles is, however, generally increased by ricochet, and in proportion to the roughness of the surface of the water. Even a slight ripple will make a perceptible difference not only in direction, but in range and penetration, and the height to which the projectile will rise in its bounds.

Although these facts demand attention, yet when the estimated distance does not require an elevation of more than three degrees, projectiles from guns pointed rather too low for direct firing will probably ricochet and strike the object with effect, even when the water is considerably rough. This may be called "accidental ricochet."

When the water is not smooth, the most favorable circumstances for ricochet firing are when the flight of the shot is with the roll of the sea, and that roll is long and regular.

Ricochet will be effective against small objects up to 2,000 yards, but should not commence at less than 600 yards; at less distances it is preferable to fire direct. Ricochet is of no value from rifled guns firing elongated projectiles, as they lose all certainty of direction on the rebound.

Upon smooth water, a shot fired horizontally from the 32-pdr. of 33 cwt., with 4-1/2 lbs. powder, ricocheted and rolled about 3,000 yards; the greatest range obtained from an elevation of 5 deg., with the same gun and charge, was less than 1,800 yards. See Dahlgren's Report on 32-pdr. of 32 cwt., p. 90.

Shot rarely ricochet at all with elevations above 5 deg., and the bounds are always higher, with equal charges from the same gun, as the elevation of the gun is increased.

319. Concentration of fire may be desirable under certain circumstances; and arrangements have been sometimes made to secure it by the simultaneous discharge of a number of guns upon some part of an object whose distance is known.

The advantages of these arrangements are not very obvious, excepting in cases where the position of the enemy may be visible from one part of a ship and not from all the guns in the batteries.

The object sought to be obtained is therefore to aim from in-board at an invisible target, the distance and direction of which are indicated by the Captain. It is consequently necessary that he shall be so placed as to obtain a distinct view of the enemy, or have suitable observers to inform him of his exact position.

320. In general, this sort of fire has been of little efficacy; but by the aid of a simple implement, readily made on board ship, it is believed that good results may be obtained, and particularly at night, when firing from guns on covered decks is now absolutely ineffective.

It consists of a simple metal or wooden batten, sliding in two beckets attached to the outer or inner sides of each of the brackets of the carriage, retained in any position by a thumb-screw. This batten is graduated by experiment or calculation for either the parallel or converging fire, for such points on the bow, beam, or quarter, as may be deemed advisable.

A small knob is screwed into the inner end of each batten, and a cod-line provided, with a loop in each end, somewhat longer than the width across the transom. If, then, one of the battens be drawn out to the graduation representing the degree of train required, the line stretched taut from the two knobs and hitched, and guns trained until this line is parallel to a mark on the deck, or one of the seams of the deck-plank—if they are parallel to the keel—the guns will all make the required angle, and may be fired simultaneously or in succession, as ordered.



321. The principal object in view, therefore, is so to prepare the training by anticipation, that when the smoke rises, or on sheering the vessel, the enemy shall be visible to all the Gun Captains at the same time; giving them the choice to fire at will, or on a given signal, if simultaneous fire be desired.

It diminishes the great disadvantages of guns on covered decks, where the Gun Captains can only with difficulty ascertain the direction of the enemy; and places the whole battery more completely under the control of the Commander.

322. The principal care of the Commander must be to keep his guns always bearing on the enemy, and never pass the limits of extreme train for all his guns, unless absolutely necessary in manoeuvring.

This he must regulate, either by one of the guns in his vicinity, or, better, by the aid of a bearing-plate, a species of plane-table which gives the angular bearing of the object.

323. Concentration of fire upon a particular part of an enemy's vessel may also be obtained by a general order for the guns to be aimed to strike that part when visible, leaving the Captains of guns to determine the proper time for firing, according to circumstances at the moment. This obviates the objections due to simultaneous firing, and would generally be equally effective at distances beyond point-blank. In this, as in all other cases of firing at sea, success depends mainly upon the skill, judgment, and coolness of the Captains of the guns.

THE USE OF FUZES.

324. All spherical shells, except those for the 24 and 12 pdr. howitzer, and all shrapnell, are fitted with the Navy time-fuze.

This fuze is composed of a composition driven in a paper case, and then inserted in a metal stock which screws into a bouching fitted to the shell.

The composition is covered with a safety-cap, which protects it from moisture and accidental ignition; also with a water-cap of peculiar construction, intended to protect the flame from being extinguished on ricochet.

A safety-plug at the lower extremity prevents the communication of fire to the powder in the shell, in the event of the accidental ignition of the fuze after being uncapped.

325. It is strictly forbidden to show or explain to foreigners or others the construction of any fuzes, except so far as may be necessary for the service of the guns.

326. These fuzes are of 3-1/2, 5, 7, 10, 15, and 20 seconds time of burning; which are supposed to offer a sufficient variety for most of the exigencies of service. There are also supplied paper-case fuzes of greater length, which, when used, are always to be inserted in metal stocks.

All the Navy time-fuzes—paper case as well as metal stock—being intended for use under a water-cap, burn a longer time in the open air.

All shells, unless otherwise ordered, are fitted and issued from the shell-houses with the 5-seconds fuze, which is to be regarded as the general working fuze.

For greater or less distances this fuze may be drawn, and any of the others substituted.

The Navy time-fuze is rarely extinguished by several ricochets on water; and near the end of its flight, when fired direct, frequently acts by concussion.

The fuze used should not be of longer time of burning than requisite to reach the object; the shorter times are of quicker composition, therefore more certain; also in firing on ricochet the shell may sink short of the distance necessary for its explosion, and consequently be supposed to fail.

327. For special firing, as for example at shore-batteries or masses of uncovered troops, any of these fuzes may be shortened. To do this, unscrew the water-cap and back the paper case out from the lower end with a drift and mallet; cut off from the lower end with a fine saw, or sharp knife struck with a mallet, the proportional part required, and insert the upper part in the stock, forcing it down with a few gentle blows with the drift; screw on the water-cap. It is preferable, however, when circumstances will admit, to take up such distance as will correspond with the time of flight of one of the regulation lengths. When firing against ships or earthworks, the fuze should be a little longer than necessary, in order to reach the object before bursting; but a little shorter when firing against boats or masses of troops, in order to insure its bursting in front of them.

328. The Bormann fuze is fitted to the 24-pdr. and 12-pdr. howitzer ammunition, and all shrapnell. It has also been fitted to certain shells used for special firing. The length of fuze is the limit of the distance within which this fire is effective.

This fuze is opened at the required number of seconds, by cutting close to the right of the mark on the index-plate. The cut should be made down to the plane of the table, in order to expose the composition; and is best made at two or three efforts, instead of trying to effect the cut at once. This fuze should be carefully explained to the men, as shells have been taken from guns with the cut made into the priming-magazine, which would explode them at the muzzle.

329. There are also on trial for the rifled cannon the percussion and time fuzes of Schenkl, Hotchkiss, Parrott, and others.

No reliable percussion or concussion-fuze has as yet been arranged for spherical shells.

330. These fuzes will be exhibited and explained by the Ordnance Officer on the application of Commanders of vessels, who, with the Executive Officer and Gunner, are enjoined to make themselves thoroughly acquainted with this most important part of the equipment.

331. Commanders of vessels will carefully note and report the efficiency of all fuzes fired in action or exercise; giving the elevation of the gun, the estimated or measured range, the number fired, the name of the inventor, whether percussion or time, the number of failures to explode the shell, premature explosions, and satisfactory action. Great waste of ammunition is frequently occasioned by an under-estimate of the distance.

332. The times of flight and length of fuze for all projectiles, so far as ascertained at the Experimental Battery at Washington, are given in the TABLE OF RANGES, Appendix B.

333. The best effect of a percussion-fuze is obtained by firing into a mass of timber. They frequently fail if fired into a bank of soft earth, sand, or other material which does not offer a sufficiently sudden resistance; also, if fired at high angles of elevation, owing to the fact that the rifle-shells do not generally strike point foremost.

334. Time-fuzes are also very unreliable in rifle-guns; expanding projectiles cut off the flame from the fuze.

With the Parrott shell, however, the Navy time-fuze is the most certain of ignition and regular in its time of burning. The safety-plug should be removed when the Navy time-fuse is used in rifled cannon, as recent experiments show that it is a probable cause of premature explosions of shells.

In testing the Navy time-fuse by the watch, or michronometer, the safety-plug must be removed: otherwise the fuze will burn longer than the time for which it is marked.

BOARDERS.

335. It is not supposed that any directions can be framed which will entirely provide for all the various circumstances which may require attention when about to board an enemy, or to repel a similar assault made by an enemy upon our vessels.

The following general suggestions are, however, presented for the consideration of Captains, in order that some degree of uniformity may be preserved when other more important considerations do not prevent it.

336. Upon the signal for Boarders, the divisions called should form on the gangway of the side which is not engaged, properly armed, and remain there until ordered elsewhere, provided there be time to make this disposition of them. In all movements from one part of the ship to another, cutlasses should be sheathed and pistols in the frogs. The men of each division should be united as much as possible under their own officer. Bayonets not fixed until ordered.

"PREPARE TO BOARD!"

(FROM ANY SPECIFIED PART OF THE SHIP.)

337. The Boarders should repair to the place directed, taking care to keep themselves down so as not to be seen by the enemy, and form close to the bulwarks, until the order is given to—

"BOARD THE ENEMY!"

338. The Boarders should then gain the enemy's deck as quickly as possible, keeping near enough to each other for mutual support, and to act in concert against the opposing force, using every possible exertion to clear the enemy's decks by disabling or driving the men below.

In case the intention of boarding should be discovered by the enemy, and he collects his men to repel the attack, the marines and small-arm men should take positions where they can best fire upon the men thus collected; and, if possible, the spar-deck guns loaded with grape, and howitzers loaded with canister, should be used for the same purpose before the Boarders are ordered to make the attack.

So long as the contest is continued after boarding, the fire should be kept up against the enemy from all the guns with as much vigor as the number of men remaining at them will allow.

The guns should then be much depressed, in order that there may be little or no danger to our own men. Much positive injury may be inflicted on the enemy in this way, besides the advantages of dividing his attention at such an important moment.

If it should be necessary to repel Boarders from the enemy, the Boarders and Pikemen must be called, and at the order—

"PREPARE TO REPEL BOARDERS!"

(AT ANY SPECIFIED PART OF THE SHIP.)

339. The Pikemen should arrange themselves in rear of those armed with swords, and in situations which will allow them to rest the points of their pikes on the hammocks or rail, and cover that part of the ship and the parts where the assault is expected. The marines, with their muskets loaded and bayonets fixed, may be formed behind the Pikemen, or at any other place from which their fire on an assailing enemy may be most effective and least dangerous to our own men.

340. The moment an enemy commences his assault, the order—

"REPEL BOARDERS!"

Should be given, and every effort made to prevent his gaining or retaining any foothold in the ship.

It will, of course, be important to bring grape and musketry to bear at once upon the enemy's men when they are assembled for boarding, if they should be discovered in time.

The men left at the guns must be watchful that the enemy does not gain an entrance through ports or quarter-galleries.

341. In case the enemy should effect a landing on the decks, the pikes may, from their length and the press of the contending parties, become less efficient than the swords. Whenever this occurs, the sword must be brought into full use, as the most efficient weapon for attack or defence at such close quarters.

342. The howitzers, mounted on the field-carriage and charged with canister, should be ready for use in case of the enemy's getting a footing on the spar-deck.

343. Unless induced by circumstances to attempt to board the enemy first, the most favorable opportunity for attack will present itself when his men have been driven back; and to guard against the contingency of being repulsed, in all cases where the Boarders are called to attack the enemy they are to be covered by the marines and all the available small-arm men on deck.

344. The men, and especially the Boarders and Pikemen, must be exercised and encouraged to practise with the single stick and sword, as far as circumstances will allow.

GENERAL PRECAUTIONS TO BE OBSERVED IN TIME OF WAR.

345. In time of war, unless otherwise ordered by the Admiral commanding, every cruiser should at nightfall carefully extinguish all lights not absolutely necessary, and shade all those that are indispensable, that they may not be visible from out-board.

346. The watch on deck shall be mustered at their quarters, and the guns so far cast loose as the state of the weather will permit.

347. The officer of the watch shall, on taking the deck, ascertain that the means of making and answering signals and a competent signal-man are always at hand. It is his duty to make himself fully acquainted with all the day and night signals.

348. Before making night-signals, every light should be extinguished or covered.

349. Particular care is required, when it is expedient to conceal the lights of the ship, to look well to the cabin and wardroom lights. Ports and air-scuttles there, are more apt to be imperfectly masked or thrown open heedlessly by servants.

350. If in company with other vessels, two guns in each broadside must always be ready for making signals of immediate or urgent necessity.

351. No vessel cruising shall allow a strange or suspected vessel to come within gunshot, without the watch being at quarters and ready to open fire.

352. It is the duty of the officer of the watch to immediately inform the Commander of all suspicious movements which he may observe, or which may be reported to him, and of all unknown vessels or boats that may appear in sight.

353. Speed being one of the principal elements of military force, Steamers will, on going into action, have all the fires lighted and in condition to make steam.

The beat to quarters for action is therefore a signal to start fires in all the furnaces not in operation.

354. If at anchor singly or in squadron in our own waters, in those of an ally, or elsewhere within our right to exercise control, and where liable to an attack by an enemy in any form, no strange or suspicious vessel must be permitted to be underway between evening gun-fire and daylight. The nearest vessel must require her to anchor, and send an armed boat to ascertain her character.

355. If the Senior Officer opens fire on any vessel, the nearest vessel in a position to do so will also be prepared to fire to bring her to, if signalled. All boats to be hailed and ordered alongside to give the countersign, or to lay off on their oars to be visited by the guard-boat.

356. If at anchor in or about an enemy's waters, steam shall be kept up at night at all times, sufficient to move the vessel at half speed at least, and the engines moved certainly every hour, or oftener if necessary, to keep them in a condition for immediate service. In vessels with single engine, liable to be caught on the centres, means for turning it off to be kept at hand, and suitable persons stationed to attend to it.

357. The cable must be kept ready in every respect for slipping, with a stopper forward of the bits, and even unshackled, if the weather will permit, with a steady man stationed to slip or cut as may be requisite.

358. Some of the guns, and those such as may be brought most conveniently to bear upon the probable quarter of attack, must be loaded with grape and some with canister, and ample supplies for reloading be kept on deck. Appliances for extreme depression should be at hand for broadside-guns; a gun here and there depressed extremely. The Howitzers, on field-carriages, in place, and loaded with canister. Pikes distributed about the decks ready for use.

359. Small vessels lying in rivers or sounds, and liable to be attacked and carried by boarding, will have their boarding-nettings of wire rope secured at evening quarters; the guns cast loose; the watch completely armed and on the alert, and every preparation made for instantly slipping and getting under way and repelling boarders.

360. At the hail by the look-out of "Boat ahoy," without further orders or the striking of the bell, the engine should be started immediately, the slip-rope cut, and all boats are to be received while under way and the crew at quarters.

361. It is important that the arms of the watch below should be as accessible as possible, that no confusion may take place in case of being summoned suddenly. The engineer and watch in the fire and engine room must always be armed.

362. On dark, foggy, or hazy nights, no lights should be shown, nor the bell struck or watch piped to indicate the position of the vessel.

The look-outs, increased and cautioned to greater vigilance, relieved at least hourly, and visited by either the Commander or Executive Officer half hourly.

363. The safety of small vessels at night requires that they shall be always either underway, or else in readiness to be got so at the shortest warning.

364. If circumstances prevent this, the greater the necessity for increased precaution and vigilance, and therefore a picket or advice boat should be kept out in the direction from which attack may be expected; and, indeed, the resort of picket-boats should be observed whenever practicable and at all likely to be of service.

365. In case of sending away a boat that is to return before sunrise—which is always to be avoided, if possible—a concerted signal, such as a certain number of flashes of a light, preceded or followed by the firing of a certain number of muskets, must be made at the distance from the vessel of about one-half mile, the number to be agreed upon for each night as the boat leaves the vessel. A countersign is also to be given; but if not understood by the look-out, he is to call out "Enemy," at the same time warning the boat to keep off, at which the vessel will be got underway at once.

366. The boat must be furnished with suitable and reliable fireworks or other means for announcing instantly the approach of an enemy, and no excuse can be taken for a failure on the part of the picket to give the alarm. The capture of the picket-boat is a minor consideration.

367. When confident of being able to repel any force, the boat should return to give timely notice for preparation; and in this case it may be expedient to be prepared to light up the adjacent waters, to enable an effective fire to be opened on the enemy from guns and howitzers.

368. Commanding Officers of vessels situated as described in Art. 359, are required to practise their crews, by going on deck and hailing, "Boat ahoy," at least once a week.

The time taken for the execution of this order to be noted on the log.

369. In times of anticipated attack from rams or mail-clad vessels upon a fleet or single ship, it is recommended to load the guns with maximum charges and solid shot; but where there is doubt of the character of the assailant, the guns should only be loaded with the service powder charge having ready at hand shot, shell, shrapnell, grape, or canister, as the case may demand.

DIRECTIONS IN CASE OF FIRE.

370. In the following directions, no other object is proposed than to notice some of the more prominent and common preparations which may be generally made, and the measures to be adopted in vessels on the alarm of fire. The variety of circumstances under which that danger may be presented can only be successfully met by properly stationed, well-trained and disciplined men, judiciously directed by the Captain, and superintended by officers whose coolness and presence of mind are proof against every form and degree of danger, which alone will enable them to adopt and execute the best plans the emergency may require.

To this end the Captain will, as soon as the crew is organized, cause a FIRE-BILL to be prepared, adapted to the particular arrangements of his ship, and in accordance with these Directions, by which the crew is to be drilled once a week till expert, and after that occasionally. This fire-bill should, as far as possible, conform to the arrangement for extinguishing fire during exercise at General Quarters. Much confusion has been known to arise from requiring different duties from the same person at Fire Quarters, and in case of fire when at General Quarters.

371. Should the alarm of fire be given when the men are not at Quarters, that alarm of itself is to be considered as a call to Quarters, and the men must repair to their stations at once. This must be impressed upon the men by the Division Officers. But the ordinary call for inspection is to be given as soon as practicable, by way of enforcing the order.

The alarm will be given by the sentinel near the bell, by ringing quickly and loudly successive peals for ten or fifteen seconds, with short intervals between.

The bell is to cease, however, as soon as the drum begins to sound the call to Quarters.

Should it be deemed necessary to water and provision the boats, preparatory to lowering them, the drum will beat the usual call for provisions, when the men stationed for these purposes will promptly proceed with their duties. In this case the shot shall be drawn or discharged from the guns, to guard against accidents in leaving the vessel, should it be impossible to save her.

372. The Captain will direct the Executive Officer, and such others as he may deem proper, to visit the place of the fire, and to transmit reports to him, by officers, of its character and extent, and to suggest the measures which will most speedily and certainly subdue it, or prevent its extension.

373. He will, if at sea, cause the ship to be hove-to, or steered in such direction as will be least likely to increase the activity of the fire, or will best enable the men to use the means in their power for controlling and extinguishing it.

374. If fire should take place in a ship at anchor in port or harbor, his attention must be given to prevent the communication of the fire to other vessels or combustible objects, and to have the cables ready for slipping, boats ready, and, if advisable, springs prepared to change the position of the ship, in order to prevent danger to other vessels.

375. He will decide whether the magazines and shell-rooms shall be flooded, and give orders accordingly; whether the hammocks shall be brought up and stowed; where sentinels shall be placed, and what disposition shall be made of the sick and prisoners.

If hammocks are to be brought up, each man not a Fireman, Pumpman, Hoseman, Axeman, or Smotherer, or belonging to the Carpenter's gang, or detailed as a Sentinel over boats' falls or spirit-room, will lash and carry up two hammocks and stow them in the nettings on his way to Quarters. Blankets, or other woollen materials, when wet, afford an excellent means of smothering fire, and should be left out by the party lashing up the hammocks and collected by the Smothering party, in charge of an officer, whose duty it will be to see them properly used.

376. The Officers of the respective divisions will enforce the strictest observance of orders from those under their command, and allow no one to leave his station, unless by express orders or permission. At the same time they will direct the most trustworthy of their men to perform any particular duty within their divisions which may tend to check the spreading of the fire, or furnish the means of extinguishing it.

377. Officers of gun-deck divisions will be prompt to detach, under proper officers, men who may be directed for any particular service, or who may be called from the guns by the calls for Firemen, Sail-Trimmers, or Boarders. Should the call for Boarders be made in case of fire, the men will answer it without any other arms than their swords or battle-axes. Divisional Officers near the main or other pumps, will cause the men of their divisions to aid in rigging and working them. The ship's buckets are to be passed up to the pumps, as soon as possible, by the persons who may be stationed near them, and these and the fire-buckets and division-tubs filled. The swabs are also to be got up and thoroughly wetted.

Division-boxes, and all powder or explosive materials not in the magazines, must be taken in charge by the Quarter-Gunners and placed in the safest positions, ready to be thrown overboard if ordered.

378. The Officer commanding the Powder division will himself deliver the keys of the magazines, shell-rooms, and water-cocks to the Gunner, his Mate, and the men stationed at the water-cocks, and see that they are prepared to flood the magazines, if orders should be given to that effect; but he must take especial care that the magazines, passages, and shell-rooms are kept closed until orders to open them are received from the Captain.

379. He will also take care that the air-ports are immediately closed, and all other means adopted for diminishing currents of air, especially if there should be a hope of confining the fire to the lower parts of the vessel.

He will at once have the hose led from the bilge-cock, the cock turned, and, if the forcing-pump or engine is worked below the gun-deck, will see it manned and worked by some of the men of his division.

380. The Master will cause windsails to be taken down; and, if set, courses, spanker, and all lower sails hauled close up; head, channel, and all other pumps which work on upper deck, and fire-engine, if on deck, to be rigged and worked by the men of his division stationed nearest to each of them. If practicable, sails, rigging, boats, spars, and the sides of ship must be kept wet, and every exertion made to furnish a full supply of water for extinguishing the fire. Rigging-axes and battle-axes must be ready for use, in case they should be wanted for any purpose.

381. The Chief Engineer will detail such Assistant Engineers and men as may be needed to take charge of steam-pumps, to lead out hose, and to use such other means of extinguishing the fire as may be ordered or deemed advisable. If under steam, the main engine will be slowed on the first alarm of fire, unless otherwise expressly ordered, and the steam-pumps started.

382. The Surgeon and his assistants will be in readiness to destroy, if required, all inflammable fluids, or other medical stores which would increase the fire; and to superintend the removal, if necessary, of patients who may be lame or confined to hammocks or cots.

383. Exercises, by order of the Captain, following false alarms of fire, known only to him and the Executive Officer to be false at the time of giving the alarm, may, it is believed, be resorted to with advantage, especially at night.

Such alarms furnish the best means of ascertaining practically whether the necessary preparations for extinguishing fire have been duly attended to; and what degree of silence, calmness, and promptitude may be expected from officers and men in repairing to their stations, as well as in the performance of their duties in a real case of fire.

False alarms, frequently repeated, may perhaps lead some of the men to move slowly, under the impression that every alarm given is false, and merely intended for exercise; and this impression may be entertained even when a fire has actually taken place. This evil would, however, be comparatively small, since it will be readily admitted by any one who has witnessed the effect of a fire upon a crew at sea, that the great difficulty in such cases is to obtain that necessary quiet and orderly attendance at Quarters which is essential to the success of all subsequent measures.

FOOTNOTES:

[6] NOTE:—In order not to incumber the text with details, they are transferred to the "Notes on the Manual Exercise" (Art. 288 to 357), which are to be carefully studied. Also the notes to Pivot-Gun Exercise.

[7] See notes on this command and the succeeding one, "LOAD," for further important details.

[8] With the nib-blocks the train-tackle cannot be used to assist in securing the gun, unless a special eye-bolt is placed for this purpose.

[9] These should always be kept under the centre transom when the carriage is not in use; also in firing at high angles of elevation to relieve the rails of the shock.

[10] When the trucks are to be brought into play, the levers should be shipped on their axle-squares so as to heave upwards, past the centre, and rest against the wood of the Carriage or Slide; otherwise they must be kept in place by hand or by a pin, neither of which entirely secures the Levers from flying back and doing mischief. If hove down, they are apt to interfere with the Tackles.

In order to ship the Levers expeditiously on the proper square, both are to be marked with a cold chisel.

The Fore Carriage-Levers require the efforts of two men at each, as the weight of the gun has most bearing there; each of the other levers is readily worked by one man.

[11] Principally to moisten the Sponge, which ought never to be omitted, as there is nothing so effectual in extinguishing any fragments that might remain burning in the Bore, and cause accidental explosion in loading, particularly in blank firing. It is a mistake to suppose that this practice increases the foulness of the Bore; on the contrary, it prevents it from hardening and accumulating, as long experience has shown. Sometimes it is convenient for the Spongers to dip the Sponge alongside, and they soon acquire the habit. Superfluous moisture is easily gotten rid of by twirling the Sponge at the handle.

[12] Were it practicable to hook a tackle so that it would move the gun, even from amidships to the port, without being shifted, or were it prudent to leave the gun free while shifting the tackle, there would be no need of a second tackle. But it is not possible, in pivoting, to exert direct action for more than the eighth of a circle by one position of a tackle, and it is absolutely dangerous at sea to leave the Slide unconfined for an instant. When, therefore, the Outer-Tackle is a-block, the second tackle must be hooked and set taut.

[13, 14, & 15] These orders are to be executed in quick succession, so as to be nearly simultaneous; that is, the compression is first relieved by backing its lever, upon which the Front-Levermen instantly bring the carriage on its trucks, and the gun is run back by the In-Tackles, the Out-Tackles being eased gradually, so as to check any violent movement; for the trucks, being fitted with friction rollers, allow the heavy piece to move suddenly and rapidly.

[16] The pivoting of so heavy a Gun is the most complicated of all the operations with it, and demands special drill. When done to windward, the hearty effort of the whole Gun's crew is required, particularly if there be much crown to the deck and no deck circles; to leeward there is no difficulty, and the time at sea to pivot from side to side may vary from four to seven minutes. The advantage of the Pivot-Boss will now appear, as it secures the coincidence of the hole in Slide with that of the Socket, and permits the Bolt to be removed out or in easily. Hitherto the difficulty of doing so without a Boss has caused delay, and contributed more than any thing else to the objections entertained against such heavy Ordnance, which have been in nowise obviated by either the Pivot Shifting-Screws of our own Navy, or the Pivot-Flap of the English Navy.

[17] Some difference of opinion may arise in regard to the shipping of these levers before the gun is run out, and they are required for pointing. To ship them now amounts to having them on the whole time—to which the only objection is, that if on, before wanted in pointing they may be in the way of the men; and, on the other hand, if not on, more attention may be demanded from 15, 16.

The question will not be material when the men are well drilled.

[18] The gun being now pivoted to the Port, the Breechings should be shackled and the rear Pivot-Bolt drawn, in regular order. But neither of these can be done without running out the gun a few feet. For in order to pivot with the greatest ease, the carriage had been previously run back on the Slide to the rear Hurter, so as to bring the weight of the gun as near as possible to the Rear pivot, the very best position being with the Trunnions of the Gun just forward of the Rear pivot. The shackling of the Breeching and the removal of the Bolt are, therefore, deferred until the Gun has been run out in the subsequent proceedings.

The Breeching is always to be shackled to the Ship's side—not to the Slide, which needlessly strains the pivoting, and also causes the shackle with its appliances to interfere with the working parts at the forward end of the Slide.

[19] It is generally expected that the Compressors are to supersede the necessity for a Breeching. But experience shows that in firing it is better to rely habitually on the Breeching, and use the Compressors to assist. Thus, in firing to windward at Sea, the Compressors are always to be set, but only so hard as may be required to ease the shock on the Breeching. In firing to leeward, the Compressors are not wanted, except to secure the gun in its place when in. When the Ship is not steady, but rolling, the discretion is to be exercised.

The Preventer, or Inner Breeching, will be found indispensable to avoid accident when running out to leeward in a sea-way. For with a trained crew, and all precaution in handling the levers and In-Tackles, there is a liability to the gun getting away, in which case it moves out with great violence, and may do serious damage. On one such occasion an XI-in. gun cracked the stout iron straps of the Compressors, and seemed but just prevented from freeing itself entirely and going overboard over the Port-sill. Not being able to replace the Straps, the Compressors were useless till late in the cruise. Preventer Breechings were then fitted, and answered so well that the practice was continued at sea as usual. They now form part of the equipment of all XI-in. guns, and should be just taut when the gun is out, and the Trucks of the Carriage reach but do not ascend the curve of the forward Hurter.

[20] This is to detach from the bottom of the Chamber the fragments of burnt Flannel that are apt to adhere and solidify.

[21] This practice encumbers the deck, and interferes materially at times with the management of the gun. Trial was therefore made on board the Plymouth, where the gun was on a covered deck, of hooks attached to the beams above, near each piece, in which the Sponges and Rammers were placed after having been used. The only objection was, that too much time might be lost in so doing; but after continued trials this was found not to be the case, when the men had been properly trained.

[22] Stopping the Vent is omitted by many practised artillerists, as unnecessary in extinguishing fragments of the cartridges. But as so much importance has been and still is attached to its performance, and it costs so little trouble, it seems better to continue the practice, particularly when so many accidents occur from premature explosion, not only to untaught and careless people, in saluting on holidays, but also on shipboard, where they ought not to happen.

[23] Sometimes the box has been fitted too tightly to the Shell, or has contracted on it, and delay is caused in loading. This should be attended to in season.

[24] Otherwise the stout stuff and seams found necessary with heavy charges might resist the primer, and cause a failure to explode the powder.

[25] It was the habit at the Experimental Battery, and in the experimental cruise of the Plymouth, to mark the handle of the Rammer, so that there should be no doubt as to the charge being home. This is always useful, but particularly so in case of the gun bursting, as it makes sure of an important fact.

[26] It is a common practice in loading, to expend much zeal in striking the cartridge one or two blows to insure its being home, which is quite unnecessary when the mark on the handle affords so much better evidence thereof.

[27] The XI-in. Shell weighs, when loaded, 135 lbs.; the lifting and entering it into the muzzle was one of the objections of those who were opposed to the use of heavy calibres. There was not one of the crew of the Plymouths XI-in. gun who was not found able, on trial, to take up the Shell and unassisted to put it in the Bore, when the ship was still. At sea a very simple implement was used—an iron segment with a bent handle on opposite sides. The Shellmen, 7, 8, turned the shell out of the box into this ladle, placed on the deck near No. 3, the Loader, who, when ready, took the left handle, and No. 5 (the 2d Loader) the right. These two lifted the Shell towards the muzzle, and No. 4 (Sponger), standing on the Slide, received the right hand from No. 5 as soon as within reach. No. 3, stepping on the Slide, and No. 4 continued to raise the Shell to the muzzle, which was not difficult, because of the Bore being conveniently high above the Slide on which they were standing; the Sabot projecting beyond the Ladle was entered into the muzzle, and the Shell pushed in, No. 5 taking the ladle back and laying it on the deck.

[28] As this is very firmly fixed in the recess of the metal stock, it is to be removed by pulling directly on the tail, which, if twisted, will be likely to break, and thus cause a loss of time. The patch is passed to the Gun Captain, who puts it in his belt-box, and is afterwards handed to the Quarter deck by the Lieut. of Division, in order to verify the number of shells fired. When the Fuze has been uncovered, care must be taken not to let it be touched by the moisture of the hand, or by the sea-water.

[29] As the blow might dislodge the priming of the Fuze and prevent its ignition. It is well to dispense with any wad, even a grommet, if possible.

[30] A good exemplification of the principle assumed for this exercise, that when any one of the men has executed an order, he shall not remain in position until the order is given which requires him elsewhere; for he may not have any part in the next order, or even in that second next, as occurs after pivoting, when only a few numbers participate in the following orders: Sponge—Load, the remainder only doing so at the third following, viz.: Run Out.

[31] No operation with this gun requires more care. There is a weight of 20,000 lbs. moving on friction Rollers along a metal plate, down an inclined plane—if once permitted to get loose and to be propelled by the motion of the ship, the momentum is immense, and must disable some of the apparatus, perhaps the Gun-Carriage itself. On such an occasion the preventer breeching is invaluable, and will be the best safeguard, if fitted so that when well stretched it will not permit the fore trucks to ascend on the curve of the Fore-hurter, for it is this which strains the strap of the Compressor.

Permitting the gun to go out with much force also displaces the shell, whether a grommet-wad be used or not.

[32] To windward, with a steady inclination, the precautions used to leeward are unnecessary. On the contrary, the difficulty is to move so great a weight up the inclined plane. Therefore, the carriage is released from all restraint, and all the available force put at the Out-Tackles, taking advantage also of whatever roll there may be to windward.

[33] This must, of course, be regulated by circumstances, as already mentioned in Note 10; as to windward, set the compressors moderately; to leeward, not at all; off the wind, according to the roll. Let the compression be so adjusted as to allow the muzzle just to come in.

[34] It is an old custom for the Gun Captain to keep the Priming-Wire in the vent while the loading is going on, feeling from time to time if the charge is home. It is a bad practice, because there is a liability of being caught by the charge as it comes along the Bore, and having the wire bent, thus spiking the vent, for a while at least. The mark on the Rammer handle is the best evidence that the charge is in place. The object now is only to clear the vent of pieces of cartridge stuff, which not unfrequently get into the vent, and choke it so as to prevent the primer from exploding the powder.

[35] Though the primers seldom fail to penetrate the flannel stuff of the cartridge, it is well to pierce the latter with the wire, so as not to omit any means that may insure the instant discharge of the gun.

[36] The Sight-Bar of the XI-in. Gun is graduated to its own charge only; if reduced charges are ever used, it will only be at short distances, when the gun needs no elevation. The Bar will then be down entirely, its head resting on the Box.

[37] One turn of which is equal to one degree of the quadrant, and may be of service when the Sight-Bars are not.

The carriages of Gun Sloops and other vessels carrying XI-in. guns allow of an elevation of 20 deg..

[38] When the vessels are moving, it is best to train the gun a little ahead, watching when the object draws in line; then, as the roll brings the piece right in elevation, it is fired.

[39] Many officers are of the opinion that this order should be divided—"Load with Cartridge," and "Load with Shell." But those guns would be very badly served which should wait until this time to give the order for the species of projectile or class of fuze required. After "Load," is the proper time to give subsidiary order to Shellmen what projectile and length of fuze to bring for next fire.

[40] "In 10,000 fires, when testing guns of different calibres, with the regulation locks, less than fifty primers failed from all causes."



CHAPTER V.

RIFLED CANNON.

384. The rifled cannon at present in service are—

PARROTT.

-+ -+ + -+ -+ DENOMINATION. WEIGHT. CHARGE. WEIGHT WEIGHT OF OF SHELL. SHOT. -+ -+ + -+ -+ lbs. 6.4-inch, or 100-pounder 9,700 8 lbs. rifle. 80 lbs. 70 lbs. 5.3-inch, or 60-pounder 5,400 6 lbs. rifle. 50 lbs. 60 lbs. 4.2-inch, or 30-pounder 3,550 3-1/4 lbs. cannon. 29 lbs. 30 lbs. 3.67-inch, or 20-pounder 1,750 2 lbs. cannon. 18 lbs. 20 lbs. -+ -+ + -+ -+

DAHLGREN.

-+ -+ + -+ + DENOMINATION. WEIGHT. CHARGE. WEIGHT CHARGE. OF SHELL. -+ -+ + -+ + lbs. 4-inch, or 20-pounder, bronze howitzer 1,340 2 lbs. cannon. 18 lbs. 0.86 lb. 3.4-inch, or 12-pounder, bronze howitzer 880 1 lb. cannon. 11 lbs. 0.50 lb. -+ -+ + -+ +

385. CHARGES FOR PARROTT'S SHELL.

- - 8-INCH. 100-PDR. 60-PDR. 30-PDR. 20-PDR. - - lbs. oz. lbs. oz. lbs. oz. lbs. oz. lb. oz. Long 3.4 1.8 1. Short 3.11 2.2 - -

386. SHELL AND SHOT GAUGES.

-+ + + + + 100-PDR. 60-PDR. 80-PDR. 20-PDR. -+ + + + + Greatest 6.36 5.27 4.17 3.64 True diameter 6.35 5.26 4.15 3.63 Least 6.33 5.24 4.14 3.61 -+ + + + +

387. In the rifle-guns of Mr. Parrott, provisionally adopted, it is intended to retain the full charge of powder which a smooth-bore gun of the same calibre would have with a round shot. The projectile for the rifled gun is to be usually ten times the weight of this charge.[41]

388. To obtain greater initial velocity, projectiles of less than the full weight have been provided—solid shot of 70 pounds for the 100-pounder, with the front end "chilled." Such projectiles, though not suited for long ranges, will be effective at 1,000 yards or less, and are well calculated to act against oblique surfaces of iron.

389. The powder for the 100-pounder and 60-pounder should be of Rifle (or, as formerly called, No. 7):—for the smaller calibres, 30-pounder and 20-pounder, of Navy cannon powder. The cartridge-bags are the same as those prescribed for similar calibres of smooth-bore guns.

390. The Parrott guns have been arranged for the use of a certain kind of projectile, supplied by the inventor. These have reference not only to the calibre and mode of rifling, but to the design of the gun itself. For these reasons, the inventor objects to the use of any other than his own form of projectile in the guns of his invention. This request has been acceded to in the heavier calibres. The shells of Schenkl and Hotchkiss have also been used, however, in the smaller calibres.

It is not considered expedient to describe these projectiles, and it is therefore directed that the Commander, Executive Officer, and Gunner shall make themselves thoroughly acquainted with their construction, and the percussion and time fuzes issued with them, before sailing. The Ordnance Officer will furnish them with any information on these subjects in his possession.

391. The projectiles consist of shells, shrapnel, and solid shot. All rifled projectiles used in the Navy are of the expanding class; that is, forced into the grooves by the action of the charge of powder, and require no other precautions in loading than common spherical shells.

392. It is, however, essential—

1st. That the base of every rifle-projectile, especially the Parrott, shall be thickly greased before entering it into the gun.[42] For this purpose common pork slush, prepared by several washings in hot fresh water, may be used.

2d. That the bores of all guns shall be frequently washed, the grooves of rifled guns cleaned of all residuum and dirt, and a moist sponge invariably used. After firing, the bore should be oiled with a sponge.

The attention of Commanding Officers is especially called to this requirement; and the Bureau desires that the action of Parrott's and other rifle-projectiles fired under the above conditions, may be carefully observed and reported; for it is believed that nearly all the failures of projectiles in actual service result from the grooves being filled, after a few rounds, with a hardened residuum of powder.

393. It is also necessary that the shell shall be close home on the powder, otherwise the necessary expansion will not take place, and the shell will tumble immediately after leaving the gun, utterly destroying its range and accuracy.

394. In order to be certain that the projectile is properly home, the rammer-handle must be marked to indicate it.

395. It is very important that dirt, sand, or other foreign substances should not be carried into the gun on the sponge or the projectile, or by the wind in batteries on shore.

In using guns on shore, a canvas muzzle-bag, a soft wad, or a light stopper of wood, suggest themselves as means of security during the interval between loading and firing the gun. The cover or stopper might be removed, or left to be blown away at each discharge.

The longer the interval above alluded to, and the higher the elevation at which the gun is kept, the more important and necessary are these precautions.

396. Much care is taken to give the projectiles uniformity of size; and if the powder is of suitable quality, those now supplied will almost invariably take the grooves. Should difficulty in this respect, however, be experienced, it may be remedied by separating the brass ring from the iron at three or four points of the circumference. This should be done with a cold chisel, very slightly, and so as not to interfere with the loading. It is only necessary to sever the contact of the two metals.

397. As the projectile slides in the gun with very little friction, particularly when greased, the gun should therefore be elevated and eased out when firing to leeward, that the shot may not be started from its seat. An experiment to test this, showed that running a 100-pounder out with the force of its crew against the forward hurter, the gun being level, started the shot forward nearly two feet.

Placing a grommet or other wad over elongated projectiles is positively prohibited.

398. The 100-pounder and 60-pounder guns being, respectively, of the calibres of the 32-pounder and 18-pounder spherical shot, and fired with the same charges, these shot may be fired from them with excellent effect, particularly on ricochet. The round shot should be sewed up in canvas or felt, strapped to a sabot, or snaked between two grommet-wads.

399. Both percussion and time fuzes are supplied for these rifle-guns. When the object to be fired at presents a sufficient resistance, such as masses of timber or earth, ships, or solidly-built houses, the percussion-fuzes alone should be used from rifled cannon. They will, however, frequently fail to explode the shell at long ranges, owing to the shell not striking on its apex; or, if fired into loose earth, which checks its momentum too slowly to make the plunger strike with sufficient force.

400. It has been observed that time-fuzes burn with greater rapidity in shell thrown from rifled cannon. Being in front, they are subjected to greater pressure from the air. A similar effect is produced when the fuze is confined under a water-cap, as in the naval time-fuze.

401. The fuze-holes of the heavy shells are cast larger than the diameter of the regular fuze-stocks of the navy, which can, however, be used with the aid of a bouching or an adapting ring, always sent with the shells.

This bouching has heretofore been made of cast zinc. Others with a flange and washer and the thread cut are now supplied, and the use of the old rings is prohibited.

402. If it be desired to explode the shell in front of or in the midst of a body of troops, or after having penetrated some resisting obstacle, the time-fuze should be used. This is the only fuze to be used with shrapnel.

403. The Vent is made in a bouching of pure copper screwed into the gun. In the largest calibres the interior orifice is lined with platinum.

The upper portion of the copper in naval guns is replaced by steel, to obtain a harder surface for receiving the blow of the hammer. The steel is three-fourths (3/4) of an inch thick.

A new vent can be readily put in, after getting out the old one, without injury to the screw-thread. This can be done by boring out the bouching with a drill, which leaves a thin shell containing the thread. Into the hole thus made insert a square mandrel about four inches, driving it lightly; by wrenching it, a portion of the shell of the bouching can be detached and removed by unscrewing. This may be repeated, and the whole of the old copper removed. The screw-thread is then to be cleaned out, and the new vent-plug screwed in.

404. SIGHTS.—These consist of a fixed sight upon the right rimbase, and a brass movable sight placed in a socket which is screwed into the rear of the reinforce at the breech of the gun. The movable sight is furnished with a sliding eye-piece, and is graduated up to 10 deg.. The eye-piece is also capable of lateral adjustment to allow for the drift as far as 10 deg., and for the effect of the wind. It is desirable that the sights should be placed on both sides of the breech; otherwise, in firing from a port at extreme train, there is a considerable loss of lateral aim. Furthermore, with the sight on the right rimbase, it is not convenient for the 2d Captain to attend the screw without interfering with the aim.

405. These guns are all rifled to the right, by which it is understood that the upper surface of the projectile is made to turn from left to right, the observer looking from the breech towards the muzzle of the gun.

406. DRIFT.—This is a deviation caused by the direction of the rifling, is always to the right when uninfluenced by the wind, and is to be allowed for.

407. The drift is in practice confounded with the deviation produced by the direction and force of the wind, which may either annul or increase it, according to whether it blows from right or left across the line of fire. At long range it is also necessary to consider the motion of the vessel across the line of fire. Suppose this to be at the rate of six knots, and the gun is elevated 15 deg., the time of flight would be by the Tables, 18 sec., while the deviation arising from this cause would be upwards of 60 yards. It is therefore of great importance that the Captain of the gun shall be carefully instructed in making this adjustment of the eye-piece.

408. ELEVATING SCREW.—To obtain readily the changes of elevation necessary in the use of rifled cannon, the heavier calibres are made with very small preponderance, and are supplied with an elevating screw which is attached to the carriage at the lower end, while the nut is connected with the cascabel of the gun. Both screw and nut admit of movements by which the screw can take any position required in the various degrees of elevation. The parts should be allowed a certain amount of play; if binding is prevented, it is believed that the evident advantages of the screw may always be obtained.

409. RANGES AND TIME OF FLIGHT.—So far as ascertained, are contained in Table VII., Appendix B.

410. PRECAUTIONS TO BE OBSERVED.—In the use of these rifled cannon, it is of the utmost importance that all the directions relative to the lubrication of the shell, its being close home, charge and kind of powder used, and lining of the shells, shall be carefully observed.

Many premature explosions of shells having taken place in these guns, which are attributed to various causes, such as,—defects of metal, porosity, faulty fuzes, concussion and friction of the powder within the shell,—it is ordered that, on the occurrence of a premature explosion or rupture of a shell within the gun, it shall be immediately washed out and a careful examination made of the interior of the bore, by the mirror and by taking impressions in wax (see Mode of Taking Impressions, p. 16, Part III.), and all the circumstances of the case reported to the Bureau, specifying the kind and calibre of the shells, kind of fuzes, the charge and kind of powder, with its manufacturer's name: and,

Were the shells filled completely, and with what kind of powder? Were the shells coated inside with any kind of composition? Are any cracks or marks of scoring visible in the bores?

In rifled cannon, cracks or injuries produced by firing, or the rupture of shells, are to be sought for—thus,

1. Around and in rear of the vent-bouching. 2. On the top of the bore, between the trunnions and reinforce-band. 3. On the lower side of the bore, near the seat of the shot, at the junction of the lands and grooves. 4. Near the inside of the muzzle, caused by explosion of shells.

Although shells have been frequently ruptured in the guns without leaving any visible traces of injury, yet they may be developed after a certain number of rounds. Thus, in proving a gun at West Point, a shell exploded in the gun at the second fire: on examination, no traces of injury could be perceived; but, on a re-examination of the gun after the tenth fire, a fine transverse crack was discovered in the rear of the vent, extending two-thirds round the bore. It is therefore important that frequent examinations shall be made, even if no apparent injuries exist, as it is the opinion of the inventor of the guns that the principal, if not the only cause of failure of these guns in service, is due to the rupture of shells within the bore.

Experiments have been made, and are still in progress, which appear to show that these premature explosions may be to a great extent obviated, if not altogether prevented, by lining or coating the rough surface of the interior of the shell with a smooth and elastic coating.

All rifle-shells, except those for howitzers, before being issued for service, shall therefore be lined or coated on the interior with a mixture composed of—

16 ounces of soap—common yellow, not salt-water soap. 7 ounces of tallow. 7 ounces of rosin.

The tallow should be melted first, then melt and add the rosin, and, lastly, the soap, bringing the mass to a heat that will make it very fluid.

The shells having been first thoroughly cleaned, fill them about one-third full of the composition, roll them slowly so as to spread the mixture over the whole interior surface, and then pour off the residue. This coating should be about five-hundredths (0.05) of an inch in thickness, and is expected, from a series of experiments made for the purpose, to prevent the premature explosion of shells in the bores of rifled guns.

The Bureau further directs that hereafter the charge of the 100-pounder, or 6.4 inch, Parrott rifle, shall be reduced to eight (8) pounds of rifle, or No. 7 powder, and that only the short shell or solid shot, not exceeding eighty (80) pounds weight, and spherical projectiles, prepared as directed in the Circulars of February 24th and July 6th, 1864, be used in this gun.

411. EXTERIOR DIMENSIONS OF BOXES CONTAINING PARROTT'S PROJECTILES.

+ -+ -+ - LONG. WIDE. HIGH. + -+ -+ - Inches. Inches. Inches. 100-pounder, short 1 18-3/4 8-3/4 8-3/4 60-pounder, 30-pounder, containing 10 25-1/4 11 15-3/4 20-pounder, containing 10 25-1/4 10-1/2 13 + -+ -+ -

412. HOTCHKISS'S PROJECTILE FOR 20-POUNDER AND 12-POUNDER HOWITZER.

- - - 20-pounder, containing 5 24 12 6-1/2 12-pounder, containing 10 20 9 9 - - -

413. SCHENKL'S PROJECTILE FOR 20-POUNDER AND 12-POUNDER HOWITZER.

- - - 20-pounder, containing 5 24 14 7 12-pounder, containing 10 22-1/4 9-1/2 11-1/2 - - -

414. J.A.D. PROJECTILE FOR 20-POUNDER AND 12-POUNDER HOWITZER.

- - - 20-pounder, containing 3 15 12-1/4 7 12-pounder, containing 5 19 10-1/4 6 - - -

FOOTNOTES:

[41] Owing to the recent accidents which have taken place with these guns, the 150-pounder has been withdrawn from service, and the charge of the 100-pounder provisionally reduced to eight (8) lbs. of Rifle powder, and the short shell of eighty (80) lbs. only is to be used.

[42] The Schenkl, Hotchkiss, and some other projectiles, have a small quantity of grease attached.



CHAPTER VI.

MONITORS.

The diagram represents the interior arrangement of the turret of the Monitors for the long and short XV-inch guns.

415. NOMENCLATURE.

A. Ammunition-scuttle. B. Starting-bar for revolving turret and training gun. C. Shaft on which turret revolves. D. Travelling-bar on which moves the shell-whip. E. Position of Engineer stationed at bar to revolve turret and train guns. F. Compressor-wheel to check recoil, hove taut before firing. G. Crank for running gun in and out. H. Smoke-box of XV-inch (Passaic class). O. Officer at sight-hole. P. Port-hole. R. Port-stopper. S. Sight-hole.

416. In the Passaic class the ports for the XV-in. gun are only of sufficient dimensions to allow the passage of the shot at such elevations and depressions as were judged necessary: the gun being fired entirely within the turret. In order to protect the crew of the gun from the blast of the explosion, the smoke-box was devised, which to a certain extent accomplished the desired object, but at the expense of rapidity of loading.

417. In designing the Tecumseh class it was decided to enlarge the port, so as to allow the face of the muzzle to run out flush with the exterior of the turret. The gun was therefore lengthened sixteen (16) inches, and the muzzle turned down to the minimum size.

418. The contracted space within the turret rendered it necessary to introduce additional mechanical aids in lieu of manual labor in running out, loading, and checking the recoil.



419. The exercise therefore conforms to the established exercise for great guns only as far as circumstances will admit.

The gun is supposed to be run in, and not loaded.

420. WORDS OF COMMAND.

I. "PROVIDE THE GUN!" II. "SERVE VENT AND SPONGE!" III. "LOAD!" IV. "PRIME!" V. "ELEVATE!" (OR DEPRESS). VI. "RUN OUT!" VII. "TRAIN!" VIII. "READY—FIRE!" IX. "RUN IN!" X. "SECURE!"

MANUAL EXERCISE.

(RIGHT GUN.)

II. "SERVE VENT AND SPONGE!"

421. Gun Captain serves, then stops the Vent. No. 3 passes to left of muzzle. No. 4 receives the moist Sponge-head from 6, and, assisted by 3, enters it in the Bore and forces it down as far as the first section. No. 6 passes the successive sections of the staff to 4 as needed, and receives them from him as the sponge is withdrawn.

After the sponge is withdrawn, Captain serves the Vent with his priming-wire, and again closes it.

III. "LOAD!"

422. No. 4 receives Cartridge from 5, to whom the box has been passed by 13, assisted by 3, enters it in the Bore; receives Rammer-head and successive sections from 6, and, assisted by 3, rams home. Nos. 3 and 4 fall back from the muzzle. Gun Captain serves the Vent to feel if the Charge is home.

Nos. 3 and 4 return the rammer.

Nos. 7 and 8, 11 and 12 whip up Shot (or shell), as has been previously ordered. Nos. 11 and 12 choke luff of whip. Nos. 7 and 8 run shot (or shell) to the muzzle. No. 5, assisted, if necessary, by No. 6, bears over, when 3 and 4 enter and ram home by sections.

No. 4 removes Patches and passes them to 7, who hands them to Gun Captain.

IV. "PRIME!"

423. Gun Captain again makes sure that the Vent is clear. No. 2 primes with priming-powder from a flask or a blank musket-cartridge.

V. "ELEVATE!" (OR DEPRESS).

(Always done before running out.)

424. No. 2 handles lever of Elevating screw under the direction of the Officer of the piece, who sets the trunnion-sight at the proper degree of elevation and clamps it there. When the bubble of the trunnion-level is in the centre,—"Well."

Nos. 3 and 4 lift the muzzle by a section of the rammer-handle; the preponderance not being sufficient to overcome the friction of the trunnions in the cap-squares. No. 3 passes to the right of the muzzle.

VI. "RUN OUT!"

425. Nos. 7, 8, 11, and 12 man Truck-crank to run out. Nos. 9 and 10 ease compressor. Nos. 3, 4, 5, and 6 man port-tackle: as muzzle approaches port-stopper, "Open Port!"

As soon as the gun is out, Nos. 11 and 12 unship truck-crank and place it clear of gun-slide. No. 9 to Compressor-wheel, which he heaves hand taut. No 10 ships ratchet-levers and heaves well taut.[43] Gun Captain inserts percussion-primer.

VII. "TRAIN RIGHT!" (OR LEFT).

426. The officer of the gun sights through sight-hole, and orders "Right!" or "Left!" as the muzzle is to go. The Engineer at the starting-bar revolves the turret.