CHAPTER VII

FORM II

WINTER

CARE OF PLANTS IN THE HOME

The care of flowering bulbs, which was begun in Form I, will be continued in Form II. The growing of new plants from cuttings will now be taken up. In those schools which are kept continuously heated, potted plants may be kept throughout the year. The pupils will come to appreciate the plants' needs and learn how to meet them in the supply of good soil, water, and sunlight. The following points should be observed:

1. Good potting soil can be made by building up alternating layers of sods and stable manure and allowing this compost to stand until thoroughly rotted. A little sharp sand mixed with this forms an excellent soil for most house plants.

2. Thorough watering twice a week is better than adding a little water every day.

3. The leaves should be showered with water once a week to free them from dust.

4. An ounce of whale-oil soap dissolved in a quart of water may be used to destroy plant-lice. Common soap-suds may also be used for this purpose, but care should be taken to rinse the plants in clean water after using a soap wash.

5. Most plants need some direct sunlight every day if possible, although most of the ferns grow without it.

6. Plants usually need re-potting once a year. Many kinds may be set out-of-doors in flower beds in May and left until September, when they may be taken up and placed in pots, or cuttings may be made from them for potting.

7. A flower exhibition at the school once or twice a year, or at a local exhibition, adds to the interest.

8. The pupils should report to the teacher, from time to time, the progress of their plants and make many drawings showing their development.

TREES

In November or December make a study of Canadian evergreens, choosing spruce, balsam, and cedar if available. The pupils should learn to distinguish the different species by an examination of the leaves, buds, arrangement of branches, bark, seeds, and cones. The age of young trees can be determined by noting the successive whorls of branches. In this way also the age of the leaves may be determined. On some trees the leaves persist for seven or eight years. Evergreens are frequently used as Christmas trees and their branches for house decorations. On which species do the leaves persist longest? How do they compare with the pines? The leaves are always as old as the wood upon which they grow.

Have the pupils notice how the small leaves and horizontal branches resist the clinging of snow in winter. Each branch bends down enough to cause the snow to slide off on to the one next below, and so on, until it reaches the ground. The conical shape of the tree also facilitates this action of dislodging the snow. They will also notice that these trees are well adapted to withstand wind, as the top part, which is most exposed to the wind, is much smaller and more pliable than the part next the bottom. The gum, or resinous covering, of the buds protects them from injury by rain or snow. Some kinds of pine, such as the pitch pine, have a great abundance of gum and turpentine. Resin and pine tar are made chiefly from this species. Heat a piece of pine wood—a knot or root is best. The gum will be seen oozing out of the wood. Pine torches were much used in the early days of settlement in Canada. Examine the gum "blisters" in the bark of the balsam tree. From this source the "Canada Balsam" gum of commerce is taken. The gum and resin in the wood and bark help to preserve the wood from decay.

COLLECTION OF WOOD SPECIMENS

During the winter months the boys may prepare specimens of wood for the school collection. These specimens should be cut green and dried. They should be uniform in length—not more than six inches—and should show the bark at one side. The side showing the bark should be two inches wide at most, six inches long, and running in a V-shaped, radial section toward the pith. A tangential section also shows well the annual layers. A piece of slab as cut lengthwise off a round stick is tangential. Also visit wood-working factories for specimens of rare or foreign woods. In securing these specimens, care should be taken not to mutilate trees.

RELATED READING

Winter is nature's quiescent period. Continuous active observation out-of-doors among the plants of the forest and garden gives place for a time to indoor work and reflection. Pupils need time for reading and reflection, and no time is so opportune as the quiet winter season. During these months some time should be devoted to the reading of nature stories and extracts from magazines and books dealing with plant as well as animal life. Pupils should review their gardening experiences and discuss plans of improvement for the approaching spring and summer. Let them write letters to the Form II pupils of other schools where similar work has been carried on, giving some of their experiences in gardening and plant and animal studies. A certain Friday afternoon might be appointed for hearing the letters read which have been received in reply. Suitable short poems that have a direct bearing upon their outdoor studies should be read from time to time. Good pictures come in here also as an aid in helping the children to appreciate written descriptions. The first-hand observations made by the pupils will form a basis for the better and more appreciative interpretation of these literature selections.

THE DOG

CLASS-ROOM LESSON

Use the conversation method, since this is an animal that is well known to all the pupils. By natural, easy conversation with the pupils, encourage them to tell what they know about the usefulness and the other qualities of their canine friends.

The pupils know that some dogs are useful for hunting wild animals, others for driving or herding cattle and sheep, others for guarding their master's property, others for hauling sleighs and wagons, while others are of use as pets or playfellows.

Discuss with the pupils the qualities that make the dog so generally useful to us. In this discussion, guide the thoughts of the pupils to the qualities of faithfulness, loyalty to his friends, and docility—few animals are so easily taught. Note his strength and swiftness—he can continue in a race until he catches almost any other animal. Note also his bravery—for he does not hesitate to attack an animal many times larger than himself.

Short stories of the following type may be told, to illustrate the chief qualities of the dog:

A dog was trained to guard any article that his master placed under his charge, and not to permit any one to touch it until his master gave his consent. One day, when returning from the mill, the master placed a sack of flour inside the gate for a neighbour who had asked him to do so, and then continued on his way without noticing that his dog had taken charge of the sack. All through the afternoon of that day and through the long, cold night that followed, the faithful animal remained at his post. When the owner of the sack came next morning to get it, the dog, although numb with cold and famished with hunger, would not permit him to take the flour. Nor could the stout-hearted creature be persuaded either by threats or by coaxing, until his master was brought, when, at his first word of command, the dog bounded joyfully toward him.

Conclude the lesson by a short discussion of the proper care and treatment that should be given to dogs. The dog requires a fairly warm but dry kennel, with a soft bed of straw or rugs. The food should consist chiefly of porridge, milk, bread, biscuit, and a little meat. Only dogs that are running a great deal out of doors should be given much meat. The dog should be given bones to pick; picking bones is as good for a dog's teeth as a tooth-brush is for a boy's.

OBSERVATION EXERCISES

By making observations upon your dog at home, find answers to these problems:

1. How does a dog hold a bone while he is picking it, and how does he get the meat off the bone?

2. Examine the dog's feet and find out:

(1) Why he does not slip while running.

(2) What protects the soles of his feet from injury as he bounds over rough ground.

3. Which is the sharper, a dog's eye or his nose? Watch how he finds his master in a crowd or finds an object that you have hidden.

CORRELATIONS

Language:

1. Require oral or written reproduction of the stories used in illustration in the lesson on The Dog.

2. Require the pupils to relate incidents from dog life that have come within their own experiences.

Art and Modelling:

1. A sleeping dog.

2. A dog waiting for his master.

LESSONS INVOLVING COMPARISON

It will be found helpful, both for increasing interest in the observations and for fixing the facts in memory, to study an animal by comparing its habits, qualities, and physical peculiarities with those of another animal which is somewhat similar. Where differences are discovered, explanations of the differences should be developed in such a way that a tendency may be cultivated for interpreting the adaptation of structure to use and of life habits to surrounding conditions.

CAT AND DOG

Compare the movement of a cat when approaching its prey with the movement of the dog when chasing a squirrel.

Account for the difference.

The natural habit of the cat is to hunt alone and rely upon stealth, while dogs hunt in packs and tire their prey by running and by terrifying noises.

Other differences and their explanations, which the pupils should be led to discover are:

The dog is a more useful animal to man than is the cat.

The cat's body is longer and more slender, and this gives it greater suppleness in crawling and leaping.

The cat's eye is larger and the pupil is especially large at night, to enable it to see.

The cat's whiskers are longer; they help in guiding it at night.

The cat's tongue is rougher; it uses it for cleaning bones.

The pads on the cat's feet are softer, so that it can move more silently in stealing upon its prey.

The cat's claws are sharper, because it uses them for seizing its prey, while the dog seizes its prey with its teeth.

The dog is more faithful to its master because it is a more sociable animal. In its natural state every dog is faithful to the pack and to the leader; the cat is not a social animal, but is by nature solitary and independent.

The dog's sense of smell is keener than that of the cat, but its sense of hearing is less acute. Account for these differences from the animals' habits of hunting. Why does the cat bring home living animals to her kittens, while the dog buries dead animals? The cat trains the kittens to approach by stealth and then to pounce on the right spot. Wild animals related to the dog bury the "kill" which is too large to be eaten at one meal.

EXPERIMENTS FOR ASSISTING IN THE STUDY OF THE CAT

1. Gently scratch with a pin at some distance from where a cat is lying. What do the movements of the cat indicate?

2. Put a fish in water and watch a cat trying to get it.

3. Sprinkle water on a cat's fur and find out why she dislikes being wetted.

4. Attach a ball to a string and move it near a cat. Describe the movements, as stalking, springing, seizing, retreating.

5. Put some catnip in a room out of reach of the cat and observe the movements of the animal.

Nearly all children make pets of the house cat, and although the cat is a domestic animal of thieving propensities and an enemy of birds, yet it would be unwise to teach the younger children any enmity toward her. The establishment of sympathy with animal life, the humanizing effect upon child nature of having a kitty for a playfellow, will offset many times over the amount of depredation of which she may be guilty.

COMPARISON OF THE HORSE AND COW

Assign problems for the pupils to solve by observations made upon the animals in the field or farmyard.

1. What features of build give to the horse greater speed than the cow?

2. Compare the movements of the heads of the horse and cow while cropping grass. Account for the difference.

3. How has nature fitted the cow and the horse respectively, for defence?

4. Which end of the body does the horse raise first when it is getting up? Which end of its body does the cow raise first? Account for the difference.

To the teacher.—The horse is the swifter and more graceful runner because the body is less bulky and the legs are longer and straighter. In cropping grass the cow pushes its nose forward and breaks the grass off, a process which is made necessary because the cow has no upper front teeth. The strong, sharp horns, short, powerful neck, and heavy shoulders are an efficient equipment for the cow's method of defence, while the long, strong legs and powerful hindquarters of the horse enable it to deal terrific blows with its hard hoofs. The horse rises upon its forelegs before raising the rear of its body, while the cow raises its hindquarters first.

THE SQUIRREL

FIELD EXERCISES

Problems:

Is it true that squirrels have little roads along the ground?

Does the squirrel come down a tree head foremost, or tail foremost?

Are a squirrel's feet close together or wide apart when it is climbing?

How many kinds of feeling can a squirrel express by its voice?

How does a squirrel open a nut?

Examine a squirrel's tracks in the snow; which foot-prints are in front?

Try to gain the confidence of a squirrel by never chasing it and by placing some favourite food for it.

CLASS-ROOM LESSON

A tame squirrel is very desirable for concrete study.

Describe the shape, size, and colour.

Find out how the legs and feet are fitted for climbing and leaping.

Compare the length of the tail with that of the body. Of what use is the tail in cold weather? Of what use is the tail in leaping?

Examine the teeth and find out how they are fitted for opening nuts; gnawing wood.

To the teacher.—The legs of the squirrel are short so that it can press its body close to the tree when climbing. The claws are strong and sharp and the hindquarters are very strong, and are, in consequence, well fitted for leaping. The tail of the squirrel is very long and bushy and serves as a fur for keeping the squirrel's nose warm in winter. The tail is also used for balancing the body when the animal is leaping from bough to bough.

The front teeth of the squirrel are very large and strong and are shaped like chisels.

WINTER BIRDS

In the class lesson on winter birds, take up the birds that the pupils have seen, such as chickadee, blue jay, quail, ruffed grouse, hairy woodpecker, downy woodpecker, great horned owl, house-sparrow, snow bunting (snow bird), pine grosbeak, snowy owl, and purple finch. The four latter are to be noted as winter visitors. Use pictures for illustrating these birds. The habits and winter food of the birds should also be described from the view-point of how these adapt the birds for spending the winter in a cold climate. Direct the children to look for grosbeaks in the pine and rowan trees, where they may be seen feeding on the seeds. The ruffed grouse (commonly called partridge) feeds on the buds of trees in winter; its legs and feet are thickly covered with feathers in winter but are bare in summer.

FIELD EXERCISES

Arouse the interest of the pupils by a conversation of about three minutes on birds that they have seen during the winter, and assign the following exercise:

Take a walk through the orchards and woods on a bright winter day. What birds do you see? What are these birds doing? Are they found singly or in flocks? What bird sounds do you hear?

CLASS-ROOM LESSON

The method is conversational and based upon the observations made by the pupils during the field exercises.

The discussion would involve the winter habits of some of the more common birds, as, for example, the ruffed grouse (commonly though incorrectly called the partridge). This bird takes shelter from the winter storms in the centre of a dense evergreen or burrows deep into a snow bank. The close covering of feathers upon its feet serves not only to keep the feet warm, but also as snow-shoes. In the evenings these birds may frequently be seen in the tops of such trees as maple, birch, cherry, and poplar, the buds of which form the greater part of their winter food.

The snow bird, or snow bunting, is another bird commonly seen in winter. Flocks of these hardy little winter visitors frequent the roads and fields during winter. Its summer home is in the far north.

Another visitor from the sub-arctic regions is the pine grosbeak, which is often mistaken for the robin, for these two birds are nearly equal in size. The carmine colour of the upper surface of the male grosbeak distinguishes it from the grays and blacks of the upper part of the robin. The grosbeak frequents the rowan trees.

The bird sounds which attract attention during the winter are the cheerful notes of the chickadee, the bold clarion call of the blue jay, and the sharp tap, tap, tap, of the downy woodpecker.

The downy woodpecker and the chickadee have snug winter homes within hollow trees, but, when the weather is favourable, they go about searching industriously for the eggs and larvae of insects that infest forest and orchard trees.

CORRELATIONS

Literature:

Do you know the chickadee, In his brownish ashen coat, With a cap so black and jaunty, And a black patch on his throat?

Language: Write a story about the winter experiences of a downy woodpecker.

Geography: Describe the summer home of the snow bird.

ANIMALS OF THE ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS

Pupils who have an opportunity to visit museums or zoological gardens will observe more intelligently if the visit is preceded by such a discussion in the class-room as will arouse their curiosity respecting the habits, movements, and adaptive features of the animals about to be studied.

CLASS-ROOM LESSON

Name the kinds of bears you have seen or have read about. What kind was the largest?

Are all bears wholly flesh-eating animals? Find out what food the keepers give these animals.

What features give to the bear his great strength? Observe the length of his "arms", teeth, claws.

Does the bear climb a pole in the same way that a boy does?

Read:

Rogers. Wild Animals Every Child Should Know. McClelland, Goodchild, & Stewart. 50 cents.

Thompson-Seton. Wild Animals I Have Known. Briggs. $1.50.

Roberts. Children of the Wild. Macmillan. $1.35.



CHAPTER VIII

FORM II

SPRING

GARDEN WORK

The pupils have now arrived at an age when they are able to do most of the work of preparing and planting their own plots. The seeds have been selected and placed in readiness for planting long before the ground is ready. The plans for the garden and the varieties to be sown in the different plots have likewise been arranged. Fertilizers, lines, tools, and labels are made ready for use. With such thorough preparation the making and planting of the garden becomes a pleasure and a delight to both teacher and pupils. The garden diary should begin as soon as the snow disappears from the garden and be continued until all the work is completed in the autumn, and the garden again blanketed in snow.

The main points to be safeguarded are:

1. Thorough cultivation and fertilization.

2. The best available seed carefully planted. Guard against thick sowing and deep covering.

3. Frequent cultivation and careful thinning while the plants are quite small.

4. Vigilance in detecting the appearance of cutworms or other injurious insects and promptness in combating them.

5. Protection of the garden against injury from dogs, pigs, poultry, and English sparrows.

6. Failure of some plots, through the owner's absence from school for long periods.

COMBATING GARDEN PESTS

CUTWORMS

In gardens where the soil is light or sandy, cutworms are most likely to be troublesome. Watch for them about the time that the plants are nicely above ground. They come up at night and cut the young plants off just above the ground. They are about an inch long, gray and brown, fat and greasy-looking. To protect the plants put one quarter of a pound of paris-green with twenty-five pounds of slightly moistened bran, using a little sugar in the water and stirring the paris-green into the bran very thoroughly. If too wet, add more dry bran. It should crumble through the fingers. Sprinkle a little of this mixture with the fingers along the row close to the plants. The cutworms eat this poisoned bran quite readily. Care must be exercised in using this poison lest poultry should get at it. On the other hand, poultry should not be allowed to get into the garden. Wrapping a piece of paper around the stem when transplanting young plants will help to save them from cutworms.

ROOT MAGGOTS

Root maggots of cabbage, radish, and onions are the larvae of flies similar in appearance to house-flies but a little smaller. When the plants are young, the flies lay their white eggs on the stem close to the ground. When the eggs hatch, the larvae crawl down under the ground and cause the plants to decay. The wilting of the leaves is the first sign of the trouble. Prevention is better than cure in this case. Dust some dry white hellebore along the rows of onions or radishes and around the cabbage plants; or, for radishes, make a decoction of insect powder (Pyrethrum), four ounces to one gallon of water, and pour around the root, using half a teacupful to each plant.

FLEA-BEETLES

The turnip flea-beetle quickly destroys young plants of the cruciferae family by eating their leaves. Paris-green, one part to twenty parts of pulverized gypsum (land plaster) dusted on the plants while damp, helps to destroy these insects.

To the teacher.—When pupils who are absent find it impossible to give the necessary attention to their garden plots at school, they should turn them over to other pupils or to the teacher, who may at his own discretion use the produce for purposes of general garden revenue.

SEED GERMINATION

The seeds for the garden should be purchased quite early in the spring. As the planting of poor seed is often the cause of much disappointment, it is well to test the germinating power of the different varieties to be planted. The pupils of this Form should test especially those varieties which they have chosen. To do this, place about twenty-five seeds in a germinating dish, which may be made as follows: Take a deep plate, such as a soup plate, fill it about half full of moist sand, and spread over this a piece of moist cloth. Put the seeds upon this cloth and cover them with a second piece of damp cloth or moss. To prevent drying out invert over it another plate and set all in a warm dry place (about 70 to 80 degrees F.). After a few days count the number of seeds that have germinated. This will be a guide in planting as to how thick the seed should be sown.

The pupils should watch the development of germinating grains, such as corn and beans, germinated in the same way as in the last exercise. The following points may be observed:

1. The first change noticed. (Swelling of the seed)

2. The appearance of a growing shoot and its direction. (Root)

3. The second shoot and its direction. (Stem)

4. The appearance of the first pair of leaves.

5. The appearance of root-hairs and rootlets.

6. What becomes of the main body of the seed.

7. How the second pair of leaves differs from the first pair.

8. Length of time required to produce the first pair of leaves.

Pupils may be taught the conditions that are necessary for the germination of seeds by means of a few simple experiments which can be carried on in the school-room.

1. In February, plant a few seeds of the pea, or oat, or wheat, in a box of soil, and place the box outside the school window.

2. In April, plant a few seeds similar to those used in No. 1, in a box of perfectly dry soil, and set the box inside the school window.

3. Plant a few seeds similar to those used in No. 1, in a jar containing soil that is kept very wet, and set the jar in the school window.

4. Plant a few seeds, similar to those used in No. 1. in a box containing soil that is moist but not wet, and set the box in the school window.

5. Plant seeds as in No. 4, except that the box is kept in a dark cupboard.

Compare the results of the above with reference to:

1. The number of seeds that germinate.

2. The growth and condition of the plants.

Form conclusions with reference to:

1. The conditions that are required for seed germination.

2. The benefits of well-drained soil.

Pupils make drawings showing the boxes and plants.

PLANTS FOR INDIVIDUAL PLOTS

The pupils of this Form should not attempt to grow more than two varieties of flowers and two of vegetables. Of flowers, mixed asters and Shirley poppy are to be recommended, the poppy being an early blooming flower and the aster late blooming. Carrots and radishes are desirable vegetables, as the carrot matures late and the radish early. Two or three crops of radishes may be grown on the same ground in one season. Besides these, a few others should be chosen for special study, such as the potato, onion, corn, and sunflower.

STUDIES BASED ON OBSERVATIONS OF GROWING PLANTS

Attention should be given to the growing habits of plants, the size and rate of development, the method of multiplying and propagation, and the part used for food. The potato is a tuber which is nothing more than the swollen end of an underground stem; the onion a bulb composed of the bases of thickened leaves; the corn an example of a jointed stem or grass having two kinds of flowers, the tassels being the staminate flowers and the cob with its silk the pistillate ones; the sunflower an example of a compound flower made up of many little flowers each of which produces a single seed.

Observations should also be made upon the progress in germination of the nuts and other tree seeds collected in the fall. When the seeds fall from the elms and soft maples in the spring, some of them should be collected and planted in the forestry plot, or nursery.

PLANTING AND CARE OF SWEET-PEAS

1. Sow as early as possible in spring.

2. Sow on well-drained land and never in the shade or near grass. Grass roots rob the sweet-pea roots of water.

3. Use a small amount of fertilizer—well-rotted manure spaded deeply into the soil. This is best done in the autumn.

4. Make the trench in the fall about five or six inches deep.

5. Plant in a trench in April from half an inch to an inch apart.

6. Cover from three inches to four inches deep.

7. Water thoroughly once or twice a week, and have the soil lower along the row than farther out, so as to hold the water.

8. Put a mulch of lawn clippings along the row on each side to prevent drying out.

WILD FLOWERS

Arrange an excursion to the woods when the spring flowers are in bloom. Keep a flower calendar, showing:

1. The date when a plant was first found in bloom

2. The name of the plant

3. Place where found

4. Name of the pupil who found it.

When in the woods discuss the following points:

1. Why these wild flowers come into bloom so early in spring. They have a large supply of food stored up from the previous summer.

2. Dig down with a trowel or heavy knife and find this storehouse of food. It may be in the form of bulb, corm, or rhizome.

3. The blooming of the spring flowers in the woods before the leaves of the trees reach their full development, thus taking advantage of the sunlight.

4. Mark a few clumps or individual plants and visit them again after a month. Look for the growing fruit with its seeds.

5. The leaves of the hepatica seen at the time when the blossoms appear are leaves which grew the previous season. Dig up a plant and notice the new leaves starting.

6. The kind of soil each seems to grow best in and the amount of light it receives.

7. Have the pupils examine the flowers and leave them growing. They should gather a few for the school-room.

8. Have the pupils write a short account of their visit to the woods. Have them make drawings of the different flowers collected.

Dig up a few specimens of wild flowers and transplant in a shady corner in the grounds or school garden. The following varieties are suggested for special observation and study: hepatica, violet, anemone, columbine, Indian turnip, marsh marigold.

Teach one or two lessons on wild flowers, similar to the lessons illustrated for the nasturtium.

WEEDS

Pupils in this Form should learn to identify most of the weeds that are found in the garden plots and a few of those commonly found in fields and along roadsides. The large bulletin Farm Weeds, published by the Dominion Department of Agriculture, will be of great value in helping to identify the weeds and also in gaining useful information regarding them and the best means of eradicating them.

The following species are recommended for special study during the season: mustard (such varieties as are found in the vicinity), Canada thistle, purslane, lamb's quarter, pink-rooted pigweed, and quack grass. The pupils should be familiar with the general appearance of the plant; its appearance when coming up in the spring; whether annual, biennial, or perennial; nature of the root, and whether hard to pull up; if hard to eradicate, why so; its rate of growth compared with the garden plants; the number of seeds produced by a single plant; how the seeds are scattered.

THE APPLE TREE

(When the buds are beginning to open)

FIELD EXERCISE

The pupils, during an excursion that is conducted by the teacher or while making individual observations, obtain answers to problems of the following type:

What is the shape of the top of the apple tree?

Are all apple trees of the same shape?

What is the height of the trunk?

Measure the girth of the trunk of the largest?

Are the leaf buds and flower buds more numerous near the inside of the tree top or more numerous at the outer part of the top?

To the teacher.—When discussing the answers to the above problems, develop the conception of the convenience of the low stature of the tree for gathering the apples, of the wide-spreading branches for bearing a large crop, of the stoutness of the trunk for supporting the weight, and also of the position of the buds as adapting them for securing sunshine.

CLASS-ROOM LESSON ON THE APPLE TREE

Materials.—Twigs bearing flower and leaf buds. These are gathered by the pupils from the apple trees that were studied during the field exercises.

Each pupil finds on his twig the objects and markings, etc., as in the following outline:

Describe the shape of the twig.

Where were the apples that grew last year attached?

Describe the positions of the buds on the twigs.

Which buds are the larger, those at the end or those on the side of the twig?

Describe the condition of the bud scales.

Open the buds and find what they contain.

Of what use are the bud scales?

How many blossoms are in one bud?

Of what use to the young leaves is the downy covering?

FIELD EXERCISE FOLLOWING CLASS-ROOM LESSON

(Just after the blossoms are fully open)

What is the colour of the apple blossom?

Find the little green cup on which the petals rest.

Describe the cup.

Find the other things that are on the rim of, or that are within, the cup. What are they?

What insects visit the flowers?

Does the cup fall off when the petals fall?

Does the cup close up as soon as the petals fall?

What does the green cup grow to be?

To the teacher.—Apple trees have somewhat round or pyramid-shaped tops, varying in detail with the variety of apple tree. The twigs are short and usually crooked. The fruit twigs are called spurs. The buds at the ends of the twigs and spurs are the largest and contain both leaves and blossoms, and there are usually several blossoms in each bud. The bud scales burst apart and drop off as the leaves and blossoms develop. The side buds produce leaves only. The petals and pollen boxes are borne on the rim of the green cup, and inside the cup are found the five tips of the seed cases. When the petals drop off, the rim of the cup remains spread out for a short time. This is the proper time for spraying, so that the cup may hold a drop of poison to kill the tiny worms which cause apples to be wormy. It is the green cup that grows and forms the flesh of the apple.

Orchard trees suitable for lessons for Form II are apple, plum, pear, peach, and cherry.

BIRD STUDY

A valuable exercise in bird study, suitable for the pupils of Form II, is the study of a pair of birds and the history of their home through the entire season.

A record, with dates, should be kept, and the following topics are suggested for observation:

Where the nest is located, protection of the nest, part of building done by each bird; eggs, number, colour, size, time required for hatching; young birds, number, description, how fed and upon what foods, time required before ready to leave the nest; history for a time after leaving the nest.

Birds suitable for study by the pupils of Form II are the crow, flicker, downy woodpecker, blue-bird, chipping-sparrow, phoebe, wren.

Correlate with art, by requiring drawings and models of the nest and its surroundings, and with language, by having pupils write the history of the nest and family.

THE TOAD

FIELD EXERCISES

Direct the pupils to watch for toads under the street lamps and on the lawns in the evenings, and to observe what they are doing.

Find out, by turning over boards, logs of wood, stones, and old stumps, where toads spend the daytime.

If there is a sandy beach near by, an interesting nature lesson is to trace a toad to its daytime retreat under a log or stone. Its wanderings and adventures during the night can be traced from the record that its trail makes in the sand.

Are toads that live in light-coloured sand of the same colour as those that live in black clay? Of what value to the toad are these differences in colour?

The pupils are thus led to see that although the toad is not a handsome animal, yet its rough, dark skin is of great value to it for concealment among the lumps of soil with which it harmonizes.

Can a dog be induced to seize a toad? Will he seize it as readily a second time as he did the first? The secretion from the glands of the toad have a biting, acid effect on the dog's mouth. This secretion will not injure a person's hands unless the skin is broken, and even then it does not "cause warts".

How many toads can you find on your lawn in one evening? How many in the vegetable garden? How many in the flower beds?

Place a toad on loose soil among some weeds and observe how it proceeds to get out of sight.

Is it true that a toad is attracted by music? Give reasons for your answer.

CLASS-ROOM LESSON

Secure a few living toads and keep them in a box covered with a pane of glass. Be sure to put moist soil and damp moss in the bottom of the box in which toads, frogs, newts, or snakes are kept. This enables these animals to live in comfort, and they soon become sufficiently accustomed to their surroundings to act in a normal way.

Observation.—By flicking in front of a toad a small feather or a bit of meat attached to a thread, the darting out of the tongue for catching prey on its adhesive surface may be observed.

The children, by bringing slugs, caterpillars, grubs, and various insects for the toads, may learn what composes the food of the animal. It is to be observed that the toad does not snap at an object until it moves.

DETAILED STUDY

Observation.—General shape; division into head, trunk, and limbs; size of head and mouth; position and structure of eyes and ears; difference in the size of the fore and hind limbs, and explanation of this difference by references to the use of the limbs; the hind foot, uses of the web; the glands on the surface of the body and their uses for protection.

Why is a large mouth useful? How are the ears fitted for life in water?

In conclusion, the teacher should make sure that the pupils appreciate the usefulness of the toad and also the beauty represented in its adaptations to its conditions of life. In these particulars the toad is a good illustration of the adage "Handsome is that handsome does".

LIFE HISTORY OF THE TOAD

In early spring look for the toads on the surface of the water in ponds. The music of the toads at this time of year has been described by one naturalist as "one of the sweetest sounds of nature".

The eggs may be found in these ponds at this time. They are attached to long strings of jelly which entwine among grasses and other objects in the ponds. (Frogs' eggs are in masses of jelly, not in strings.) Place some of the eggs in a jar of water and set the jar in the window of the school-room. A great mass of eggs is too much to put in a jar, a few dozen eggs in a pint of water will be more likely to develop. The water in the jar should be changed twice a week.

Observations.—The light and dark areas of the eggs, the dark area gradually increasing in size; the increase in the length of the egg; the gradual change of the dark area into the general shape of a tadpole with head and tail, the first appearance of the gills, the separation from the jelly, the movement by means of the tail, the disappearance of the gills, the growth of the hind legs and, later, of the forelegs, and the disappearance of the tail.

Questions and Observations.—What is the use of the dark colour of the area from which the tadpole is formed?

Explain the uses of the strings of jelly.

Describe how the tadpole swims.

Upon what does the young tadpole feed?

What is the advantage of external gills at this stage in the tadpole's life?

Later Observations.—The disappearance of the gills, the budding out of the hind legs and, later, the forelegs. While the legs are growing out, the tail gradually becomes smaller, at the same time the shape changes to that of the adult toad with a broad body and large mouth and eyes.

Questions.—What movements has the toad which the tadpole did not have?

What makes these movements possible?

Why is the mouth of the toad better suited to its manner of life than the small mouth of the tadpole would be?

Of what advantage to the tadpole was the smooth outline of its body, and why is the rougher outline of the toad's body better suited for the life of the latter?

Why would gills be unsuitable for the life of the toad?

To the teacher.—From the dark area of the egg the tadpole develops, the dark colour absorbs the sunlight, and this causes growth. The jelly holds the eggs up so that the sun can reach them and it also keeps them from being swept away by the water. The tadpole is very small, and external gills are needed to keep it in very close contact with the water. The tail does not drop off, the substance in it is absorbed into the body of the growing toad to serve as nutriment.

Since all the changes in the development of the toad from egg to adult form take place in about one month, this comparatively rapid development makes the life history of the toad particularly suitable for observation work.

The development of the eggs of the frog or newt may be studied from preparations made in precisely the same way as those for the study of the development of the toad.

If observations on the developments of two forms are carried on at one time, interesting comparisons can be made on such points as, shape and size of the eggs, time required for development, shapes and colours of the tadpoles, activity of the tadpoles, etc.

THE EARTHWORM

Time.—May or June, in connection with gardening, when the working of the worms in the moist soil of the garden is quite noticeable.

Outdoor studies may be assigned, as:

Observe the loose soil at the entrance to the burrows. Insert a straw in the burrow and, following it, dig downward with a garden trowel and learn the nature of the earthworm's home.

Are earthworms ever found out of their burrows during the day? If so, on what kind of days? Why do earthworms burrow deep in dry weather?

Earthworms can breathe only when the surfaces of their bodies are in moist conditions.

Go out at night with a lantern to where earthworms are known to have burrows, observe the worms stretched out with the rear ends of their bodies attached to the burrows, and note how quickly they draw back when they are touched. Do they draw back if the ground is jarred near them? Do they draw back when the light falls upon them?

State the facts which are taught by the observations which were made on the above topics.

CLASS-ROOM LESSON

Put two or three earthworms into a jar of rich, damp soil, on top of which there is a layer of sand a quarter of an inch thick. Put bits of cabbage, onion, grass, and other plants on the surface and cover the jar with a glass slip or cardboard.

After a few days, examine the jar, noting the number of burrows, the foods selected, the castings, the food dragged into the burrows. Pour water into the jar and observe the actions of the worms. Can an earthworm live in water?

Place an earthworm on a moist plate or board and direct the pupils to study it, as follows:

Distinguish the head from the rear end, the upper from the lower surface. Observe the means of living. To assist in the latter observation, stroke the worm from rear to head and find the four double rows of bristles. Why is it difficult to pull an earthworm out of its burrow?

Find the mouth. Has the earthworm any eyes, ears, or nose? Place a pin in the path of a moving worm and try to explain why it turns aside before touching the obstacle. Test the sensitiveness to feeling. Why is it cruel to put an earthworm on a fishhook?

From the soil castings found in the jar, infer the value of earthworms for enriching and pulverizing soil. (See "Soil Studies", p. 269.)

REFERENCES

Bailey and Coleman: First Course in Biology. Macmillan Co. $1.25.

Crawford: Guide to Nature Study. The Copp, Clark Co. 90 cents.

Kellogg: Elementary Zoology. Holt & Co. $1.35.

THE AQUARIUM

A large glass aquarium may be purchased from any School Supply Company at a cost of a few dollars, but a small globe-shaped aquarium such as is used for gold-fishes will be found suitable for school purposes. If it is not possible to secure either of these, a large glass jar, such as a battery jar or large fruit jar, will be found to answer quite well.

To set up the aquarium, put into the jar about two inches of clean shore sand (sand from a sand pit, washed until the water comes away clear, will do). Secure from a pond some water-plants, place these in the jar with their roots covered with sand and secured in position by small stones. Pour in water until the jar is nearly full, taking care not to wash the roots out of place, and then put in a freshwater clam and a few water snails. These are scavengers, for the clam feeds upon organisms that float in the water, while the snails eat the green scum that grows on the glass.

The other aquarium specimens may now be put in. One fish about three inches long to a gallon of water is about the right proportion. When there is a sufficient quantity of plant life to keep the water properly oxygenated and enough animal life to supply the carbon dioxide necessary to keep the plants growing well, the aquarium is said to be balanced.

The balanced aquarium does not require that the water be changed more often than once in two months.

Too much direct sunlight causes too rapid growth of green slime, hence the aquarium should not be set in a window. Close to a window through which the sun shines upon it for an hour or longer each day is the best position.

Do not supply more food to the animals in the aquarium than they can eat up clean.

Crayfish, perch, trout, and other freshwater fishes are destructive of insect larvae and other aquarium specimens, hence care must be taken in selecting the specimens that are put together into an aquarium.

Suitable animals for the aquarium: mosquito larvae, dragon-fly larvae, caddice-fly larvae, crayfish, clam, water snails, tadpoles, fish, frog, turtle.

AQUARIUM SPECIMENS

MOSQUITO

Time.—May or June.

Questions and Observations.—At what time of the year are mosquitoes most plentiful? In what localities are they most plentiful? Why are they most plentiful in these places? Are mosquitoes ever seen during fall or winter? How do you account for their rapid increase in number early in summer?

How do mosquitoes find their victims? Observe the humming noise and try to discover how it is made.

Watch a mosquito as it draws blood from your hand. Does the point of the beak pierce the skin?

Capture a number of mosquitoes and place them in a jar containing some water and a few straws or sticks standing upright out of the water. Cover the mouth of the jar with a glass plate or fine gauze. Watch for the rafts of mosquitoes' eggs on the surface of the water.

The eggs may also be found on the surface of ponds or open rain barrels, and may be transferred to water in a jar in the laboratory.

STUDY OF THE ADULT FORM

Note the shape, colour, sucking tube, wings, and legs. Compare with the house-fly.

Distinguish the male insect from the female; the former has feathery feelers, and has mouth parts unsuited for biting.

How many kinds of mosquitoes have you seen? Direct attention to the kind which causes the spread of malaria. It is recognized by its habit of standing with its body pointing at right angles to the surface on which its feet are placed or, in other words, it appears to stand on its head.

THE DEVELOPMENT

Describe the egg raft.

Observe the wigglers (hatched in about a day); the divisions of the body of the wigglers; position of the wigglers when at rest. Observe that the tail end is upward. Lead the pupils to perceive that this is the means of getting air.

Observe the rapid movement toward the bottom when disturbed; the means of causing this movement; the change into the large-headed pupae—a change which takes place about ten days after hatching; the almost motionless character of the pupae; the change from the pupae forms into the adult—a change which takes place at about the fourth day of pupae life.

Put some mosquito larvae (wigglers) into the fish aquarium. Are mosquitoes of any use? The wigglers are the food on which some young fishes live. Young bass and trout feed upon them.

Put some kerosene on the surface of a jar in which there are mosquito larvae. Describe a method of destroying mosquitoes.

The teacher tells about the mosquito as the cause of the spread of malaria. From the fact that the eggs hatch on stagnant water, deduce a benefit arising from the draining of land.

REFERENCES

Silcox and Stevenson: Modern Nature Study

Hodge: Nature Study and Life

CADDICE-FLY

Time: May.

The caddice-flies are very interesting insects, owing to the habits of the larvae of building little cases of wood, stones, or shells, in which they pass their development stages under water.

These larvae are easily found during the month of May in little streams of water everywhere throughout the Province. Look for what at first sight appears to be a bit of twig or a cylinder of stone about an inch long moving along the bottom as though carried by currents. Closer observation will result in the discovery that this is a little case composed of grains, of bits of stick, or of sand and tiny shells, and the head of the occupant may be seen projecting from one end.

Collect some of these larvae in a jar of water and transfer them to the aquarium. Direct the pupils to look for others in the streams, so that they may observe their appearances and movements in their natural environment. If kept in jars, the water must be changed every day, and the top should be covered to prevent the escape of the adults.

Observe.—The shape of the various kinds of cases; the materials, and how fastened together (chiefly by silk); the part of the larva that protrudes from the case; the movement, and how caused; the fitness of the case as a protection. Note hardness, colour, and shape as protective features.

The pupils will be fortunate if they observe the sudden rise of the larva to the surface of the water and the almost instantaneous change into the four-winged fly.

INSECTS SUITABLE FOR LESSONS IN FORM II

Walking-stick insect, katydid, cricket, mole-cricket, clothes-moth, giant water-bug, potato beetle, click-beetle, luna moth, and swallow-tail butterfly.



CHAPTER IX

FORM III

AUTUMN

GARDEN WORK

The pupils in this Form should be able to do all of the work required of them in the garden without assistance. They should aim at intensive and thorough cultivation and, in the autumn, when the plants of their gardens ripen, these should be removed and the soil carefully spaded. They should continue the work of selecting the seed from the best flowers, as indicated in the work for Form II, and should grow some seed from vegetables and perennials seen to be particularly good.

Boys in this Form may also wish to do some gardening for profit. In some cases where there is plenty of space, this may be carried on in a part of the school garden set aside for that purpose. Usually, however, it will be found most convenient to carry it on in the home garden. Best varieties for local markets should then be grown and attention given to the proper time and manner of marketing or storing for a later market. Cool, well-ventilated cellars are best for most fruits and vegetables.

TREATMENT OF FUNGI

During the summer and early autumn months attention should be given to the spraying of plants for blight and for injurious insects. The potato is commonly affected by a fungous disease which causes the stalks to blacken and die before the tubers have matured. This disease may be prevented in large measure by the use of a fungicide known as Bordeaux mixture. This may be prepared as follows:

Take one pound of copper sulphate (blue vitriol); make it fine by pounding it in a bag or cloth and then dissolve it in water, using a wooden pail. It dissolves rapidly if put in a little cheese-cloth sack, which is suspended near the top of the pail by putting a stick across the pail and tying the sack of copper sulphate to it. Dilute this solution to five gallons. Take also a pound of unslaked or quick-lime and add a cupful of water to it. When it begins to swell up and get hot, add more water slowly, and, when the action ceases, dilute to five gallons. Mix these two solutions together in a tub or barrel, and churn them up, or stir them together vigorously. They give a deep robin's-egg-blue mixture, which is slightly alkaline and should be used at once. The solutions can be kept separate as stock solutions throughout the summer and then diluted and mixed whenever needed. Care should be observed in not mixing the solutions before each has been diluted to the strength, one pound to five gallons. A piece of blue litmus paper will be convenient to prove that the mixture is alkaline. If alkaline, as it should be, the paper remains blue when dipped in it. If the mixture turns the litmus paper red, it must have more lime-water added to make it alkaline. The potato tops should be thoroughly sprayed with this mixture when about ten inches high and then once every two weeks, until they have been treated three or four times. This is to prevent blight and not to kill bugs. If the potato-beetle is troubling the potatoes, add paris-green to the Bordeaux mixture—a teaspoonful to every two gallons. To prove the value of this treatment have a trial plot of potatoes which receive all attention save spraying with Bordeaux mixture. If a heavy rain should follow the spraying, it should be repeated.

Potato-scab may be prevented to a large degree by soaking the tubers before cutting for planting in a solution of formalin (a 40-per cent. solution of formaldehyde) one-half pint to fifteen gallons of water. Seed grain is frequently treated this way before sowing, to destroy smut spores. A pound of formalin is put in forty gallons of water in a large barrel. A bag full of the grain to be treated is set in the barrel of formalin mixture for about two hours and then taken and dried on a floor that has been previously washed with water containing formalin. A solution of copper sulphate (bluestone), one pound in twenty gallons of water is sometimes used. The grain is left in this solution for twelve hours and then dried for sowing. All bags and utensils should also be disinfected with this formalin solution.

TREATMENT OF INSECTS

In order to poison insects successfully, it is necessary to determine how the insect feeds. If it is a biting insect, that is one that eats the leaf, such as the potato beetle, paris-green should be used. Paris-green sometimes burns the tender leaves. This may be prevented by adding a tablespoonful of lime to each pail of water used. It may also be used dry with flour or dust.

If the insect feeds by sucking the juices from the leaf, as is the case with plant-lice, then a solution that kills by contact must be used, such as whale-oil soap, one ounce to a quart of water. Tobacco-water is sometimes mixed with the soap solution as follows:

Four pounds of tobacco-waste is steeped in nine gallons of hot water for five hours; this is then strained, and to the tobacco-water one pound of whale-oil soap dissolved in one gallon of hot water is added and mixed thoroughly.

Kerosene emulsion, which is made as follows, is very destructive to plant-lice and scale insects:

Dissolve a quarter of a pound of common laundry soap in half a gallon of rain-water and, while hot, mix with one gallon of coal-oil and churn vigorously for five minutes to get a smooth, creamy mixture. On cooling, it thickens and is diluted before using by adding nine quarts of warm water to one quart of the emulsion. Use smaller quantities in correct proportions when only a few plants are to be treated.

CABBAGE-WORM

The larvae of the cabbage-butterfly sometimes do a great deal of harm by eating the cabbage leaves. It will not do to use paris-green on cabbage, as the leaves are for eating. Instead, use pyrethrum or insect powder, which may be diluted by mixing with cheap flour—one ounce of insect powder to five of flour. Mix thoroughly and leave in a closed tin over night. Dust the mixture on the leaves from a cheese-cloth bag by tapping with a small stick or from a dusting-pan. If used while the dew is on the leaves, it sticks better. Insect powder is not poisonous to man as is paris-green, and so may be used freely on cabbage or other similar plants.

PLANTS

ANNUALS, BIENNIALS, AND PERENNIALS

CLASS-ROOM LESSON

By means of questions based upon the pupils' knowledge of a few common annuals, such as the oat, sweet-pea, and garden aster, develop the following points:

1. These plants are always grown from seeds.

2. These plants produce flowers and ripe seeds during one season's growth.

3. These plants wither and die in the autumn.

Plants having these characteristics are called annuals. The teacher explains the meaning of the word and requires the pupils to name a few other annuals.

In a similar way, discuss a few common types of biennials, such as turnip, cabbage, hollyhock, and develop the following points:

1. These plants produce no flowers and seeds during the first year of their life.

2. These plants, during the first year, lay up a store of food in roots, leaves, or stems.

3. The food is used in the second year of the plant's life to nourish the flowers and seeds.

A biennial should be grown for two years in the school garden to furnish material for concrete study.

In a similar way discuss a few common types of perennials, such as rhubarb, dahlia, apple tree, and develop the following points:

1. These plants may or may not produce seeds during the first year's growth.

2. Some of these plants are herbs, but most of them are trees and shrubs.

3. Food is stored in roots or stems to provide for early spring growth.

4. These plants live on from year to year.

GARDEN STUDIES

ANNUALS

Observations.—Some plants, such as poppy and candy-tuft, are early blooming, while others, such as aster and cosmos, bloom in late summer, hence a selection should be made that will yield a succession of bloom throughout the season.

Some are hardy annuals which can be grown from open planting, even when the weather is cold. These often seed themselves; for example, sweet-pea, morning-glory, phlox, poppy, sweet-alyssum.

Some are half-hardy annuals, such as asters, balsams, stocks, and nasturtiums. These must be started indoors or in hotbeds, or if in plots, not until the soil is quite warm.

The heights of annuals vary, and consequently they must be arranged in the bed in such a way that tall plants will not shade the short ones.

BIENNIALS

Observations.—During the first year food is stored in the root of the turnip, carrot, parsnip, and beet, in the leaves of the cabbage, and in the stem of the hollyhock.

Flowers and seeds are produced during the second year, and the storehouse becomes empty, dry, and woody. Preparation for winter is therefore, in the case of biennials, preparation for a renewal of growth the following spring.

PERENNIALS

Observations.—The highest forms of plant life are found in this class; namely, the strong, large, hardy trees and shrubs.

The herbaceous perennials are equipped with underground parts that act as storehouses of food to ensure the growth of the plant through successive seasons. Examples: the roots of dahlia, rhubarb, dandelion, and chicory; the underground stems of potato, onion, tulip, scutch-grass, Canada thistle, etc.

Many of the wild flowers that bloom in early spring belong to this class, and their rapid growth then is made possible by the store of food in the underground parts. Examples: trillium, bloodroot, squirrel-corn, Indian turnip, Solomon's seal, etc.

SPECIAL STUDY OF GARDEN PLANTS

A few plants should be selected for special study, and the following are recommended: annuals—sweet-pea, pumpkin, and corn; biennials—cabbage, parsnip, and carrot; perennials—dahlia, rhubarb, and couch-grass.

It is desirable that the observations be made upon the plants in the garden, but they may be conducted in the class-room upon specimens brought into the room by the pupils.

SWEET-PEA

Examine the stem of the sweet-pea and describe its form, its uniform slender structure, and the fact that it climbs. Find out just how it climbs. The pupils will observe the tendrils, which are extensions of the midribs of the leaves.

Describe the leaves, noting what is meant by calling them compound.

Observe the position of the flower, its colours, odour, size, and form. What insect does it resemble in shape? What different features of the flower enable it to attract attention?

The names and uses of the floral organs may be taught to this class. For example:

Pupils find the green blanket that protects the bud. This is the calyx.

The beautiful, attractive part is the corolla.

The parts that produce the pollen are called stamens.

The case that holds the seeds is the pistil.

Examine flowers of different ages and trace the change from the minute pistil to the pod.

Study, comparatively, the flowers of the field-pea, bean, or wild vetch.

Select a few of the finest blossoms of the sweet-pea and put tags on them while they are still in bloom. When they ripen, collect the seeds and preserve them for spring planting.

Conduct observation lessons on the pumpkin and corn, in which the pupils will discover such facts as those given below.

PUMPKIN

Notice the method of growth—the stem no stronger than that of the sweet-pea, but lying flat on the ground. Notice the little roots sent out here and there where the stem touches the ground. This gives extra nourishment. The leaves are not numerous and grow only in one direction, but are very large—entirely too large to be borne upon an upright stem. Notice the large funnel-like flowers and that not all of them set fruit. Examine the flowers. Some of them have stamens for producing pollen, but no pistil. These never produce fruit, for pumpkins are simply enlarged and ripened pistils. Look for insects and examine them to find out whether they are carrying pollen. Notice younger pumpkins and even blossoms toward the end of the vine. Pick all the blossoms and small pumpkins off a vine, leaving only one of the best growing pumpkins. See whether this one grows larger than one of equal age on a vine having young pumpkins developing on it. Notice the arrangement of the seeds inside a ripe pumpkin. Collect some seeds, wash clean, and dry for spring planting. It is desirable to plant pumpkins late in May, so that they will have flowers on their vines as late as September.

Study the flowers of the cucumber and compare them with those of the pumpkin.

CORN

This plant is native to America, was greatly prized by the aborigines, and even worshipped by some of them. Note the upright character of the plant and how the stalk is divided into sections by the joints, or nodes. Count these joints and also the leaves, and note the relationship of leaves and joints in the stalk, and how the leaves come off in different directions so as not to shade each other. Note the strong, stringy threads in the leaf, which give strength to the leaf as well as circulation of sap. They are strong and elastic, allowing of movement. The same strengthening fibres are seen in the stalk when it is broken across. In the stalk these fibres are arranged in a tubular form, as this gives greatest strength, the centre being soft and weak. The stalks are largest near the base, where the greatest stiffness is required. The nodes are also closer together here for strength. The stem is made much stronger by the bases of the leaves being wrapped so firmly around for a distance above the point of attachment at the node. Notice the close-fitting sheath or rain-guard, where the blade of the leaf leaves the stalk. This prevents rain soaking down inside the leaf sheath, but lets it run down the outside to the root where it is needed. As the plant gets older and taller, new roots come out from the node next above the root and sometimes from the second node above. These prop-roots are needed for support as the stalk lengthens, and they also reinforce the feeding capacity.

Note the appearance of little cobs in the axils of the leaves. As soon as the silk appears, take a cob off and open it carefully. The little cob, which corresponds to the pistil in other plants, is covered with small and undeveloped kernels, and to each kernel one of the strands of so-called silk is attached. Whilst this little cob is forming, a bunch, or tassel, of flowers is forming on the top of the corn plant. Open one of these flowers and find the stamens with pollen-grains inside. This pollen, when shed, falls upon the silk, and each grain sends a tiny tube down inside the silk to the delicate ovules on the cob, fertilizing them and starting them to develop. The silk then withers. The wind carries this pollen.

Find out how the silk is fitted for catching the pollen. What is the need for the great quantity of pollen that the plant produces?

Strip off the husks and compare the tough, hard husks that are found on the outside with the soft paper-like husks found close to the cob. Show how each kind is fitted for its particular work.

Pupils make experiments in the corn plot to find:

1. Whether the corn grows faster:

(1) When the soil is kept mellow or when the soil is hard;

(2) When the days are warm or when they are cool;

(3) When the nights are cool or when they are warm.

2. The effect of growing black corn and golden corn in the same or in adjoining plots. Account for the result.

CORRELATIONS

Art: Clay-modelling and drawing exercises on the whole plant, and also upon the ear.

Literature: Interpretation and reading of "Blessing the Corn-fields", from Hiawatha.

History: The name Indian corn originated in the early colonial days of the Eastern and Central States, when the pioneers obtained corn from the Indians. The Indians showed the settlers how to kill the trees by girdling and how to plant the corn among the standing trunks, and thus have corn ready for roasting by August, and for grinding into meal or for boiling to make hominy by September.

SEED DISPERSAL

The lessons on seed dispersal which were begun in Form I should be continued in this Form.

I. LESSON

Select a few weeds belonging to species which produce large numbers of seeds, such as wild mustard, white cockle, false-flax, etc. Distribute the seed pods among the pupils of the class and require them to estimate the number of seeds produced by each plant.

By references to observations made in the garden, help the pupils to recall the bad results, both to parent plants and to young seedlings, of improper scattering of seeds, namely:

1. The excessive crowding and shading, which causes the plants to become weak.

2. Insufficient food and moisture for the large number of plants, which causes the plants to be small and worthless.

Discuss how the crowding of cultivated plants is prevented and, in a general way, how nature provides for the scattering of seeds.

The great work of the plant is the production and dispersal of its seeds.

Ask the pupils to be on the alert to find examples of plants in which provision is made for the dispersal of the seeds, and to bring these plants to the class for the next lesson.

DETAILED STUDY OF SEED DISPERSAL

II. CLASS-ROOM LESSON

Make use of the specimens gathered by the pupils and by the teacher for observing and classifying as follows:

1. Seeds that steal rides. Examples—burdock, blue burr, pitch-fork weed, barley, stick-tight, hound's tongue.

2. Seeds that are carried in edible fruits which have attractive colours, tastes, etc. Examples—apple, grape, cherry, rowan, hawthorn.

3. Seeds that are carried by the wind. Examples—dandelion, thistle, milkweed, maple, pine, elm.

4. Seeds that are scattered by being shot from bursting pods. Examples—violet, jewel-weed (touch-me-not), sweet-pea, witch-hazel.

5. Seeds that are scattered by plants which are rolled along by the wind. Examples—Russian thistle, tumble-mustard, tumble-grass.

6. Seeds that float. Very many seeds float, although not specially fitted for floating, and some, such as the cocoa-nut and water-lily, are especially adapted for dispersal by water.

To the teacher.—Require the pupils to observe the special structure that facilitates the dispersal of the seed. As an illustration, ask the pupils to find the seeds of the burdock and to describe what the burr is really like. They find that the burr is a little basket filled with seeds. The basket has many little hooks which catch on the hair of animals and, since these hooks turn inwards, they serve to hold the basket in such a position that all the seeds are not likely to drop out at one time. The pupils should also observe that these baskets are quite firmly attached to the parent plant until the seeds are ripe; after that the baskets break off the plant at the slightest pull.

SEED COLLECTIONS

During late summer and in the autumn the seeds of the weeds that have been identified by the pupils should be collected.

Instruct the pupils to rub the ripened seed pods between the hands until the seeds are thrashed out, at the same time blowing away the chaff. The seeds are now placed in small phials or in small envelopes and these are carefully labelled. If possible, fill each phial so that there may be sufficient seed for use by all the members of the class in the lessons on seed description and identification which are to be taken during the winter months, when Nature Study material is less plentiful than it is in the summer and autumn. The phials or envelopes may be stored in a shallow box, or the phials may be mounted on a stout card. They may be attached to this card either by stout thread sewed through the card and passing around the phial, or by brass cleats, which may be obtained with the phials from dealers in Nature Study supplies.

MAN AS A DISPERSER OF SEEDS

Man as an agent in the dispersal of seeds should be made a topic for discussion.

Obtain, through the pupils, samples of seed-grain, clover seed, timothy seed, turnip seed, etc. Ask the pupils to examine these and count the number of weed seeds found in each.

The results will reveal a very common way in which the seeds of noxious weeds are introduced.

Describe the introduction from Europe to the wheat-fields of the Prairie Provinces of such weeds as Russian thistle, false-flax, French-weed. The seeds of these weeds were carried in seed-grain, fodder for animals, and also in the hay and straw used by the immigrants as packing for their household goods.

Careful farmers will not allow thrashing-machines, seed drills, fanning-mills, etc., to come from farms infested with noxious weeds to do work upon their farms, nor will they buy manure, straw, or hay that was produced on dirty farms.

THE SUGAR MAPLE

FIELD EXERCISES

Select a convenient sugar maple as a type. Ask the pupils to observe and to describe the height of the tree, the height of the trunk below the branches, the shape and size of the crown, the diameter of the trunk, the colour of the bark, the markings on the bark, the number and direction of the branches, and the density of the foliage. Compare the density of the foliage with that of other kinds of trees. Require the pupils to make a crayon drawing of the tree.

Examine the crop of grain produced near a shade tree. Compare the crop on the north side of the tree with that on the south side. Account for the difference.

Is the crop around the tree inferior to that in the rest of the field?

Find out how long the various sugar maple shade trees in the locality have been planted. Is it a tree of rapid or slow growth? Are these sugar maples infested with insects or attacked by fungi?

Do these trees yield sap that is suitable for making maple syrup?

Examine trees that have been tapped and find whether the old wounds become overgrown or cause decay.

Find out all you can about the uses that are made of maple wood.

To the teacher.—The sugar maple is the most highly prized of our native trees for ornament and shade. It grows fairly rapidly and becomes a goodly-sized tree within twenty years after it is planted. The symmetrical dome-shaped crown and the dense foliage of restful dark green give to it a fine appearance. It is hardy and has few insect pests, and its value is enhanced by the abundant yield of rich sap.

As a commercial tree it has few superiors; the wood is hard and durable and takes a high polish. It is used for flooring, furniture, boat building, for the wooden parts of machinery and tools, and for making shoe-pegs and shoe lasts. As fuel maple wood is surpassed only by hickory.

MAPLE LEAVES

CLASS-ROOM LESSON

The pupils bring to the class leaves of the sugar maple. Each pupil is provided with a leaf and makes direct observations under the guidance of the teacher.

Observations.—Colour, dark green on the upper surface, lighter green on the lower surface. Surface smooth and shiny.

Shape: star-shaped, broader than long.

Lobes: usually five, often three; each lobe has usually two large teeth.

Base has a heart-shaped notch; petiole long and slender, usually red.

Veins are stiff and run out to the points of the teeth.

Distribute leaves of the red maple and ask the pupils to note the general resemblance. Next ask them to compare the leaves as to shape, texture, and teeth on the margin.

Ask the pupils to find red maple trees and also to find maples with leaves that are different from those of the red maple and those of the sugar maple.

Make a collection of maple leaves when they are in autumn colours. (See Collections, page 33, in General Method.)

To the teacher.—The leaves of the red maple are longer than broad, and are not so smooth and shiny as the leaves of the sugar maple. There are numerous "saw teeth" on the margins of the lobes. The silver maple, with leaves having silver-white under surfaces, is another common species.

A lesson similar to that on leaf studies may be based on the fruits (keys) of the maples.

The oak, ash, elm, beech, or birch may be taken up in lessons similar to those outlined for the study of the maple.

CORRELATIONS

With literature and reading: By interpreting "The Maple", The Ontario Readers, Third Book, page 179;

With art: By sketching the tree and reproducing the autumn leaves in colour work.

WEED STUDIES

In every locality there are about a dozen weeds that are particularly troublesome, and the pupils of Form III should be taught to identify these and to understand the characteristics which make each weed persistent.

To produce these results it will be necessary to have exercises such as the following:

1. The teacher exhibits a weed to the pupils and directs their attention to a few of the outstanding features of the plant.

2. The pupils are required, as a field exercise, to observe where the weed is abundant; and whether in hay field, pasture, hoe crop, or in grain. The pupils will bring specimens to the class.

3. Detailed study in the class of specimens of the weed brought by the pupils to find offensive odours and prickles, also the character of the leaves, flowers, seed pods, and seeds, including the means of dispersal; the underground parts, whether underground stem, tap-root, or fibrous root, and the value of the underground parts as a means of persistence.

4. The pupils make a collection of the weeds that have been studied. (See Plant Collection, page 39, in General Method.)

5. The pupils make collections of the seeds of the weeds that have been studied.

OBSERVATION LESSON ON WEED SEEDS

The seed of a weed should always be exhibited and studied in association with a fresh or a mounted specimen of the weed.

Each pupil should use a hand lens in examining the seed.

The pupils examine the seed of each species and describe it according to the following scheme:

NAME OF SEED

Colour: Size: (in fractions of an inch) Shape: Details: Occurrence:

The results of the pupils' study of the ox-eye daisy would then appear in the following form:

SEED OF OX-EYE DAISY

Colour: Black and greenish-white in stripes, Size: One sixteenth of an inch, Shape: Club-shaped, Details: Grooved lengthwise, yellow peg in large end, Occurrence: A common impurity in grass seed.

GRASSHOPPER

(Consult the Manual on Suggestions for Teachers of Science: Zoology, First year.)

The ease with which this insect may be obtained in August or September, together with its fairly large size, makes it a suitable specimen for insect study. It is also a typical insect, so that a careful study serves as a basis for a knowledge of the class insecta.

FIELD EXERCISES

Problems to be assigned for outdoor observation: Locomotion by flying, leaping, walking; protective coloration and habit of "lying low"; its behaviour when caught; in what kinds of fields it is most plentiful; in what kinds of weather it is most active; its position on the grass or grain when feeding; the nature and extent of the damage done by it.

Use a class period for discussion of the above. Confirm, correct, or incite to more careful observation.

CLASS-ROOM LESSON

(Studied as a typical insect)

Observations.—The three divisions of the body—head, thorax, abdomen; the segmental division of the two latter parts; the hard, protecting covering; the movements of the abdomen; the two large compound eyes and three small eyes; the feelers; the two pairs of mouth feelers; the cutting mandibles; the three pairs of legs (one pair for leaping) and two pairs of wings on the thorax; the breathing pores, the ears, ovipositors of the female.

The young grasshoppers may be found in spring or early summer, and a few even in late summer, among the grass of old meadows and pastures. They are easily recognized because of their general resemblance to the adult and are in the stage of development called the nymph phase. Note the hairy body and the absence of wings.

To the teacher.—The moulting of the nymph is a very interesting process to observe and so is the laying of the eggs by the female in a burrow that she prepares in the soil. If females secured in July are kept in a jar having two inches of soil in the bottom, they will lay their eggs in the soil; the nests and eggs may then be taken up and examined.

In order that we may not destroy our friends and helpers, it is expedient to know what creatures help to hold pests in check.

The enemies of grasshoppers are birds and insect parasites. Under the wings of grasshoppers may frequently be found little red mites; these kill the grasshoppers to which they are attached. The blister-beetles lay their eggs in the grasshoppers' nests, and the larvae of the beetles feed upon and destroy the eggs.

The birds that are especially useful in destroying grasshoppers are the meadow-lark, crow, bobolink, quail, grasshopper sparrow.

The curious hairlike worms known to the school boys as "hair snakes" because of the belief that they are parts of horse hairs turned into snakes, are worms that pass the early part of their life within the bodies of grasshoppers and, when the insects die, the worms escape and are washed by rains into troughs and ponds where their movements attract attention.

Study the cricket and house-fly and compare the cricket with the grasshopper.

APHIDES

In September obtain leaves of sweet-pea, apple, rose bush, maple, oak, turnip, etc., on which the insects are feeding; also provide specimens of woolly aphides on the bark of apple trees or stems of goldenrod or alder.

Observe the nature of the injury to the leaves and plants on which these insects feed.

Do the insects bite the leaves or suck the juices? Give evidence in support of your answer.

Sprinkle paris-green on the leaves; does this kill the insects? Why does it not? Spray the insects with a little oil, such as kerosene, or with water in which the stub of a cigar has been soaked; what is the effect?

Insects that suck juices from inside the leaf escape the poisoning from solutions in the leaf surfaces; such insects are killed by oils which enter the breathing pores and cause poisoning.

Search in the garden, orchard, and forest for plants attacked by aphides. Carefully observe the lady-birds that are frequently found where there are aphides. Lady-birds (also called lady-bugs), are small, spotted beetles, broad oval in form, of bright colours, red and black, or yellow and black, or black and white.

They are of great service to the farmer and gardener because their foods consists largely of plant-lice (aphides).

Watch the action of ants which are found among the aphides. The ants may be observed stroking the aphides with their feelers, causing the aphides to excrete a sweet fluid on which the ant feeds. Aphides are sometimes called ant-cows.

Direct the attention of the pupils to the difference between the male and female aphides; the males have wings, but the females are wingless.

TOMATO WORM

THE ADULT

The adult moth may be captured on spring evenings when the lilacs are in bloom, as it buzzes about among the lilac blossoms sucking their honey. It is frequently mistaken for the humming-bird when thus engaged. It may also be observed during the summer evenings laying its eggs on the leaves of tomato vines.

Observe the worms that hatch from these eggs and note their rapid growth. Keep the larvae in a box in the school-room and feed them on tomato leaves. Note their size and colour, the oblique stripes on the sides, the horn which is used for terrifying assailants, the habit of remaining rigid for hours—hence the name sphinx moth.

The larvae burrow into the ground in September to form the chrysalides, hence there should be soil in the vivarium in which they are kept.

THE CHRYSALIS

Observations.—The shape, colour, nature of the covering, the long handle, the wing impressions, the segmental part, the emergence of the adult in May or early June.

What organ of the insect was contained in the "handle" of the chrysalis?

The adult is one of the handsomest of moths, because of its graceful, clear-cut shape and the variegated grays and yellows of its dress. Look on poplar, cotton-wood, plum, and pine trees, and on tobacco plants for relatives of the tomato worm, the large green larvae whose chrysalis and adult forms resemble those of the tomato worm.

THE CROW

Crows are so plentiful that there will be no difficulty in making observations on the living birds in the free state in spring or summer. (As the crow is a bird that is easily tamed, it may be possible to have a tame crow in the class-room for more careful study of the details of structure.)

Observations.—Describe its attitude when perched, movements of the wings in flight, speed of flight. Why does the crow perch high up in trees? What gives to the crow its swift flight?

Study the various calls of the crow and note the alarm, threat, summons, and expression of fear.

Find the nest and note its position, size, build, materials, eggs, and young. How is the nest concealed? What makes it strong?

Are crows often seen on the ground? Do they walk or hop?

Observe and report on the crow's habits of feeding. It eats corn, potatoes, oats, beetles, crickets, grasshoppers, cutworms, and occasionally birds' eggs or young birds.

Why do king-birds chase and thrash the crow? Are scarecrows effective in keeping crows off the grain fields?

Note the sentinels that are on the watch to warn other crows of danger.

Give reasons for the belief that the crow is a wise bird.

Give reasons for regarding the crow as a neighbour of doubtful character. Give reasons why crows should be protected.

NOTE.—Crows will not pull up corn and seed that has been covered with coal-tar before it is planted.

In addition to the animals already named, the musk-rat, raccoon, fox, flying-squirrel, robin, wren, and king-bird will be found convenient for study in many localities.

The swimming of the musk-rat, and how its shape, fur, feet, and tail fit it for a life in water are topics suitable for observational exercises, as are also its food, its winter home, and the burrows leading from the water into the banks. In the case of the winter home, the location, the structure, the submerged entrance, the living-room, and the surrounding moat, are topics of interest.

CORRELATIONS

With literature: By reading animal stories, such as, The Kindred of the Wild and "Red Fox," by Charles G. D. Roberts; and Wild Animals I Have Known, by Ernest Thompson-Seton.

With language: By oral and written descriptions of the animals that have been observed.



CHAPTER X

FORM III

WINTER

CARE OF PLANTS IN THE HOME

The care of flowering bulbs which was begun in Form I will be continued in Form II. The growing of new plants from cuttings will now be taken up. In those schools which are kept continuously heated, potted plants may be kept throughout the year. The pupils will come to appreciate the plant's needs and learn how to meet them in the supply of good soil, water, and sunlight. The following points should be observed:

1. Good potting soil can be made by building up alternating layers of sods and stable manure and allowing this compost to stand until thoroughly rotted. A little sharp sand mixed with this forms an excellent soil for most house plants.

2. Thorough watering twice a week is better than adding a little water every day.

3. The leaves should be showered with water once a week to cleanse them from dust.

4. An ounce of whale-oil soap dissolved in a quart of water may be used to destroy plant-lice. Common soap-suds may also be used for this purpose, but care should be taken to rinse the plants in clean water after using a soap wash.

5. Most plants need some direct sunlight every day if possible, although most of the ferns grow without it.

6. Plants usually need re-potting once a year. Many kinds may be set out-of-doors in flower beds in May and left until September, when they may be taken up and placed in pots, or cuttings made from them for potting.

7. A flower exhibition at the school once or twice a year, or at a local exhibition, adds to the interest.

8. The pupils should report to the teacher from time to time the progress of their plants and make many drawings showing their development.

PLANT CUTTINGS

The pupils will be interested to know that it is possible to produce new plants without waiting for them to grow up from the seed. It will indeed be quite a surprise to them to see a new plant complete in all its parts grow up from a small piece of stem, root, or even leaf. With a little care even children may propagate plants in this way.

SELECTION OF CUTTINGS

Begin with some of the common herbaceous bedding-plants, such as geranium, coleus, or fuschia. These are such common bedding-plants that they are easily obtained in the autumn. Only well-matured stems of the season's growth, such as will break with a slight snap when bent, should be used.

Let the pupils provide themselves with sharp knives for the lesson, with small boxes or pots, and with some moist, clean sand—not potting soil. A few holes should be bored in the bottom of the box, then a layer of fine gravel put in to provide for good drainage, and over it layers of moist sand. Take a slip or growing end of a stem about three inches in length, always cutting it at or just below a node, or joint, and leaving only a couple of small leaves on the top of the slip. Insert it to about half its depth in the box of moist sand. These cuttings may be placed a few inches apart in the box, which should then be placed in a warm, light room for a few weeks until the roots develop. The cuttings should be partly shaded by papers from the strong sunlight, and the sand kept slightly moist but not wet. Bottom heat and a moist, warm atmosphere hasten their development.

Another very convenient and very successful method of starting cuttings is to take a six-inch flower-pot, put two inches of fine gravel in the bottom, set a four-inch unglazed flower-pot in the centre, and fill up the space around it with sand and garden-loam, mixed. Put a cork in the hole in the bottom of the small flower-pot, and then fill it with water. Put the cuttings around in the space between the two pots and set in a fairly warm room in moderate light.

POTTING OF ROOTED CUTTINGS

When the cuttings are well rooted, which requires from three to six weeks according to the variety and growth conditions furnished, they should be carefully lifted with a trowel and each set in a small pot or can. First put in the bottom a few small stones to secure drainage, and then a little good potting soil. Set the plant in place and fill in around with more soil and pack this firmly around the roots. Keep room in the top of the pot for water. When the new plant has made some growth, it may be shifted to a larger pot. Geraniums and coleus (foliage plants) should not be kept more than two seasons. Take cuttings off the old plants and then throw the latter away.

EVERGREENS

In December make a study of Canadian evergreens, choosing spruce, balsam, and cedar, if available, or substitute hemlock for any one of these.

Compare the general features of these trees, such as shape, direction of branches, colour, persistence of leaves through the winter.

Have the pupils notice how nature fits these trees to endure the snows and storms of winter by:

1. The tapering cone which causes the snow to slide off the tree.

2. The fine, needle-shaped leaves to which only very sticky snow will adhere.

3. The very tough, flexible, and elastic branches, which bend in the wind and under the weight of snow, but spring back to their old positions.

4. The resin in leaves, stems, and buds, which enables the trees to resist frost and rain.

Teach the pupils to distinguish these trees by their differences in colour and form and also by the differences in their leaves and cones.

CLASS-ROOM LESSON

Distribute small twigs of balsam and require the pupils to observe and describe the length, shape, and colour of the leaves.

Next distribute small twigs of spruce and require the pupils to compare the spruce leaves with those of the balsam in length, shape, and colour.

Next distribute twigs of cedar and proceed similarly.

The cones may be dealt with in a similar manner. Require the pupils to make a census of the evergreens of the locality, recording the class of evergreen, the size, and the use of each kind for shade, ornament, or for commercial purposes.

To the teacher.—The balsam, spruce, and hemlock are difficult for the beginner to distinguish, but this may be done by noting the following points of difference in their leaves:

The leaf of the hemlock is the only one that has a distinct leaf-stalk. Look for this tiny stalk.

The leaf of the hemlock, like that of the balsam, is flat, but the hemlock leaf is much the shorter.

The leaf of the spruce is not flat, but is three-sided or nearly so. Its colour is uniform, while the under surface of the hemlock leaf, and also of the balsam leaf, is of a decidedly lighter colour than the upper surface.

Note that the spruce type is studied; no attempt is made at this stage to differentiate the several species of spruce.

COLLECTION OF WOOD SPECIMENS

During the winter months the boys may prepare specimens of wood for the school collection. These specimens should be cut when green, and dried afterwards. They should be uniform in length—not more than six inches—and should show the bark on one side. The side showing the bark should be two inches wide at most, six inches long, and running in a V-shaped, radial section toward the pith. A tangential section also shows well the rounded layers. A piece of slab as cut lengthwise off a round stick is tangential. Care should be taken not to mutilate trees in taking these specimens. Specimens of rare or foreign woods may be obtained at wood-working factories.

RELATED READING

Winter is Nature's quiescent period. Continuous active observation in the out-of-doors among the plants of the forest and garden gives place for a time to indoor work and reflection. Pupils need time for reading and reflection, and no time is so opportune as the quiet winter season. During these months some time should be devoted to the reading of nature stories and extracts from magazines and books dealing with plant as well as with animal life.

Pupils should review their gardening experiences and discuss plans of improvement for the approaching spring and summer. Let them write letters to the Form II pupils of other schools where similar work has been carried on, and give some of their experiences in gardening and other plant studies, and also in animal studies. A certain Friday afternoon might be appointed for hearing the letters read which were received in reply. Suitable short poems that have a direct bearing upon the outdoor studies should be read from time to time. Good pictures also come in here as an aid in helping the pupils to appreciate written descriptions. The first-hand observations made by them will form a basis for the better and more appreciative interpretation of these literature selections.