PRELIMINARY PLAN

There should be provided for the lesson (from the homes of the pupils or the school garden), some fresh vegetables in season; one that can be cooked by boiling and one that can be served uncooked with a simple dressing.

One of the pupils should write the recipes on the black-board before the lesson hour.

RECIPES

Preparation of Fresh Green Vegetables[A]

Wash the vegetables thoroughly, leaving them in cold water to crisp, if wilted. Keep cool until ready to serve, then arrange daintily, and dress with salt, vinegar, and oil as desired, or prepare a dressing as follows:

Cooked Dressing

1/2 tbsp. salt 1 tsp. mustard 1-1/2 tbsp. sugar A few grains pepper 1/2 tbsp. flour 1 egg or yolks of 2 eggs 1-1/2 tbsp. melted butter 3/4 c. milk 1/4 c. vinegar

Mix the dry ingredients, add the egg slightly beaten and the butter and the milk. Cook over boiling water until the mixture thickens. Add the vinegar, stirring constantly. Strain and cool.

Note.[A]—It may be well to omit from this lesson the uncooked vegetable that is served in the form of a salad and to give it at some other time. It is not well to attempt to teach more than the pupils can master thoroughly.

Recipe for Boiling and Seasoning Fresh Green Vegetables

Wash the vegetables carefully and put them on to cook in boiling water. Delicately flavoured vegetables (spinach, celery, fresh peas, etc.) will require but little water, and that should be allowed to boil away at the last. If spinach is stirred constantly, no water need be added. Starchy vegetables should be completely covered with water, and strongly flavoured vegetables (as turnips, onions, cabbage, and cauliflower) should be cooked in water at simmering temperature.

After the vegetables have cooked for a few minutes, salt should be added, one teaspoonful to each quart of water. Cook the vegetable until it can be easily pierced with a fork. Let the water boil away at the last. If it is necessary to drain, do so as soon as the vegetable is tender. Season with salt, pepper, and butter (1/4 teaspoon salt, 1/8 teaspoon pepper, and 1/2 tablespoon butter to each cup of vegetable).

Note.—The water in which the vegetables are cooked should be saved for soups and sauces, as it contains most of the valuable mineral matter.

METHOD OF WORK

Discuss the heating of water and apply the facts to cooking. Have the pupils observe and describe the heating of water.

If a new tin sauce-pan or other bright tin vessel is at hand in which to heat the water, the changes which take place as the temperature increases will be more readily apparent, and the pupils will enjoy watching the process.

Discuss why one vegetable is to be cooked and another served uncooked.

Emphasize the cleaning of the vegetable, its structure, composition, and the effect of the boiling water upon it.

After the vegetable has been put on to cook, discuss the method of seasoning or dressing the vegetable which is to be served uncooked, and have it prepared attractively to serve on the plates. Especial emphasis should be placed on the use and importance of fresh, green vegetables.

Continue the discussion of vegetables, letting the members of the class suggest others that may be prepared as salads or cooked in the manner being illustrated, and write the list on the black-board for the pupils to copy in their note-books.

When the cooked vegetable is tender, have it drained, seasoned, and served, and serve the uncooked vegetable at the same time.

When ready for serving, let the pupils arrange their plates and forks carefully, then let them all sit down except the two who pass the vegetables. Be sure that they eat carefully and daintily.

Emphasize the careful washing of the dishes, etc., as on the previous day.

Questions Used to Develop the Lesson

How shall we prepare our vegetables for serving?

Of what value is hot water in cooking food?

How must the vegetable be prepared for boiling?

Does this vegetable contain any water?

Will it be necessary to add any more?

Will it be necessary to cover the sauce-pan?

How hot must the water be kept? How can one tell when the water is sufficiently hot?

How can we determine when the food has cooked long enough?

How shall we serve this vegetable?

How does boiling compare with baking—

In the time needed?

In the matter of flavour?

In the amount of fuel used?

In the amount of work necessary?

Home assignment.—Practice in the boiling and the serving of vegetables.



LESSON III: THE VALUE OF CARBOHYDRATES IN THE DIET

Potatoes as a source of carbohydrates. The choice, cost, care, composition, food value, and cooking of potatoes, baked squash, steamed squash.

SUBJECT-MATTER

Carbohydrates.—A third class of food-stuffs required by the body is known as the carbohydrates, or sugars and starches. This class of foods is used as fuel, for the production of heat and energy in the body. Excess of carbohydrates may be stored in the body as fatty tissue.

Potatoes.—Potatoes are a cheap source of carbohydrates. They are also valuable for their mineral matter and for the large quantity of water which they contain. Three fourths of the potato is water. The framework of the potato is cellulose, which is an indigestible carbohydrate material. Potatoes have only a small amount of cellulose, however, and they are comparatively easy of digestion. When dry and mealy, they are most digestible. When used for a meal, potatoes should be supplemented by some muscle-building food, such as milk, cheese, eggs, fish, or meat.

PRELIMINARY PLAN

At some previous period the teacher should have discussed with the pupils the use of potatoes and learned from them the different ways in which they cook them in their homes. She should determine upon some recipes for the lesson that will increase the variety of ways in which potatoes may be served and that will improve the methods used in the homes.

Each pupil should be asked to bring one or two potatoes for the lesson. The best methods of cooking and the means of securing variety should be emphasized.

RECIPES

Mashed Potatoes

6 potatoes 1/4 c. hot milk or cream 1 tbsp. butter 1 tsp. salt

Wash and pare the potatoes, boil, drain, dry, and mash (with a potato masher) in the sauce-pan in which they were cooked. Beat them until very light and creamy; add hot milk, butter, and salt, and beat again, re-heat, and serve. Serves six to eight.

Browned Potatoes

Wash, scrub, and pare potatoes of a uniform size. Parboil for 10 minutes, then put in a dripping-pan with the meat or on a rack in a baking-pan.

Baste with fat every 10 minutes, when the meat is basted.

Allow about 40 minutes for the potatoes to cook.

EXPERIMENT TO SHOW THE PRESENCE OF STARCH IN POTATOES

Scrub and pare a potato. Examine a thin cross-section.

Grate the potato. Remove the coarse, shredded portion. Examine.

Examine the liquid and note any sediment.

Heat the liquid and stir until boiling. How has it changed?

Examine the portion of the grater. How has the colour changed? Why?

Baked Squash

Wipe the shell of the squash, cut it into pieces for serving, remove the seeds and stringy portion, place in a dripping-pan, and bake in a slow oven for three quarters of an hour (until tender). Serve at once.

Steamed Squash

Prepare the squash as for baking, put in a steamer over boiling water, and cook for 30 minutes or until soft. Then scrape the squash from the shell, mash, and season with butter, salt, and pepper.

METHOD OF WORK

Discuss the composition and structure of the potato. Read over and discuss the recipes that are to be used.

Make assignments of work. After the potatoes have been put on to cook, have the class examine a raw potato, following the directions given.[A]

[A] Squash is another vegetable containing a high percentage of carbohydrate. The recipe for squash can be used at this time or in some other lesson.

If one of the recipes requires the use of the oven, be careful to have the potatoes for it prepared first and as quickly as possible. It may be necessary to proceed with another class, assigning one pupil to take charge of the baking. Special attention should be given to the careful serving of the potatoes.

Home assignment.—Before the next lesson, each pupil should be able to report that she has cooked potatoes at home, using the recipes learned in class.



LESSON IV: FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

Food value and use of fruits. Reasons and rules for canning. How to can and use such vegetables as beets, beans, tomatoes, and carrots, and such fruits as figs, grapes, apples, and peaches. The drying of fruits and vegetables.

SUBJECT-MATTER

Fruits impart palatability and flavour to other foods and exercise a favourable influence upon the digestive organs, though their food value is low. They contain a high percentage of water and only a small percentage of nutrients. Most fruits are eaten raw and are exceedingly valuable to the body because of the fresh acids they contain. Cooking softens the cellulose of the fruit and, therefore, renders some fruits more easy of digestion. The cooking of fruit is of value chiefly for the purpose of preservation.

The drying of fruits.—Fruits are dried so that they may be preserved for use. Bacteria and moulds, which cause the decay of fruits, need moisture for development and growth. If the moisture is evaporated, the fruits will keep almost indefinitely. Fruits and vegetables can be easily and inexpensively dried. When dried fruits are to be used for the table, they must be washed thoroughly and soaked for several hours, or overnight, in water, so as to restore to them as much water as possible. They should be cooked, until soft, in the same water in which they are soaked.

Canning and preserving.—Other methods of preservation are desirable, in order that vegetables and fruits be made of value for a longer period of time than through their ripening season. Canning is one of the methods most commonly employed in the home, being both easy and satisfactory. Fruit which is to be canned is first sterilized by boiling or steaming, in order to destroy all germs and spores. This can be adequately accomplished by boiling for twenty minutes, but a shorter time is sometimes sufficient. In order to ensure complete success, all germs must also be destroyed on the cans and on everything which comes in contact with the food. This will be effected by boiling or steaming for twenty minutes. The jars, covers, dipper, and funnel should all be placed in cold water, heated until the water comes to the boiling-point, boiled five minutes, and left in the water until just before sealing. As for the rubbers, it will be sufficient to dip them into the boiling water. After the fruit has been put into the can, it must be sealed so that it is perfectly air-tight. In order to do this, it is necessary to have good covers, with new, pliable rubbers, and to see to it that they fit tightly.

When the jar is to be filled, it should be placed on a board or wooden table, or on a cloth wrung out of hot water, and should be filled to overflowing.

Sugar is not essential to sterilization and is used only to improve the flavour. Both fruits and vegetables can be canned without sugar. However, fruits canned with a large amount of sugar do not spoil readily, for germs develop slowly in a thick syrup.

Methods of canning.—The simplest method of canning is the "Open-kettle Method" employed for small, watery fruits, such as berries, grapes, tomatoes, etc. The fruit is boiled in an open kettle (which permits of the evaporation of some of the water in the fruit) and transferred at once to a sterilized jar, which is immediately sealed.

Another and safer method, which secures more complete sterilization without serious change of flavour in the fruit, is that known as the "Cold-pack Method". After being transferred to the cans, the vegetable or fruit is subjected to an additional period of heating of considerable length, or to three periods of briefer length on three successive days. If the three periods of sterilization are used, the process is known as the "Intermittent Method".

The Single Process Method is described in the recipe for canned beets. The Intermittent Process proves more satisfactory for canned beans.

PRELIMINARY PLAN

The teacher should ascertain what fruits and vegetables are most abundant and select for canning those that the class can provide.

Each pupil should be asked to bring some vegetable or fruit, some granulated sugar, and a jar in which to can her fruit. If the school does not possess enough kettles or sauce-pans in which to do the cooking, they may be borrowed from the homes.

Only one fruit or one vegetable should be taken up at a time, for the preparation necessarily varies slightly, and the different methods will prove confusing. It is not necessary to confine the choice of fruits and vegetables to those mentioned in the recipes included here. The teacher will find it better to base her instruction on the products of the particular time and place. The principles of canning should be taken up at some other period, if possible, in order that the cooking lesson may be devoted entirely to the practical work.

RECIPES

Canned Tomatoes

(Open-kettle Method)

Scald and peel the tomatoes. Boil gently for 20 minutes. Sterilize the jars, covers, and rubbers. Stand the jars on a cloth in a pan of hot water or on a board or wooden table. Fill the jars with hot tomatoes, being careful to fill to overflowing and to expel all air bubbles from the jar. Adjust the rubbers and covers. Seal and allow to cool. Test, label, and set away in a cool, dry, dark place.

(Cold-pack Method)

Scald in water hot enough to loosen the skins. Plunge quickly in cold water and remove the skins. Pack whole or in pieces in the jars. Fill the jars with tomatoes only. Add 1 level teaspoonful of salt to each quart. Place the rubber and cover in position. Partially seal, but not tightly. Place the jars on a rack in a boiler. Pour sufficient warm water into the boiler to come half-way up the jars. Place the filled jars on the rack so as not to touch one another, and pack the spaces between them with cotton, to prevent the jars striking when the water boils. Sterilize for 22 minutes after the water begins to boil. Remove the jars from the boiler. Tighten the covers. Invert to cool, and test the joints. Wrap the jars in paper to prevent bleaching and store in a cool, dry, dark place. This method of cooking is also called "The Hot Water Bath".

Canned Grapes

(Open-kettle Method)

6 qt. grapes 1 qt. sugar 1/2 c. water

Pick over, wash, drain, and remove the stems from the grapes. Separate the pulp from the skins. Cook the pulp 5 minutes and then rub through a sieve that is fine enough to hold back the seeds. Put the water, skins, and pulp into the preserving kettle and heat slowly to the boiling-point. Skim the fruit and then add the sugar. Boil 15 minutes. Put into jars as directed.

Sweet grapes may be canned with less sugar; very sour grapes will require more sugar.

Canned Peaches

Choose firm, solid fruit. Scald long enough to loosen the skins. Peel and cut in halves. If clingstone peaches are used, they may be canned whole. Pack the fruit into sterilized jars, fill with boiling syrup (1 c. sugar to 1-1/2 c. water). Then put on the covers loosely and place on wooden racks in the boiler. Sterilize in hot water bath for 20 minutes. Remove the jars and tighten the covers. Invert to cool, and test the joints. Wrap the jars in paper to prevent bleaching; then store.

Canned Beets

(Single Process)

Wash the beets and boil them until they are nearly tender and the skins come off easily. Remove the skins and carefully pack the beets in a jar. Cover with boiling water, to which one tablespoonful of salt is added for each quart, and put the cover on the jar, but do not fasten it down. Place the jar on a rack or a folded cloth in a large kettle that can be closely covered. Pour enough water into the kettle to reach within two inches of the top of the jar, cover the kettle, bring the water to the boiling-point, and boil from one and one-half to two hours. As the water around the jar boils down, replenish with boiling water, never with cold. Remove the jars and tighten the covers. Invert to cool, and test the joints. Wrap the jars in paper to prevent bleaching; then store.

Note.—In canning beets, if vinegar is added to the water in the proportion of one part vinegar to four parts water, the natural bright colour will be retained.

Canned String Beans and Peas

(Intermittent Method)

Can on the same day that the vegetables are picked. Blanch in boiling water from 2 to 5 minutes. Remove, and plunge into cold water. Pack in sterilized jars. Add boiling water to fill the crevices. Add 1 level teaspoonful of salt to each quart. Place rubbers and covers in position.

Set the jars on the rack in the boiler and bring gradually to boiling heat. At the end of an hour's boiling, remove the jars from the boiler. Tighten the clamps or rims and set the jars aside to cool until the following day. Do not let the vegetables cool off in the boiler, as this results in over-cooking. On the second day, loosen the clamps or unscrew the rims, place the jars in warm water, heat again to boiling temperature, and boil for an hour; then remove them again. On the third day, repeat the hour's boiling, as on the preceding day.

Corn may be canned successfully in the same way.

Dried Corn

Pick the corn early in the morning. Immediately husk, silk, and cut the corn from the cob. Spread in a very thin layer on a board, cover with mosquito netting which is kept sufficiently elevated so that it will not come in contact with the corn, place in the hot sun, and leave all day. Before the dew begins to fall, take it into the house and place in an oven that is slightly warm. Leave in the oven overnight and place out in the sun again the next day. Repeat this process until absolutely dry.

String Beans

String beans are hung up to dry and kept for winter use.

METHOD OF WORK

If possible, let each pupil can a jar of vegetables or fruit for her own home. If the class is large, let the pupils work in groups of two or three.

Begin the lesson with a very brief discussion of how to prepare fruit for canning.

Let the pupils proceed with the practical work as quickly as possible. Demonstrate the method of filling and sealing the jars.

Assign the care of the jars and the intermittent canning on succeeding days to members of the class, and hold them responsible for the completion of the work.

The drying of some vegetables can be undertaken at school, and carefully followed from day to day. It will furnish the pupils with an interesting problem.



LESSON V: FATS—VEGETABLES—Continued

Preparation of white sauce to serve with vegetables. How to boil, season, and serve such vegetables as lima or butter beans, string beans, onions, cabbage, corn, beets, turnips, or carrots.

SUBJECT-MATTER

Fats.—Butter belongs to the class of food-stuffs known as fats. It increases the fuel value of those dishes to which it is added.

Fats supply heat and energy to the body in a concentrated form. For this reason they should be used in a limited quantity. Fats undergo several changes during the process of digestion, and the excessive use of them interferes with the digestion of other foods and throws a large amount of work upon the digestive organs. Cooked fats are more difficult of digestion than uncooked fats, and other foods cooked with hot fat are rendered more difficult to digest.

Vegetables.—Vegetables should be used when in season, as they are always best and cheapest then. They are better kept in a cold, dry, and dark place.

If the vegetables contain starch or tough cellulose, they will require cooking; as raw starch is indigestible, and the harsh cellulose may be too irritating to the digestive tract.

In old or exceedingly large vegetables the cellulose may be very tough; hence a long period of cooking is necessary. They should be cooked only until they are tender. Longer cooking may destroy the flavour, render the vegetables difficult of digestion, and cause the colour to change. In very young vegetables the cellulose is delicate and, if young vegetables do not contain much starch, they may be eaten raw.

When cooked vegetables are served, they are usually seasoned and dressed with butter (for one cup of vegetables use 1/2 teaspoonful of salt, 1/8 teaspoonful of pepper, and 1/2 tablespoonful of fat), or a sauce is prepared to serve with them.

PRELIMINARY PLAN

It may be well to have a preliminary lesson devoted to simple experiments with flour, liquid, and fat, in order to determine the best method of combining the ingredients in the white sauce. However, if the lesson period is of sufficient length, a few of these experiments may be performed in connection with it.

There should be provided for the lesson some vegetable that is improved by serving with white sauce, and sufficient milk, butter or other fat, flour, and salt for the sauce and the experiments. Discuss with the pupils the fat that is used in their homes, in order to know what is available.

The recipes should be written on the black-board before the lesson hour.

RECIPES

Stewed Onions

1 qt. onions White pepper 2 tbsp. butter 1/4 tsp. salt

Peel the onions under cold water. Cover with boiling water, add salt, and simmer until tender. Drain and serve with one cup of white sauce; or omit the sauce and serve seasoned with butter and pepper. Serves six.

Cabbage

Cut the cabbage into quarters and soak one-half hour in cold salt water to draw out any insects. Chop or shred, cover with boiling water, add salt, and simmer until tender. Drain, and serve with butter, salt, and pepper, or with a sauce.

Carrots

Scrape the carrots and cut them into large dice or slices. Add boiling water and boil until tender (from 30 to 45 minutes). Drain, and season with butter, salt, and pepper, or serve with white sauce.

String Beans

String the beans, if necessary, and cut into pieces. Boil in salted water until tender. Season with butter, salt, and pepper, and serve hot.

Salt pork may be boiled with the beans, to give them an added flavour.

EXPERIMENTS IN USING STARCH FOR THICKENING

(Any powdered starch may be used)

1. Boil 1/4 cup of water in a small sauce-pan. While boiling, stir into it 1/2 tsp. of cornstarch and let it boil one minute. Observe the result. Break open a lump and examine it.

2. Mix 1 tsp. of cornstarch with 2 tsp. of cold water and stir into 1/4 cup of boiling water. Note the result.

3. Mix 1 tsp. of cornstarch with 2 tsp. of sugar and stir into 1/4 cup of boiling water. Note the result.

4. Mix 1 tsp. of cornstarch with 2 tsp. of melted fat in a small sauce-pan and stir into it 1/4 cup of boiling water. Note the result.

CONCLUSIONS BASED ON THE FOREGOING EXPERIMENTS

1. Starch granules must be separated before being used to thicken a liquid:

(1) By adding a double quantity of cold liquid, (2) By adding a double quantity of sugar, (3) By adding a double quantity of melted fat.

2. The liquid which is being thickened must be constantly stirred, to distribute evenly the starch grains until they are cooked.

White Sauce

2 tbsp. butter or other fat 2 tbsp. flour 1 c. milk 1/4 tsp. salt 1/8 tsp. pepper

(Sufficient for 1 pint vegetables)

Melt the butter, add the flour, and stir over the fire until frothy. Add the milk and stir constantly until it thickens. Stir in the seasonings.

Note.—Vegetable water may be substituted for part of the milk.

METHOD OF WORK

Review the facts on boiling vegetables learned in the previous lesson. Let the pupils put water on to boil and prepare a vegetable for cooking. If experiments are to be made, they can be performed while the vegetable is cooking. If the experiments have been made previously, they can be reviewed in discussion at this time. Prepare a white sauce by demonstration, using the method which seems most practical. Have the vegetables drained, dried, and added to the white sauce. When well-heated, serve.

Questions Used to Develop the Lesson

What facts regarding the boiling of vegetables did we learn in the last lesson?

Does the vegetable that we are to cook to-day differ in any marked way from those we cooked before? Should we follow the same rule in cooking it?

Should we add the flour directly to the cold milk? To the hot milk?

How shall we combine the white sauce?

With what other vegetables can white sauce be used?

Home assignment.—Each pupil should prepare some vegetable and serve it with white sauce, before the next lesson.



LESSON VI: CEREALS

Kinds, composition, care, and general rules for cooking cereals. Oatmeal, cracked wheat, corn-meal porridge, rice. Fruits to serve with cereals—stewed prunes, stewed apples, or apple sauce.

SUBJECT-MATTER

The term "cereals" is applied to the cultivated grasses—rice, wheat, corn, rye, oats, and buckwheat. They are widely grown throughout the temperate zone and are prepared in various forms for use as food. Cereals contain a high percentage of starch and a low percentage of water, with varying proportions of mineral matter and fat. In addition to the four food-stuffs already studied, cereals contain a small amount of another food-stuff known as protein—a muscle-building material. For the most part, the cereals contain a large amount of cellulose, which is broken up during the process of preparation for market and requires long cooking before being ready for use by the body. The digestibility of the cereals depends upon the amount of cellulose which they contain and the thoroughness of the cooking. Cereals are palatable, and they are valuable, because in cooking they can be blended in various ways with other substances. They are beneficial also to the body, because their cellulose acts mechanically on the digestive organs by stimulating them to action. Cereals are made more attractive by serving with fresh or cooked fruit.

PRELIMINARY PLAN

The cereals should be discussed in a nature study or geography lesson, and two or three kinds that are in common use should be brought from home by the pupils. If cereals are not generally used as breakfast foods, the lesson may be a means of introducing them. Some pupils should bring a little milk and sugar, to serve with the cooked cereal. Apples or prunes should be brought, to cook and serve with the cereal.

RECIPES

Oatmeal

3 c. boiling water 3/4 c. oatmeal 3/4 tsp. salt

Add the oatmeal slowly to boiling salted water.

Boil for 10 minutes, stirring constantly, then cook slowly, preferably over water, at least one and one-half hours longer; the flavour is developed by longer cooking. Serves six.

Cracked Wheat

Follow the recipe for oatmeal, using 3/4 c. of cracked wheat.

Corn-meal Porridge

4 c. boiling water 3/4 c. corn-meal 1 tsp. salt

Add the corn-meal slowly to boiling salted water.

Boil for 10 minutes, stirring constantly, then cook slowly for three hours longer, preferably over water. Serves six to eight.

Boiled Rice

3 qt. boiling water 1 c. rice 2 tsp. salt

Pick the rice over carefully and wash thoroughly. Add it to the boiling salted water so gradually that it will not stop boiling. Partly cover and cook for 20 minutes, or until the grains are soft; turn into a colander, and pour cold water through it, drain, dry, and re-heat in a hot oven with door open. Serve hot as a vegetable or as a simple dessert with cream and sugar. Serves six to eight.

Stewed Prunes

1/2 lb. prunes 1 qt. cold water

Wash the prunes in two or three waters; then soak them in cold water for several hours. Heat them in the water in which they are soaked and simmer until tender (an hour or more). Serves six to eight.

Stewed Apples

10 small apples 1/2 c. sugar 3/4 c. water

Cook the sugar and water together until it boils.

Wash, pare, and cut the apples into quarters; core, and slice the quarters lengthwise into 1/4-inch slices; put the apple slices into boiling syrup and cook slowly until tender. Remove from the syrup at once and let the syrup boil down to thicken.

Apple Sauce

10 small apples 1/2 c. sugar 3/4 c. water

Wipe, quarter, core, and pare sour apples; add the water and cook until the apples begin to soften; add the sugar and flavouring, cook until the apples are very soft, then press through a strainer and beat well. Serves eight to ten.

METHOD OF WORK

As soon as the class meets, discuss the recipes briefly and put the cereals on to cook at once. Prepare the fruit. While the long cooking of the cereal is in progress, discuss the composition, food value, and methods of using cereals. Then go on with another lesson and call the class together, for serving, later in the day. Serve the fruit and the cereals together.



LESSON VII: CLASSIFICATION OF FOODS—Reviewed

SUBJECT-MATTER

Those foods which build up and repair the muscular tissues of the body are called protein foods, muscle builders, or flesh formers. Meat, fish, eggs, cheese, milk, cereals, legumes, and nuts are classed as protein foods.

Those foods which serve solely as fuel for the body—providing heat and energy—are classed under two groups: the carbohydrates (sugar and starches), which the body is able to use in relatively large quantities; and the fats, which the body cannot use in such large quantities, but which yield a large amount of heat and energy. Protein also serves as fuel, though tissue building is regarded as its special function. Sugars and starches are abundant in fruits and vegetables. Fats are found in meats, fish, milk, and in some vegetable foods. Heat-giving food may be stored in the body as fatty tissue.

Mineral compounds must be present in our food, to help in the regulation of the body processes and to enter into the composition of the structure and the fluids of the body. Mineral compounds are best supplied by fresh green vegetables, fruits, and milk.

Water is absolutely essential to the body, is present in large quantities in many foods, and is combined with many other foods during the processes of cooking.

One or more of the food-stuffs sometimes predominate in a single food. For example, rice is almost entirely carbohydrate, and butter is almost pure fat. Occasionally, we find a food that contains all the five groups of food principles. Milk is an example of such a food, containing all five food principles in such proportions as to supply all the nourishment which a baby needs during the early months of its life. As the child grows older, foods rich in both carbohydrates must be added to the diet. Wheat contains all that the body needs for nourishment except water, which is easily added in cooking.

Protein foods Carbohydrate foods

Meats Sugar Fish Honey Poultry Syrup Eggs Vegetables: Cheese Potatoes Milk Parsnips Cereals: Peas Wheat Beets Oatmeal Carrots Rye Cereal preparations: Legumes: Meals Peas Flours, etc. Beans Fruits Lentils Prepared foods: Peanuts Bread Nuts Crackers Macaroni Jellies Dried fruits Candy Milk

Fat foods Mineral foods

Cream Fruits Butter Vegetables: Lard Spinach Suet Tomatoes Fat meats Onions Fish Turnip tops Salad oil Cauliflower Nuts Cereals: Chocolate Grits and other coarse preparations Milk Eggs

Choice of food.—The diet must be carefully chosen, to give a needed variety and to combine the foods properly so that one may have a right proportion of all the food-stuffs. Each meal should contain some protein food, some fats or carbohydrates, some mineral matter, and water. All five forms of food-stuffs should have a place in the day's diet. The greater part of the water which the body needs should be taken between meals.

METHOD OF WORK

Review the foods discussed in the previous lessons and sum up the classification of foods, being sure that the pupils can name common examples of each. Discuss simple combinations for the different meals, using dishes already prepared in the course and creating an interest in other recipes to be prepared in succeeding lessons.

BLACK-BOARD SUMMARY

There are five food principles:

1. Water—builds and repairs the tissues, regulates the system—

found in all food-stuffs.

2. Mineral matter—builds and repairs the tissues, regulates the system—

found in vegetables, fruits, cereal, and so on.

3. Carbohydrates—give heat and energy to the body—

found in sugar and starches.

4. Fats—give heat and energy to the body—

found in cream, nuts, pork, and so on.

5. Protein—builds and repairs the tissues—

found in meat, eggs, cheese, seeds.

Always choose a diet carefully:

1. To give variety.

2. To combine the foods properly, so that they will contain adequate proportions of each food-stuff at every meal.



LESSON VIII: THE PLANNING AND SERVING OF MEALS

SUBJECT-MATTER

Experience has shown that some foods are more acceptable at one time of day than other foods, and that certain combinations are more pleasing than others. The choice of foods will also depend upon the season of the year. For example, breakfast is, as a rule, made up of simple foods that are not highly seasoned nor subjected to elaborate methods of cooking. A fruit, a cereal, and bread, with, possibly, eggs or meat, are served at breakfast. A hot beverage is added by most people to this meal.

Fundamentally, dinner consists of a hot meat or other protein dish, with one or two vegetables. Soup, salad, and a sweet dessert are often served. The soup is served before the meat course, and the salad and dessert follow it. The dessert may be a fruit, a cookie or other pastry, a pudding, or a frozen dish.

Lunch or supper may be a very simple meal, consisting of a soup with crackers, one protein dish (eggs, milk, or meat) with bread and stewed fruit, or a salad, with a simple dessert.

EXAMPLES OF WELL-CHOSEN MENUS

Breakfast

No. I Apple sauce Sausage or bacon Oatmeal Toast

No. II Baked apples Eggs in the shell Cracked wheat Corn muffins

No. III Stewed figs or berries Poached eggs Corn-meal porridge Toast

Note.—Eggs should be omitted from the breakfast menu if they are not cheap and easily obtainable.

Dinner

No. I Pork chops Potatoes Fried apples Mashed turnips Bread Rice pudding

No. II Beef or mutton stew Biscuits Spinach or turnip tops Cornstarch pudding

No. III Baked beans Grape sauce Cabbage salad Bread or biscuits

Supper

No. I Stewed apricots or other fruit Whole wheat bread Buttermilk or sweet milk Peanut cookies

No. II Omelet Creamed potatoes Bread Fresh fruit

No. III Cream of carrot soup Biscuits Cottage cheese Syrup

The table should always be neatly set, with individual places arranged for each one who is to partake of the meal. Each place should be wide enough for a plate, with a knife and spoon at the right and a fork at the left side. A tumbler should be placed at the point of the knife and a napkin at the left of the fork. Everything on the table should be perfectly clean, the napkin should be neatly folded, and all the articles should be uniformly arranged, in order to give a neat appearance to the table. A flower or plant in the centre will add to its attractiveness. Salt, pepper, sugar, vinegar, and anything of the kind that may be needed with the meal should be arranged where it can be easily reached. Fresh water should be poured into the tumblers just before the meal is served. The bread, butter, and so on, may be put on the table several minutes before the meal is announced, but the hot dishes should be placed immediately before the family is seated.

PRELIMINARY PLAN

If Lesson VI, entitled "Setting and Clearing the Table" as outlined in the course on the Care of the Home has been given, this lesson may be devoted to what to serve and how to serve it, or it may precede the lesson on "Waiting on Table". The manner of serving may be demonstrated in the next lesson, in connection with the course on the Care of the Home.

Simple equipment for family service will be required, if the form of serving is to be taken up. For class practice, a table for four may be arranged. This will necessitate a table-cover, four dinner plates, four bread-and-butter plates, four tumblers, four cups and saucers, four knives, four forks, four teaspoons, four napkins, a platter, one serving spoon, and one serving fork.

METHOD OF WORK

Discuss meal service from the standpoint both of choice and combination of foods and of the method of service. Let the class plan a meal, then go through the form of serving that meal at table. In the absence of a table, the top of a desk may be used. Later in the course, the teacher should plan to combine this lesson with one on cooking and have the food served. In each cooking lesson, suggestions for serving the food should be made, and each dish cooked should be carefully served. Interest in this lesson may be increased by allowing the pupils to make original menus, and, if they are having some lessons in drawing, simple menu cards may be planned and executed.



LESSON IX: MILK

Care, cost, and food value of milk. Value and use of sour milk—cottage cheese, curdled milk. Rice or cornstarch pudding (plain, caramel, or chocolate).

SUBJECT-MATTER

Milk contains all the food-stuffs which the body requires, except starch, and, therefore, is capable of sustaining life for comparatively long periods. It is one of the most important protein foods; but it contains so small a percentage of carbohydrate (milk sugar) that for the adult it must be supplemented with carbohydrate foods. For the baby, milk is a perfect food, and it is a valuable adjunct to the diet of all children. One quart of milk should be allowed for the diet of each child daily, after the twelfth month; and the diet of the adult should be supplemented by the use of milk. The greatest care should be exercised in protecting milk from dust and dirt, for it is easily contaminated and may be the means of carrying disease germs to the body. The changes which milk undergoes when souring do not render it harmful. For many people buttermilk is more easy of digestion than sweet milk, because of the changes produced by souring, as well as the absence of fat. Sour milk is of value in cooking, producing a tender bread which can readily be made light by the addition of soda—one teaspoonful of soda to one pint of sour milk that has curdled.

In the preparation of cheese, the whey is separated from the curds, thus extracting most of the water, sugar, and mineral matter, and leaving a substance rich in protein and fat. Cheese is of value in cooking, for it increases the food value of those foods to which it is added.

PRELIMINARY PLAN

The teacher should make inquiries a few days in advance, to be sure that one quart of sour milk can be secured, and, when it is brought, she should examine it to see that it is in proper condition to make cottage cheese. She should arrange to have about one quart of sweet milk and such other supplies as are necessary for the pudding, brought by the pupils.

An opportunity may be afforded to discuss the use of left-over cereal by the preparation of a rice pudding, if the teacher provides some cold cooked rice for the lesson. In the absence of cold rice, the cornstarch pudding may be prepared.

RECIPES

Cottage Cheese

Heat sour milk slowly until the whey rises to the top, pour the whey off, put the curd in a bag, and let it drip for six hours without squeezing. Put the curd into a bowl and break into fine pieces with a wooden spoon; season with salt and mix into a paste with a little cream or butter. Mould into balls, if desired, and keep in a cold place. (It is best when fresh.)

Rice Pudding

1/2 c. rice 2 c. milk 2 eggs 1/3 c. sugar 1/8 tsp. salt 1/2 tsp. vanilla

Scald the milk in a double boiler. Add the prepared rice and cook until soft. Beat the egg-yolks, sugar, and salt together until well mixed. Stir into the rice and cook for 3 minutes. Remove from the heat and serve cold. Serves eight.

Cornstarch Pudding

1/4 c. sugar 5 tbsp. cornstarch, or 1/2 c. flour 1 tsp. vanilla, or other flavouring 3 c. milk 1 egg

Mix the sugar and cornstarch thoroughly. Add one cup of cold milk and stir until smooth. Heat the remainder of the milk in a double boiler; add the cornstarch mixture slowly, stirring constantly until it begins to thicken. Continue cooking for 20 minutes. Beat the egg well, add the hot pudding slowly, strain, and cool. Serve with milk or cream and sugar. (The egg may be omitted, if desired.) Serves eight.

For chocolate cornstarch pudding, use 1/4 cup of sugar additional and two squares of chocolate. Melt the chocolate carefully, add the sugar, and add to the cornstarch mixture.

For caramel cornstarch pudding, use 1 cup of brown sugar and 1/2 cup of boiling water. Heat the sugar until it becomes a light-brown liquid, add the boiling water, and stir until the sugar is all dissolved. Let it cool; then add to the cornstarch mixture.

METHOD OF WORK

As soon as the class meets, demonstrate the method of making cottage cheese. Show the separation of curd and whey, by adding vinegar or lemon juice to sweet milk. While the cheese is draining, make assignments of work and have the rice or cornstarch pudding made.

In this lesson and in those following emphasize the use of protein foods.

Discuss also the food value of skimmed milk and sour milk and the purposes for which these may be used in cooking.

Use the cottage cheese and the pudding for the school lunch.



LESSON X: SOUPS

Cream soups. Cream of carrot, potato, or onion soup, green pea soup. Toast, croutons, or crisp crackers to serve with soup.

SUBJECT-MATTER

Cream soups.—The strained pulp of cooked vegetables or legumes, with an equal portion of thin white sauce, is the basis for cream soups. The liquid for the soup may be all milk, part vegetable water and part milk, or all vegetable water.

A binding of flour is used to prevent a separation of the thicker and the thinner parts of the soup. This is combined as for white sauce and is stirred into the hot liquid just before the soup is to be served. The soup should be made in a double boiler and kept in this utensil until it is served.

Four tablespoons of flour to each quart of soup is a good proportion to use for thickening all vegetable soups that are not of a starchy nature; half that amount will be sufficient for soup prepared from a very starchy vegetable.

The value of the vegetable water should be impressed upon the pupils, and it should be pointed out that these soups are an excellent way of using the cooking water and any left-over vegetables. From these, attractive cream soups may be prepared, and a combination of flavours often gives good results.

Accompaniments.—Crisp crackers, croutons, soup sticks, or bread sticks are served with cream soups, and are valuable because they necessitate thorough mastication, thus inducing the flow of saliva and aiding in the digestion of the starchy ingredients of the soups.

PRELIMINARY PLAN

As a basis for the soup, the teacher should secure a vegetable that the pupils use in their own homes, and crackers or bread to serve with the soup.

If dried peas are used, they should be allowed to soak overnight and be put on to cook early in the morning.

It will be well to have the cooking of the carrots begun before the lesson period. If the carrots are cut up in small pieces, they will cook more quickly.

RECIPES

Cream of Carrot Soup

1 c. cooked carrots 2 c. vegetable water 2 c. milk 4 tbsp. flour 2 tbsp. butter Salt and pepper to taste

Press the vegetables through a sieve or chop finely; put the vegetable water on to heat. Mix the flour smoothly with an equal measure of milk and thin it with a little more of the milk. Stir into the steaming liquid, stirring constantly until it thickens. Stir in the butter, vegetable pulp, and remaining milk. Season to taste and serve hot. Serves six.

Cream of Potato Soup

1 pt. milk or milk and water 2 tsp. chopped onions 3 potatoes 1 tbsp. butter 1 tbsp. flour 1 tsp. salt 1/8 tsp. pepper 2 tsp. chopped parsley

Put the milk to heat in a double boiler. Boil the potatoes and onion together until soft, then rub the liquid and pulp through a strainer into the hot milk. Bind with the flour, add the seasonings, and serve hot. Serves four.

Pea Soup

1 c. split peas 2-1/2 qt. water 2 tbsp. chopped onion 3 tbsp. butter 3 tbsp. flour 1-1/2 tsp. salt 1/8 tsp. pepper 1 pt. milk

Wash the peas and soak them overnight in cold water, drain and rinse thoroughly, add 2-1/2 quarts of cold water and the onion, cook slowly until soft, rub the liquid and pulp through a strainer, and bind with the flour. Add the milk and the seasonings and serve hot. Serves six to eight.

Toast

Cut stale bread into slices one quarter of an inch thick; put on the toaster or fork, move gently over the heat until dry, then brown by placing near the heat, turning constantly. Bread may be dried in the oven before toasting. Hot milk may be poured over dry toast.

Croutons

Cut stale bread into one-half-inch cubes and brown in the oven.

Crisp Crackers

Put the crackers into the oven for a few minutes, or split and butter thick crackers, and brown in a hot oven; serve with soup.

METHOD OF WORK

Devote a few minutes to a discussion of cream soups and a review of the cooking of vegetables and white sauce.

Divide the work among the members of the class, assigning enough to each pupil to keep her busy, arranging the work so that the soup and its accompaniments will be ready for serving at the same time.



LESSON XI: EGGS

Food value and general rules for cooking eggs. Cooked in shell, poached, scrambled, and omelet.

SUBJECT-MATTER

Eggs are a very valuable food, because of the large amount of protein and fat they contain. Though lacking in carbohydrates, they furnish material for building up the muscles and provide heat and energy to the body. If cooked at a low temperature, eggs are very easily and very completely digested. Combined with other foods, they serve as a thickening agent (for sauces and soups) and as a means of making batters light (popovers and sponge cake). They add flavour and colour and increase the nutritive value of other foods.

PRELIMINARY PLAN

The lesson on eggs furnishes one of the best opportunities to teach the muscle-building foods. If eggs are scarce, it may be well to give this lesson at some other time. Each pupil should be asked to bring an egg; one or two should bring a little milk; and sufficient bread should be provided to toast for the poached eggs. The teacher should not undertake to give too many recipes in this lesson, but should try to make the pupils familiar with a sufficient variety of ways of using eggs to make egg cookery interesting. The necessity of having a moderate temperature for the cooking of eggs should be emphasized.

RECIPES

Soft-cooked Eggs

Put the eggs in boiling water sufficient to cover them, remove from the fire, cover, and allow them to stand from 5 to 8 minutes.

Hard-cooked Eggs

Put the eggs in cold water, heat, and, when the water boils, reduce the heat, and let them stand for 20 minutes with water just below the boiling-point, then put them into cold water.

Poached Eggs

Break each egg into a saucer carefully, slip the egg into boiling water, decrease the heat, and cook for 5 minutes, or until the white is firm and a film has formed over the yolk. Take up with a skimmer, drain, trim off the rough edges, and serve on slices of toast. Season.

Poached eggs are attractive when covered with white sauce to which chopped parsley has been added.

Baked Eggs

Line a buttered baking-dish with buttered bread crumbs or with cold mashed potatoes. Break the eggs in the dish without separating and add one tablespoon of milk or cream for each egg. Season with salt and pepper and sprinkle with grated cheese, if desired. Bake in a moderate oven until the eggs are set.

Creamed Eggs

3 hard-boiled eggs 6 slices toast 1 c. medium white sauce

Prepare a white sauce. Add hard-boiled eggs cut in halves, sliced, or chopped and, when hot, serve on toast.

Or separate the whites and yolks, chop the whites fine, add to the white sauce and, when hot, serve on toast and garnish with yolks run through a sieve or ricer. Season with salt and pepper. Serves four to six.

Creamy Omelet

1 egg 1/4 tsp. salt Pepper 1/2 tsp. butter 1 tbsp. milk

Beat the egg slightly, add the milk and seasonings, put the butter in the hot omelet pan and, when melted, turn in the mixture. As it cooks, draw the edges toward the centre until the whole is of a creamy consistency, brown quickly underneath, fold, and turn on a hot platter. Serve at once. Serves one.

Scrambled Eggs

Double the quantity of milk given for Creamy Omelet and stir all the time while cooking.

Foamy Omelet[A]

1 egg 1/8 tsp. salt 1 tbsp. milk or water 1/2 tsp. butter Cayenne or white pepper

Beat the yolk of the egg until creamy, add seasoning and milk. Beat the white until stiff, but not dry, cut and fold into the yolk carefully. Heat an omelet pan, rub the bottom and sides with the butter, and turn in the omelet, spreading it evenly on the pan. Cook gently over the heat until the omelet is set and evenly browned underneath. Put it into a hot oven for a few minutes, to dry slightly on top, fold, and serve immediately. Serves one.

METHOD OF WORK

Devote one half of the class period to a discussion of the structure of the egg and the effect of heat upon it. Use simple experiments or watch the poached egg, to make a study of the changes produced in the egg by the application of heat. If the pupils are sufficiently experienced, let them work together in small groups, first scrambling an egg, then making an omelet. Demonstrate the cooking of the omelet before the entire class. Serve the egg dishes carefully while hot.

[A] The omelet recipes given are for individual portions. To make a large omelet, multiply the quantity of each ingredient by the number of eggs used. The best results will be obtained by making an omelet of not more than four eggs, as larger omelets are difficult to cook thoroughly and to handle well. A two-egg omelet will serve three people. A four-egg omelet will serve six people.



LESSON XII: SIMPLE DESSERTS—CUSTARDS

SUBJECT-MATTER

A custard is a combination of eggs and milk, usually sweetened and flavoured, and either steamed, or baked as cup custard, or cooked in a double boiler as soft custard. The whole egg may be used or the yolks alone. The yolks make a smoother, richer custard.

The eggs must be thoroughly mixed, but not beaten light, the sugar and salt added, and the milk scalded and stirred in slowly. The custard must be strained through a fine sieve and cooked at a moderate temperature. It is desirable to strain a custard, in order to remove the cords and pieces of the membrane which inclosed the yolk. The cup custard should be strained before cooking, the soft custard may be strained afterwards.

A soft custard is cooked over water and is stirred constantly until done. When done, the froth disappears from the surface, the custard is thickened and coats the spoon and sides of the pan, and there is no sign of curdling. If the custard is cooked too long, it becomes curdled. If it becomes curdled, put it into a pan of cold water and beat until smooth.

A steamed or baked custard is done when it becomes set and when a silver knife will come out clean after cutting it.

PRELIMINARY PLAN

This lesson will furnish an opportunity for a review of milk and eggs. The pupils should arrange to bring the necessary materials from their homes.

RECIPES

Steamed Custards

1 qt. milk (heated) 4 eggs or 8 egg yolks 1/2 c. sugar 1/4 tsp. salt 2 tbsp. caramel or 1/2 tsp. nutmeg

Beat the eggs sufficiently to mix them thoroughly; add the sugar, salt, and hot milk slowly.

Strain into cups, flavour with caramel, or sprinkle nutmeg on top, and steam until firm over gently boiling water—from 20 to 30 minutes.

Baked Custards

Prepare as for Steamed Custards, set in a pan of hot water, and bake in a slow oven until firm—from 20 to 40 minutes.

Chocolate Custards

Use the recipe for Steamed Custards, adding 1 ounce of chocolate (melted) to the hot milk. Steam or bake as desired.

Soft Custard

1 pt. milk (heated) 4 egg yolks 1/16 tsp. salt 1/2 tsp. vanilla extract 4 tbsp. sugar

Beat the egg yolks sufficiently to mix them thoroughly, add the sugar, salt, and hot milk slowly. Cook over water that is boiling gently. Stir constantly until the custard thickens. Strain. Flavour when cool.

For soft Chocolate Custard add 1/2 ounce chocolate (melted) to the hot milk. Serves six.

Floating Island

Use recipe for Soft Custard and, when cold, garnish with a meringue made according to the following recipe:

Meringue

4 egg whites 1/4 c. powdered sugar

Beat the egg whites very light, add powdered sugar, and continue beating. Drop in large spoonfuls on the cold custard. Serves eight to ten.

METHOD OF WORK

It may be possible to teach two or three recipes in this lesson. The baked custard may be put into the oven while the soft custard or floating island is being made. Serve at the school lunch.



LESSON XIII: BATTERS AND DOUGHS

Griddle Cakes

SUBJECT-MATTER

Batters.—Batters are mixtures of flour or meal and a liquid, with salt or sugar to give flavour, butter to make tender, and steam, air, or gas to make light.

One scant measure of liquid is used with one measure of flour for thin, or pour, batter. One measure of liquid is used with two measures of flour for a thick, or drop, batter. One measure of liquid is used with three measures of flour for a soft, or bread, dough. One measure of liquid is used with four measures of flour for a stiff, or pastry, dough.

Before mixing a batter, the oven or griddle should be at the proper temperature, with the fire well regulated and in good condition. The oven should be tested by putting in a piece of white paper or two tablespoonfuls of flour, which should brown in three minutes. The pans should be prepared by greasing with lard, salt pork, or beef dripping. All the materials should be measured and ready before beginning to combine the ingredients. When the batter has been mixed and beaten until smooth, it should be baked at once.

PRELIMINARY PLAN

The teacher will be better prepared to give the lesson on batters if she first makes herself familiar with the kinds of breads that are used in the homes of the pupils and the methods followed in their preparation. The simple, general methods of preparing batters should be taught. The teacher should not attempt the preparation of more than one or two batters in this lesson.

RECIPES

Sour-milk Griddle Cakes

2-1/2 c. flour 1/2 tsp. salt 1-1/4 tsp. soda 1 egg 2 c. sour milk

Mix and sift the flour, salt, and soda; add the sour milk and egg well beaten. Drop, by spoonfuls, on a greased hot griddle; cook on one side. When puffed full of bubbles and cooked on the edges, turn, and cook on the other side. Serve with butter and maple syrup.

Sweet-milk Griddle Cakes

3 c. flour 1-1/2 tbsp. baking-powder 1 tsp. salt 1/4 c. sugar 2 c. milk 1 egg 2 tbsp. melted butter

Mix and sift the dry ingredients, beat the egg, add the milk, and pour on the first mixture. Beat thoroughly and add the butter. Cook the same as Sour-milk Griddle Cakes.

METHOD OF WORK

Discuss batters briefly. Have all measurements made, the fire regulated, the pans prepared, and so on. Demonstrate the mixing and cooking of Griddle Cakes. Serve the cakes daintily after they are cooked.



LESSON XIV: BATTERS AND DOUGHS—Continued

Muffins—Baking-powder Biscuits

SUBJECT-MATTER

Methods of making batters light.—Batters are made light by beating air into them, by adding eggs into which air has been beaten, or by entangling gas in the batter. Gas is secured by using soda and sour milk in a batter (one teaspoon of soda to one pint of sour milk), or soda with molasses (one teaspoon of soda to one cup of molasses), or soda with cream of tartar (one teaspoon of soda with two slightly rounding teaspoons of cream of tartar). The soda should be mixed well with the other dry ingredients, then the sour milk or molasses added, the whole beaten up quickly, and baked at once.

Baking-powder is a preparation containing soda and cream of tartar, and may be used in place of soda if sweet milk is used. Two level teaspoonfuls of baking-powder should be used with one cup of flour.

PRELIMINARY PLAN

This lesson is a continuation of the lesson on batters. Care should be taken not to undertake more than can be done well in the time available.

RECIPES

Graham Muffins

1 c. graham flour 1 c. flour 1/4 c. sugar 1 tsp. salt 1 c. milk 1 egg 1 tbsp. melted butter 4 tsp. baking-powder

Mix and sift the dry ingredients. Gradually add the milk, the egg well-beaten, and the melted butter. Bake in a hot oven in greased gem pans for 25 minutes.

Plain Muffins

1/4 c. butter 1/4 c. sugar 1 egg 3/4 c. milk 2 c. flour 3 tsp. baking-powder

Cream the butter, add the sugar and egg well beaten, sift the baking-powder with the flour, and add to the first mixture, alternating with the milk. Bake in greased gem pans for 25 minutes.

Baking-powder Biscuits

2 c. flour 4 tsp. baking-powder 1 tsp. salt 2 tbsp. fat 3/4 to 1 c. milk or water

Sift the dry ingredients together, chop the fat into the flour with a knife, slowly add sufficient milk to make a dough not too soft to be handled. Toss and roll the dough gently on a slightly-floured board and cut into small biscuits. Moisten the tops with a little milk. Handle the dough quickly, lightly, and as little as possible. Place on a buttered sheet. Bake in a hot oven till brown—from 12 to 15 minutes. Either white or whole wheat flour may be used for the biscuits. Serves six to eight. Oven test—the oven should be hot enough to colour a piece of unglazed white paper to a golden brown in one minute.

Soda Biscuits

2 c. flour 1/2 tsp. soda (scant) 1/2 tsp. salt 1 c. sour milk (scant) 2 tbsp. shortening (lard or other fat)

Proceed as for Baking-powder Biscuits.

If the sour milk is not thick enough to curdle, it will not contain sufficient acid to neutralize the soda, and the biscuits will be yellow and bitter. To avoid this, cream of tartar may be mixed with the soda (1 teaspoonful). If there is no cream of tartar at hand, it will be wise to use the recipe for Baking-powder Biscuits.

METHOD OF WORK

Have the oven and pans prepared and all the measurements made. Demonstrate the mixing of the muffins and, while these are baking, the mixing of the biscuits. Have one pupil take charge of the baking of the muffins and another of the baking of the biscuits. When the breads are done, have the class sit down and serve them to one another, or to all the pupils at the school lunch hour.



LESSON XV: MEATS

Composition and food value. How to make tough cuts of meat palatable. Pork chops with fried apples. Beef or mutton stew with vegetables and dumplings. Rabbit stew. Bacon.

SUBJECT-MATTER

Meats are rich in protein and usually in fats, but are lacking in the carbohydrates. They build up the muscular tissue, furnish heat and energy, are more stimulating and strengthening than any other food, and satisfy hunger for a greater length of time. For the most part, meats are a very expensive food. One cannot perform more labour by the use of a meat diet than on a diet of vegetable foods. Those who use large quantities of meat suffer from many disturbances of the system. Hence it should form a very small part of the diet. The cuts of meat that come from those portions of the animal's body that are much exercised are tough, owing to the development of the connective tissues, but they contain a high percentage of nutrition. For the same reason, the meat from older animals is apt to be tough. The flesh of chickens, turkeys, and other fowls is very nutritious and is easily digested if not too fat.

The flavour of meats is developed by cooking. Dry heat develops the best flavour, hence the tender cuts are cooked by the processes known as broiling and roasting. Tough cuts of meat require long, slow cooking in moist heat, hence they are prepared in the form of stews and pot roasts or are used in meat soups.

PRELIMINARY PLAN

After the teacher has found out what meats are used in the homes or what the school can afford to use, she should determine upon a method of cooking that will make the meat palatable, digestible, and attractive. If it can be prepared as a stew, she should use a recipe in which vegetables are also used and, if possible, have dumplings prepared to serve with the meat, as a review of the lesson on batters.

RECIPES

Beef or Mutton Stew

2 lb. beef or mutton 1 qt. water Salt, pepper, flour to dredge 1 onion, cut in slices 1/2 c. turnip cut in dice 3/4 c. carrot cut in dice 4 potatoes cut in 1/2-inch slices 1 tsp. salt 1/4 tsp. pepper 1/2 c. flour 1/4 c. cold water

Remove the fat and cut the meat into 1-inch pieces. Reserve half of the best pieces of meat, put the rest of the meat and the bone into cold water, soak for one hour, then heat until it bubbles. Season half the raw meat and roll it in the flour, melt the fat in a frying-pan, remove the scraps, brown the sliced onion and then the floured meat in the hot fat, add both to the stew, and cook for 2 hours at a low temperature. To this add the vegetables and cook 1/2 hour; then add the flour and seasonings, which have been mixed with one-half cup of cold water, and cook for 1/2 hour longer, until the meat and vegetables are tender. Remove the bone from the stew and serve. Serves six to eight.

Rabbit

If beef and mutton are not commonly used and are not readily obtainable, but rabbit can be secured, substitute rabbit for beef in the stew. After the rabbit has been thoroughly cleaned, cut up in eight pieces (four leg and four body pieces), season, and dredge with flour, brown in the fat, and proceed as with Beef Stew.

Dumplings

2 c. flour 4 tsp. baking-powder 1/2 tsp. salt 2 tbsp. fat (lard or butter) 3/4 c. milk or water (about)

Sift the dry ingredients together, cut in the butter, and add the milk gradually, to make a soft dough. Roll out on a floured board, cut with a biscuit cutter, lay on top of meat in a stew pan (they should not sink into the liquid), cover the kettle closely, keep the stew boiling, and cook the dumplings for 10 minutes without removing the lid. (Do not put the dumplings in to cook until the meat is tender.)

Note.—If desired, the rolling may be eliminated and, after mixing, the dough may be dropped by spoonfuls into the stew.

To Cook Bacon

Place thin slices of bacon from which the rind has been removed in a hot frying-pan, and pour off the fat as fast as it melts. Cook until the bacon is crisp and brown, turning frequently. Another method of cooking is to lay the bacon on a rack in a baking-pan and bake in a hot oven until crisp and brown.

Pork Chops

Wipe the chops with a damp cloth, and place in a hot frying-pan. Turn frequently at first and cook slowly until well browned on each side. Sprinkle with salt and pepper.

Fried Apples

Wash and core the apples and slice to the centre. Roll in flour if very juicy.

After the chops have been removed from the pan, lay the apples in and cook till tender. Serve around the chops.

METHOD OF WORK

If the meat is to require two or three hours' cooking, arrange to have the lesson divided and given at two periods through the day. Half an hour before opening the morning session or a portion of the morning or noon recess may be sufficient time to put the meat on to cook and to prepare the vegetables. When the second class period is called, the vegetables should be added to the partially cooked meat and the dumplings should be made. It would be well to serve the completed dish at the lunch period. There should be as much discussion regarding the kinds of meat, their food value, and the methods of cooking as time permits; but it may be necessary to complete this discussion at some other class period.

Should it be possible for the teacher to give additional lessons on meat, it might be well to devote one lesson to the preparation and cooking of poultry, directions for which may be secured from any reliable cook-book.



LESSON XVI: BAKED PORK AND BEANS—BAKING-POWDER BISCUITS

SUBJECT-MATTER

Peas, beans, and lentils which are dried for market contain a high percentage of protein, carbohydrate, and mineral matter. They form an excellent substitute for meat and are much cheaper in price. The digestion of leguminous foods proceeds slowly, involving a large amount of work: on this account they are not desirable for invalids, but they are satisfactory for those who are well and active. The dried legumes must be soaked overnight in water and then cooked for a long time, in order to soften the cellulose and develop the flavour.

PRELIMINARY PLAN

It will be necessary to plan this lesson several days in advance, if the beans are to be baked. As they will be prepared and put on to bake before the lesson period, the Baking-powder Biscuits may be made during the lesson, to serve with them.

RECIPE

Boston Baked Beans

1 qt. navy beans 1 tbsp. salt 1/2 tbsp. mustard 3 tbsp. sugar 2 tbsp. molasses 1 c. boiling water 1/2 lb. fat salt pork Boiling water to cover

Look over the beans and soak them in cold water overnight.

In the morning drain, cover with fresh water, and simmer them until the skins will burst, but do not let the beans become broken.

Scald one-half pound of fat salt pork. Scrape the pork. Put a slice in the bottom of the bean pot. Cut the remaining pork across the top in strips just through the rind, and bury the pork in beans, leaving the rind exposed.

Add one cup of boiling water to seasonings and pour over the beans. Cover with boiling water. Bake slowly, adding more water as necessary. Bake from 6 to 8 hours, uncover at the last, so that the water will evaporate and the beans brown on top. Serves twelve.

METHOD OF WORK

Have the beans washed and put to soak the night before the lesson is to be given. Assign to one of the pupils the task of putting them on to simmer early the next morning. Call the class together for a few moments when the beans are ready to bake. Assign one of the pupils to attend to the fire and the oven. Let the beans bake all day. If the lesson is to be given late in the afternoon, the beans may be ready to serve, or the cooking may be continued on the second day and the lesson completed then. It would be well to serve the dish at the lunch period. Have the biscuits prepared to serve with the baked beans.



LESSON XVII: BUTTER CAKES—PLAIN YELLOW CAKE—COCOA—COFFEE—TEA

SUBJECT-MATTER

Cakes.—Cakes made with fat resemble other batters, except that the fat, sugar, and eggs are usually larger in amount and the texture of the baked batter is finer and more tender.

When preparing cake, first get the pans ready. Grease them or line them with greased paper. Make sure that the oven is at the proper temperature. For a small cake, the oven should be hot enough to brown a piece of unglazed paper or a tablespoonful of flour in three minutes. Bake a small cake from twenty to thirty minutes. When done, the cake will shrink from the sides of the pan; the crust will spring back when touched with the finger; the loud ticking sound will cease; a fine knitting-needle will come out clean if the cake is pierced; and the crust will be nicely browned. When the cake is removed from the oven, let it stand in the pan for about three minutes, then loosen, and turn out gently. Do not handle while hot. Keep in a clean, ventilated tin box in a cool, dry place.

Cocoa.—Chocolate and cocoa are prepared from the bean of a tropical tree. This bean is rich in protein, fat, carbohydrate, mineral matter, and a stimulant called theobromine. In the preparation of chocolate the seeds are cleaned, milled, and crushed into a paste. In the preparation of cocoa much of the fat is removed, and the cocoa is packed for market in the form of a fine powder. Cocoa is more easily digested than chocolate, because it contains less fat. Though the amount of cocoa used in a cup of this beverage is not large, when prepared with milk it serves as a nutritious food. It is slightly stimulating as well, because of the theobromine present and because it is served hot.

Coffee and Tea.—Coffee and tea have no food value when prepared as beverages. They contain stimulating properties that are harmful to the body if taken in large quantities and, on this account, they should be used with discretion. They should never be given to children or to those troubled with indigestion. If carelessly prepared, both coffee and tea may be decidedly harmful to the body. Coffee should not be boiled for more than eight minutes. Tea should never be permitted to boil. Fresh, boiling water should be poured on the leaves and left for three minutes. It should then be strained off and kept hot until used.

PRELIMINARY PLAN

It may be wise to give this lesson on some special occasion, as it is well adapted to serve for the refreshments for a mother's club or a little class party.

RECIPES

Plain Yellow Cake

1/2 c. butter 1 c. sugar 2 eggs 1/2 c. milk 2 tsp. baking-powder 1-1/2 c. flour 1 tsp. spice or 1-1/2 tsp. flavouring

Cream the butter, add the sugar gradually, and mix well. Add the well-beaten yolks of eggs, then the flour and baking-powder alternately with the milk. Then add the flavouring and cut and fold in the whites of the eggs carefully. Turn into buttered pans and bake at once in a moderately hot oven.

For chocolate cake, 2 ounces of melted chocolate may be added after the yolks of the eggs. Serves sixteen to twenty.

Gingerbread

1/4 c. butter 1/2 c. brown sugar 1 egg 1/2 c. molasses 1/2 c. milk (sour if possible) 1/2 tsp. soda 1-3/4 c. flour 1 tsp. ginger 1/2 tsp. cinnamon Salt

Cream the butter, add the sugar gradually, then a well-beaten egg. Add the molasses. Sift all the dry ingredients together and add alternately with the milk. Bake in a buttered tin or in gem pans in a moderate oven for 25 or 35 minutes. Serves eight to ten.

Cocoa

1/4 c. cocoa 1/4 c. sugar 1 c. water 3 c. milk

Mix the cocoa and sugar with the water and boil from 3 to 5 minutes. Stir into the hot milk and serve at once. If a scum forms, beat with a Dover egg-beater. Serves eight to ten.

Tea

1 tsp. green or 2 tsp. black tea 2 c. boiling water (freshly boiling)

Scald the tea-pot, put the tea in the tea-pot, and pour boiling water over it; steep 3 minutes, strain, and serve. Serves four.

Coffee

Take two tablespoonfuls of ground coffee for each cup of boiling water that is to be used. Put the coffee in the coffee-pot and add enough cold water to moisten the coffee and make it stick together—about one teaspoonful of water to each tablespoonful of coffee. Pour the boiling water over the coffee and boil it for 3 minutes. Place it where it will keep hot, but not boil, for 5 minutes or more, and then serve. If a small amount of egg white and shell is mixed with the coffee grounds and cold water, it will aid in clarifying and settling the coffee.

Note.—The recipes for coffee and tea are given, so that the teacher can discuss their preparation with the pupils and compare their value with that of cocoa. If coffee and tea are both commonly used in the homes, it may be well to have the pupils prepare both in the class, to be sure that they understand how to make them properly.

METHOD OF WORK

Begin the lesson period with a discussion of the methods of preparing cakes, and put the cake in the oven as soon as possible. While it is baking, prepare the cocoa. If the cocoa is not to be served for some time, it can be kept hot or re-heated over hot water.



LESSON XVIII: YEAST BREAD

SUBJECT-MATTER

Yeast bread is made light by the presence of a gas produced by the action of yeast in the sponge or dough. Yeast is a microscopic plant which grows in a moist, warm temperature and feeds on starchy materials such as are present in wheat. A portion of the starch is converted into sugar (thus developing new and pleasant flavours), and some is still further changed, giving off the gas upon which the lightness of the bread depends. If the yeast is allowed to work for too long a time or the temperature is very hot, a souring of the dough may result. This souring can be prevented by kneading the dough thoroughly, as soon as it has risen well or doubled in bulk, or by putting it in a very hot oven to bake, when it has reached this stage. The yeast plant thrives in a heat of about the same temperature as our bodies. A little extra heat will only make it more active, but boiling temperature will kill it. Cold makes yeast inactive, though it does not kill the plants.

Yeast develops in a natural state on hops and other plants. It is prepared for market in the form of dry or moist cakes. The latter must be kept very cold. For home use, a liquid yeast is often prepared from the dry cakes. This has the advantage of being more active.

When the yeast has been added to a batter, it is spoken of as a sponge. When the batter has had enough flour added, so that it may be handled, it is called a dough. If the bread is to be made in a few hours, the yeast is made up at once into a dough. If it is to stand overnight, a sponge is often made first. More yeast is required for quick rising. In ordinary circumstances, one yeast cake is sufficient for one quart of liquid. Thorough kneading and baking are both essential to the success of the bread.

PRELIMINARY PLAN

Arrange to have the class meet the afternoon before, in order to begin the process by making the sponge, and to come early in the morning to care for the dough. Begin the study of flour, yeast, and bread in a previous class period, correlating the work with geography, nature study, or some other subject. Either white or whole-wheat flour may be used for the breads.

RECIPES

Bread

(Prepared with dry yeast)

1 dry yeast cake 1 c. warm water 1 c. flour 1 qt. water or milk (scalded) Flour enough to make a soft dough 2 tsp. salt 2 tbsp. sugar 2 tbsp. lard or butter

At noon put a dry yeast cake to soak in a cup of warm water. When it is soft, add a cup of flour, cover, and put in a warm place to grow light. This will require several hours.

In the evening, when ready to begin the dough, mix the salt, sugar, fat, and hot liquid in a large bowl; when lukewarm, add the cup of light yeast and enough flour to knead (about three quarts). Mix thoroughly and knead it into a smooth dough, and continue this process until it is soft and elastic. Return the dough to the bowl, moisten, cover, and set in a moderately warm place for the night. Be sure that the place is free from draughts. In the morning knead slightly; divide into loaves or shape in rolls; put into pans for baking; cover, and let it rise until double in bulk. Bake large loaves from 50 to 60 minutes. Rolls will bake in from 25 to 35 minutes, for they require a hotter oven. It is of the utmost importance that all yeast breads be thoroughly cooked. (Makes 4 loaves.)

(Time required for making bread with dry yeast, from 16 to 20 hours.)

Bread

(Prepared with compressed yeast)

2 c. milk or water (scalded) 2 tsp. salt 2 tsp. sugar 1 tbsp. lard or butter 1/4 cake compressed yeast (1 cake if set in morning) 1/4 c. water (lukewarm) Flour, white or whole wheat

Put the hot water or milk, salt, sugar, and fat in a bowl; when lukewarm, and the yeast softened in the lukewarm water, then the flour gradually and, when stiff enough to handle, turn the dough out on a floured board and knead until soft and elastic (20 minutes). Return the dough to the bowl, moisten, cover, and let it rise in a warm place until double in bulk; then knead slightly, divide into loaves or shape into rolls, cover, and let rise in the pan in which they are to be baked until double in bulk, and bake from 50 to 60 minutes. (Makes 2 loaves.)

(Time required for making bread, if one cake of compressed yeast is used, 6 hours.)

METHOD OF WORK

If the class is large, prepare two or three bowls of sponge, so that all can have some practice in stirring and kneading. Do not make too large a quantity of bread to bake in the oven, unless arrangements can be made to do some of the baking at the home of one of the pupils. Use the bread for the school lunch or divide it among the class to take home.

Plan a bread contest, so that each pupil will be interested in making bread at home.



LESSON XIX: SERVING A SIMPLE DINNER WITHOUT MEAT—BAKED OMELET—MACARONI AND CHEESE

PRELIMINARY PLAN AND METHOD OF WORK

At some previous time the teacher should discuss with the pupils the plans for the dinner. It may be well to let them invite the members of the school board or others interested in their work to partake of the dinner. They should decide on the menu, with the help and suggestions of the teacher, and should choose foods that they can bring from their homes. The main course should consist of such a vegetable dish as baked beans, an omelet, or macaroni with white sauce and grated cheese. To accompany this there should be potatoes and a fresh green vegetable, such as spinach or cabbage, and a hot bread.

A simple dessert which the pupils know how to make should be chosen. One duty should be assigned to each pupil, and she should be entirely responsible for that portion of the dinner. The teacher should supervise all the work carefully.

Instructions for making the menu cards may be given in a drawing lesson.

RECIPES

Baked Omelet

2 tbsp. butter 2 tbsp. flour 1/2 tsp. salt 1 c. milk, heated 4 eggs 2 tsp. fat Pepper

Melt the butter, add the flour and seasonings, mix thoroughly, then add the hot milk slowly. Separate the eggs, beat the yolks, and add the white sauce to them. Beat the whites until stiff and cut and fold them carefully into the yolk mixture, so that the lightness is all retained. Turn into a greased baking-dish and bake in a moderate oven from 20 to 30 minutes. Serve hot. Serves six.

Macaroni and Cheese

1 c. macaroni, noodles, or rice 2 tbsp. fat 3 tbsp. flour 1/2 tsp. salt Pepper 1-1/2 c. milk 1 c. grated cheese 2 c. buttered bread crumbs (two tbsp. butter or other fat)

Break the macaroni into 1-inch pieces and cook it in a large amount of salted boiling water from 30 to 45 minutes. Drain it well when tender and pour cold water through it.

Break up the bread crumbs and add two tablespoonfuls of melted butter to them. Grate the cheese and make a white sauce of the fat, flour, seasonings, and milk. Mix the cheese with the sauce, add the macaroni, and pour it into a buttered baking-dish. Cover with the bread crumbs and bake 15 or 20 minutes, to brown the crumbs. Serves eight.



LESSON XX: SUGAR

Food value and cooking. The use of peanuts in candy. Peanut cookies, or peanut, molasses, or fudge candies, to be made for a special entertainment.

SUBJECT-MATTER

Sugar is valuable to the body as a source of heat and energy. While it is easy of digestion, it is very irritating to the body if taken in large quantities and, on this account, it should be taken in small quantities and preferably at meal time or with other food. Two or three pieces of candy taken at the end of the meal will not be hurtful, but when eaten habitually between meals, it is sure to produce harmful effects.

Sugar is present in many fruits and in most vegetables. Milk contains a large percentage of sugar. In preparing foods to which the addition of sugar seems desirable, care should be taken not to add it in large quantities.

PRELIMINARY PLAN

As it is desirable to have a discussion regarding sugar and its value to the body, the preparation of cookies or candy for some school function or Christmas party may be undertaken in conjunction with this lesson, which should be given at a time when it will mean most to the pupils. The work should be so planned that they will learn something of the principles of sugar cookery, as well as the specific recipes they are using.

RECIPES

Cookies

1 c. fat 1 c. sugar 2 eggs 1/4 c. milk 3 c. flour 3 tsp. baking-powder 1 tbsp. cinnamon 1/2 c. sugar

Cream the butter and add the sugar and well-beaten eggs. Then add the milk alternately with the sifted dry flour (sifted with baking-powder). Mix to the consistency of a soft dough, adding more milk if necessary. Roll lightly, cut in shapes, and dip in the one-half cup of sugar and cinnamon that have been sifted together. Place on buttered sheets and bake in a hot oven for about 10 minutes. Slip from the pan and lay on the cake cooler. To make a softer cookie, use only one-half cup of butter. (Three to four dozen.)

Peanut Cookies

2 tbsp. butter 1/4 c. sugar 1 egg 1 tsp. baking-powder 1/8 tsp. salt 1/2 c. flour 2 tsp. milk 1/2 c. finely chopped peanuts 1/2 tsp. lemon juice 2 doz. whole peanuts shelled

Cream the butter and add the sugar and the egg well beaten. Add the milk and sifted dry ingredients, alternately, to the first mixture, then the peanuts and lemon juice. Drop from a teaspoon on a baking sheet an inch apart and place 1/2 peanut on top of each. Bake from 12 to 15 minutes in a moderate oven. (Two and a half to three dozen.)

Peanut Brittle

1 c. sugar 1 c. peanuts in the shell

Stir the sugar over the heat, constantly, until it becomes a clear liquid. Take at once from the heat, add the prepared peanuts, and pour on a warm, buttered tin. Mark in squares and cool. Serves ten.

Molasses Candy

2 c. molasses 2/3 c. sugar 1 tbsp. vinegar 1/4 tsp. soda 2 tbsp. butter

Put the molasses, sugar, and butter into a thick sauce-pan or kettle and stir until the sugar is dissolved. Boil until the mixture becomes brittle when tried in cold water. Stir constantly at the last to prevent burning. Add vinegar and soda just before removing from the fire. Pour into a well-greased pan and let it stand until cool enough to handle. Then pull until light and porous and cut in small pieces with scissors, arranging on buttered plates. Serves sixteen to twenty.

Fudge

2 c. sugar 1 c. milk 1 tbsp. butter 1/2 c. nuts, broken up

Put the sugar and the milk in a sauce-pan and stir over the heat until the sugar is dissolved. Add the butter and boil to the "soft ball" stage. Take from the heat and beat until creamy. Add the nuts and pour on buttered pans. When cool, cut in squares. Serves sixteen to eighteen.

METHOD OF WORK

Devote, if possible, a separate period to the discussion of the food value and cooking of sugar; then assign two recipes for the practical work, allowing the pupils to work in groups. Assign only as much work as can be carefully supervised. Do not undertake both the cookies and the candy.



TWENTY LESSONS IN SEWING

SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER

The teacher should be familiar with the conditions in which the pupils live, should know how much money they can afford to pay for materials, what materials are available, what previous experience in hand work they have had, whether they can afford to have sewing-machines in their own homes, and to what extent they make their own clothes or buy them ready-made.

The lessons should be planned to furnish hand training, to give pupils practical instruction in the care of their own clothes, and to provide an opportunity for preparing the apron for the cooking lessons. The lesson course should tend to develop habits of thrift, industry, and neatness. The pupils should be encouraged to learn to sew, both to improve their own home conditions and to give them suggestions as to a possible means of livelihood. If sewing-machines are available and are in use in the homes, it is well to have lessons given in machine sewing and to have the long seams run by machine. If the pupils cannot have sewing-machines in their own homes, the lessons given should be limited to sewing by hand. In some schools, it may be necessary to simplify the lessons; in others, an increased number of articles may be prepared in the time allotted. Should the apron and cap not be needed for the cooking class, an undergarment (corset cover) may well be substituted.[A]

[A] Should the teacher feel that an apron or corset-cover is too large a piece for her pupils to undertake, and should she desire to have more time spent on the first ten lessons. Lessons XI to XVIII may be omitted, two periods each devoted to both Lessons XIX and XX, and three lessons used for the making of a simple needle-book or other small piece.

For each lesson the teacher should have in mind a definite plan of procedure. The lesson should be opened with a brief and concrete class discussion of the new work that is to be taken up or the special stage that has been reached in work that is already under way. Though individual instruction is necessary, it should not take the place of this general presentation of the subject-matter, which economizes time and develops the real thought content of the work. Whenever possible, the teacher should endeavour to correlate this work with the other subjects on the curriculum.

New stitches may be demonstrated on large pieces of scrim, with long darning-needles and coarse red or black yarn. The scrim should be pinned to the black-board with thumb tacks, and the stitches made large enough for all to see without difficulty. A variety of completed articles should be kept on hand, in order to show additional application of points brought out in the lesson. Each class may be given the privilege of preparing one article to add to this collection, and a spirit of class pride and valuable team work may be thereby developed.

During the lesson, posture, neatness, and order should be emphasized. Application can be secured by making the problems of interest. Care must be taken that none of the work demands unnecessary eye strain. Each lesson should be closed in time to have one of the members of the class give a brief summary of the steps that have been covered.

Since the class period for sewing in the rural school will necessarily be brief, the pupils should be encouraged to continue their work at some other period. However, no work outside of the class period should be permitted until the pupil has mastered the stitch and can be trusted to do the work in the right way. The privilege of sewing may be made the reward for lessons quickly learned, home practice may be assigned, or the class may meet out of school hours. All outside practice must be carefully supervised, the pupil bringing her work to the teacher for frequent inspection.

If it is possible to keep on hand a permanent equipment for sewing, the following should be provided for a class of twelve:

Approximate cost Scissors, 1 dozen $3.00 Thimbles, 1 dozen .50 Tape-measures, 1 dozen .60 Emery, 1 dozen .50 Boxes for work, 1 dozen 1.00 ——— $5.60

Note.—Shoe or candy boxes may be used, but an effort should be made to have them uniform.

The teacher who is to give lessons in sewing should secure a helpful elementary text-book or some bulletin that deals with the teaching of sewing.

REFERENCE BOOKS.

School Sewing, Based on Home Problems. Burton, I. R. and M. G. Vocational Supply Co., Indianapolis $1.00

Handbook of Elementary Sewing. Flagg, E. P. Little, Brown & Co., Boston. (McClelland, Goodchild & Stewart, Toronto) .50

Constructive Sewing, Book I. (paper) Industrial Book & Equipment Co., Indianapolis .60

School Needlework. Hapgood, O. C. Ginn & Co., Boston .50

Clothing and Health. Kinne, H., and Cooley, A. M. Macmillan's, Toronto .65

Handicraft for Girls. McGlauflin, I. Manual Arts Press, Peoria. Ill. 1.00

Home and School Sewing. Patton, F. Newson & Co., New York .60

A Sewing Course. Woolman, M. S. Frederick A. Fernald, Washington 1.50

Sewing. Department of Education of Ontario .20



LESSON I: PREPARATION FOR SEWING

Preparation and use of working equipment: Needles, pins, thread, tape-measure, thimble, scissors, box for work. Talk on cleanliness and neatness (care of hands, etc.). Discussion of hemming. Hems folded on sheets of paper.

SUBJECT-MATTER

A hem is made by twice turning over the edge of a piece of cloth toward the worker, and then sewing it down. It is used to finish a narrow edge. In turning a narrow hem the first fold must not be so deep as the second, in order that the hem may lie smoothly. If the hem is a wide one, the first fold can be much narrower than the second.

PRELIMINARY PLAN

The teacher should have interested the pupils in the sewing lessons before the first meeting of the class, and each pupil should be asked to bring with her the box in which to keep her materials and such other equipment as is required. If the school is to furnish the equipment, the teacher should be sure that there is an adequate supply on hand.

It will probably be necessary to have the towels to be used in the cooking classes hemmed, and the pupils should be interested in doing this work. If some of them wish to hem towels for use in their own homes, it may be desirable to allow them to do so. Flour or meal sacks will answer. It may be well to have each pupil hem a towel for home use, as well as for school use, in order to impress upon her the desirability of having hemmed dish-towels for daily use. The towels may be planned during this lesson, and the pupils may arrange to bring the material from home, if they are to provide it; but it will be well for the teacher to have on hand material for one or two towels. Plain paper will answer for the practice folding of the hem in the first lesson.

METHOD OF WORK

The teacher should devote a few minutes to a talk on cleanliness, emphasizing its importance, and the necessity for exercising care in handling the sewing materials. This should be followed by a discussion regarding the care of the hands and the condition in which they should be for the sewing lesson. Each pupil should inspect her own hands and show them to the teacher.



When all the pupils have their hands in a proper condition for sewing, the teacher should look over their supplies with them, give them suggestions as to how they are to keep these, and let them arrange their boxes.

Next, she should tell them what their first work is to be, show them the material for the towels, and discuss with them the best method of finishing the ends. (See Lesson II.)

Before turning the hem, the pupils should make a gauge from heavy paper, notched to indicate the depth of the hem. A few minutes should be devoted to practice in measuring and turning a hem of the desired depth on a sheet of paper. This should give practice in the double turning necessary—first, the narrow turn to dispose of the cut edge; second, the fold to finish the edge.