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(4) To develop a delicious flavour in the browned surface.
(5) To make the browned surface indigestible, because it has absorbed highly-heated fat.
NOTE.—As frying requires the fat used to be at a very high temperature, it is dangerous to let young children take the responsibility in this method of cooking. For this reason, it may be wise to defer lessons on frying until the Fourth Form, or even later.
For practice in the methods of cooking, the following is suggestive:
Boiling.—Cooking of any vegetable or fruit in season or rice, macaroni, eggs, coffee
Simmering.—Dried fruit, such as prunes, peaches, apricots, apples; strong-smelling vegetables, such as cabbage, onions; porridge; stew
Steaming.—Potatoes, cauliflower, apples, peaches, cup-puddings, dumplings, fish
Steeping.—Tea, coffee, lemon rind for sauce
Toasting.—Bread, rolls
Broiling.—Steak, fish
Pan-broiling.—Steak
Sauteing.—Sliced potatoes, potato cakes, hash cakes, griddle-cakes (teacher prepares the batter)
Baking.—Apples, bananas, potatoes, scalloped potatoes, scalloped tomatoes, cheese crackers, drop biscuits, beef-loaf
Frying.—Potatoes, cod-fish balls, doughnuts (teacher prepares the dough).
The lessons which give practice in the methods of cooking will also afford excellent drills in measuring, manipulation, and cleaning. Throughout all these, the weak points of individual members of the class should receive careful attention. In the case of typical defects, much time may be saved by calling the attention of the class to these, instead of correcting them individually.
After the pupils have considered and practised the methods of cooking, they should be able to prepare any simple dish of one main ingredient, for which recipes should be given. If these cannot be used at school, they may be of service in the homes of the pupils.
Economy should be emphasized by suggesting simple ways of using left-overs, and definite recipes should be written for these. Fancy cooking should be discouraged. The teacher should aim to show how the necessary common foods may be prepared in a nutritious and attractive manner.
In this first year of practical work, the main point is the formation of correct habits of work. Cleanliness, neatness, and accuracy should be insisted on in every lesson, and deftness should be encouraged.
SUGGESTIONS FOR THE USE OF LEFT-OVERS
BREAD
1. Toast for garnishing stews and hash
2. Croutons for soup
3. Bread crumbs to use for croquettes and scalloped dishes, or for stuffing meat and fish
4. Pudding (chocolate bread pudding, cabinet pudding, plain bread pudding, brown betty)
5. Pancakes.
CAKE
1. Pudding (steamed until just re-heated and served with a sauce)
2. Pudding (baked in a custard mixture)
3. Trifle.
MEAT
1. Meat pie or potato and meat pie
2. Meat loaf
3. Stew with dumplings
4. Hash
5. Scalloped meat
6. Croquettes
7. Meat moulded in gelatine
8. Salad (light meats only)
9. Sandwiches.
FISH
1. Scalloped fish
2. Salad.
EGGS
1. Stuffed eggs
2. Hard-boiled for salad
3. Garnish for salad
4. Sandwiches.
CHEESE
1. Cheese crackers
2. Cheese straws
3. Cheese cream toast
4. Cheese omelet
5. Cheese salad
6. Welsh rarebit
7. Macaroni and cheese
8. Sandwiches.
VEGETABLES
1. Scalloped vegetable
2. Cream of vegetable soup (water in which vegetable is cooked should be kept for this)
3. Sauted vegetables
4. Salad.
CANNED FRUIT
1. Cup pudding or roly poly
2. Steamed or baked batter pudding
3. Pudding sauce (strain juice and thicken)
4. Trifle
5. Fruit salad
6. Gelatine mould.
BEVERAGES
After the moist heat methods of cooking are learned, a special lesson on beverages may be taken, if the teacher thinks it desirable. If the subject be not taken as a whole, each beverage may be taught incidentally, when a recipe requiring little time is useful. The following will suggest an outline of facts for a formal lesson:
MEANING OF BEVERAGES
A beverage is a liquid suitable for drinking. Water is the natural beverage; other beverages are water with ingredients added to supply food, flavour, stimulant, or colour. Since water is tasteless in itself and also an excellent solvent, it is especially useful in making beverages.
KINDS OF BEVERAGES
1. Refreshing.—Pure cold water, all cold fruit drinks
2. Stimulating.—All hot drinks, tea, coffee, beef-tea, alcoholic drinks
3. Nutritious.—Milk, cocoa, chocolate, oatmeal and barley water, tea and coffee with sugar and cream.
NOTE.—As tea, coffee, and cocoa are ordinary household beverages, they should be specially studied. Their sources and manufacture will have been learned in Form III Junior, but their use as beverages may now be discussed and practised. It is desirable that the pupils be led to reason out correct methods of cooking each.
TEA
1. Description.—The leaves contain, beside a stimulant and flavour, an undesirable substance known as tannin, which is injurious to the delicate lining of the stomach. If the tea be properly made, the tannin is not extracted.
2. Method of cooking.—Steep the tea from three to five minutes, then separate the leaves from the liquid (suggest ways of doing this). Boiling is not a correct method to use for making tea, as it extracts the tannin and causes loss of flavour in the steam.
NOTE.—Because of the stimulant, young people should not drink tea or coffee.
COFFEE
1. Description.—The beans, or seeds, of coffee also contain tannin as well as a stimulant and flavour. This beverage is more expensive than tea, since a much larger amount must be used for one cup of liquid. After the beans are broken by grinding, the air causes the flavour to deteriorate, so that the housekeeper should grind the beans as required, or buy in small quantities and keep in tightly covered cans.
2. Method of cooking.—Coffee may be cooked in different ways, according to the size of the pieces into which the roasted beans are broken. These pieces are much harder than the leaves of tea, hence coffee may be given a higher temperature and a longer time in cooking than tea. Small pieces of beans are apt to float in the liquid, making it cloudy; this may be overcome by the use of egg-white or by careful handling.
Coarsely ground coffee must be boiled gently. Finely ground coffee may be boiled gently or steeped. Very finely ground, or powdered coffee should be steeped or filtered with boiling water.
COCOA
1. Description.—This contains a stimulant, but differs from tea and coffee in being nutritious. It makes a desirable drink for children.
2. Method of cooking.—Cocoa contains starch and should be simmered or gently boiled.
CHOCOLATE
This substance is the same as cocoa, except that it contains a much larger amount of fat.
TABLE SETTING
The serving of food is incidentally a necessary part of nearly every lesson in cookery, as the pupils usually eat what they prepare. In regular class work the bare work table is used, and each pupil prepares a place for herself only. The dishes soiled during the lesson should be placed on the section covered with metal or glass at the back of the table, and the front, or wooden part, cleared to be used as a dining table. The teacher should insist on this part being clean and neatly arranged. The few dishes used should be the most suitable selected from the individual equipments, and they should be as carefully placed as for a meal. From the very first, the pupils should be trained to habits of neatness in setting the table, and in serving the food; and, what is most important, they should be trained to eat in a refined manner. Lack of time is sometimes given as an excuse for neglecting this training in the usual cookery lessons; but if the teacher insists upon neatness in work and good table manners, the pupils will soon learn to comply without loss of time.
Laying a table may be formally taught at any stage of the work of Form III, but it is most suitable after the class is capable of preparing the food for a simple home meal. The topics of the lesson may be presented as follows:
PREPARATION
1. See that the dining-room is well aired and in order.
2. See that the linen is clean and carefully laundered.
3. See that the glass, silver, and steel are polished.
4. Decide on the number to be served.
ARRANGEMENT
1. Place a silence cloth of felt, woollen, or thick cotton:
(1) To prevent the dishes from making a noise
(2) To give the table a better appearance
(3) To preserve the table top.
2. Lay the cloth, placing the centre of the cloth in the centre of the table and spreading it smoothly, having its folds parallel with the edges of the table.
3. Arrange a centre-piece, using a vase or basket of flowers, a small plant or a dish of fruit.
4. Put a plate at each person's place and lay the cutlery and silver beside it about one inch from the edge of the table, in the order of use, those used first on the outside, or farthest from the plate. At dinner these plates are usually placed before the one who serves.
(1) Place the knives at the right side, with the sharp edges toward the plate.
(2) Place the forks at the left side, with the tines up.
(3) Place the soup spoons at the right of the knife, bowl up.
(4) Place the dessert spoons in front of the plates, the handle to the right, the bowl up.
(5) Place the dessert forks with the other forks, or in front of the plates with the dessert spoons.
5. Place the water glasses at the end of the knife blades, top up.
6. Place the bread and butter plates at the left of the forks. (These are not necessary at dinner.)
7. Place the napkins at the left, neatly folded; discourage fancy folding.
8. Place the salt and pepper so that they are convenient to every one.
9. Place the dishes that are to be served at table directly in front of the one who is to serve them.
10. Place the carving set in front of the host, and the tablespoons as on page 89, or where food is to be served.
11. Place a chair for each person.
TABLE MANNERS
In Form III, the children are too young to serve at table, so the lesson on Preparing and Serving Meals, page 136, has been reserved for the work of Form IV, Junior Grade. The class should, however, be carefully trained in table manners from the first. In their usual class work this will be incidentally taught. A regular lesson should include the following:
RULES FOR CORRECT TABLE MANNERS
These are based upon the accepted customs of well-bred people, and have in view the convenience and comfort of all who are at the table.
They may be stated as follows:
1. Stand behind the seat assigned you.
2. Wait until the hostess is seated, before taking a seat.
3. Sit naturally erect, without any support from the elbows, placing the feet on the floor.
4. Do not begin to eat until others are served.
5. Eat and drink quietly, taking small mouthfuls; keep the mouth closed while eating.
6. Do not drink with food in the mouth.
7. Do not talk with food in the mouth.
8. Use a fork preferably, whenever it will serve the purpose; and never put a knife into the mouth.
9. Take soup from the side of the spoon.
10. Wipe the mouth before drinking from a glass.
11. Be attentive to the needs of others.
12. If it be necessary to leave the table, ask the hostess to excuse you.
13. If a guest for one meal only, leave the napkin unfolded beside the plate.
14. Never use a toothpick at the table, or in any company.
15. Wait for the hostess to rise, then stand, and replace the chair in position.
CHAPTER VI
FORM IV: JUNIOR GRADE
THE KITCHEN
At the beginning of the year's work in Form IV, several lessons should be spent in reviewing the methods of cooking and cleaning taught in the previous year. This may be done by reviewing former recipes and by using new ones which require a knowledge of these methods. As the pupils work, they should be closely observed, and, without the teacher giving undue assistance, their weak points should be carefully strengthened. The length of time spent on the review will vary according to the ability of the class. This can be plainly judged by their habits of work. The new recipes given them should be such as they are likely to use at home, so as to encourage home practice. These recipes will also enlarge their collection in their special recipe books. Some of the following may be useful: creamed potatoes, potato omelet, stuffed potatoes, stuffed onions, corn oysters, baked tomatoes, spaghetti with tomato sauce, macaroni and cheese, scalloped apples, plain rice pudding, ginger pudding, sago pudding, tapioca cream.
THE KITCHEN FIRE
Up to this time the pupils have been allowed to manage their individual table stoves or a gas range. They should now be taught to understand and to use an ordinary coal or wood range. Two lessons will be necessary for this purpose. After each lesson has been taught, the remainder of the period should be spent in some kind of practical work which can be accomplished in the time. Some cookery which requires only a few minutes may be reviewed, such as tea, cocoa, coffee, toast, bacon, apple sauce; drawers and cupboards may be cleaned; silver and steel may be polished; designs for wall-paper, dishes, curtains, and dress materials may be drawn; household accounts may be computed; sewing may be finished.
LESSON I
REQUIREMENTS OF A KITCHEN FIRE
In introducing a lesson on the kitchen fire, ask the pupils to imagine that they have built a new house, which the workmen have just vacated. Before they can move in it must be cleaned. What kind of water is best for cleaning? Hot water. What is necessary to provide hot water? A fire.
Find out from the pupils and then write on the black-board what is necessary for a fire. What is the first requisite? Something to burn. What do we call such a substance? Fuel. Where shall we put the fuel? In a stove. Why is a stove necessary? To confine the fire.
Using a candle as fuel and a lamp chimney as a stove, light the candle and place it in the chimney. It burns only a short time and then dies out. Why? Because the oxygen of the air in the chimney is all exhausted. Then what is another requisite for a fire? Oxygen.
Imagine the room to be a stove and the chairs, books, tables, etc., to be fuel. The air in the room also contains much oxygen, so that in this room we have three requisites for a fire. It is very fortunate for us that something else is needed. We shall try to find out what it is.
Watch while I hold these strips of paper over this lighted gas stove high enough to be out of reach of the flame. What happened to them? They burst into a flame. What did the paper that I held receive that it did not get when it was lying on the table? Heat. We shall try a match in the same way, also some thin shavings. They also burn when they receive heat from the fire. Then what is another requisite for a fire? Heat. Name all of the requisites for a kitchen fire. Fuel, stove, oxygen, and heat.
NOTE.—Just here it is a good thing to impress the care that is necessary in regard to gasolene, coal-oil, benzine, etc., or any substance that burns at a low temperature. Bring out the fact very clearly that it is the heat that makes fuel burn, that a flame is not necessary.
HEAT
Experiments to show on what the amount of heat required depends:
1. Heat together two strips of paper of the same size but of different thicknesses and observe which burns first.
2. Heat together a strip of very thin paper and a match which is much thicker than the paper, and observe which burns first.
3. Rub a match vigorously on some surface and observe the result.
Conclusions.—1. The amount of heat required to make fuel burn depends on:
(1) The thickness of the fuel.
(2) The substance composing the fuel.
2. Some substances burn at a very low temperature.
NOTE.—This will explain the order of laying the fuel for a fire and the use of a match in lighting it.
OXYGEN
Experiments to show the means of obtaining oxygen:
1. Light a candle, set the lamp chimney over it and observe the result.
2. Raise the chimney by supporting it on two small pieces of wood. Note the result.
3. Cover the raised chimney with a piece of cardboard. Note the result.
Conclusions.—1. A fresh supply of oxygen is constantly required.
2. Two openings are required to ensure a constant supply of oxygen, one below the fuel and one above it.
3. Oxygen is obtained from the surrounding air.
4. The passage of air through these openings creates a draught.
It will be necessary next to lead the class to see that the supply of oxygen can be controlled:
1. By the relation of the openings:
(1) Openings directly opposite each other cause a rapid circulation of air or a "direct draught".
(2) Indirect openings cause a slower circulation of air or an "indirect draught".
2. By a cross current of air which tends to check the draught.
FUELS
A discussion of the fuels may next be taken. With pupils of Form IV it will not be wise to go into too many details regarding these. Besides the classification of the commonest ones, they may be compared from the standpoints of cost, and of the time and labour required in their use.
Classes of Fuels:
Liquid—coal-oil, gasolene, alcohol
Solid—coal (coke), wood (charcoal)
Gaseous—natural gas, coal gas.
NOTE.—Electricity is a means of producing heat, but cannot be called a fuel.
THE KITCHEN STOVE
LESSON II
In developing the construction of a practical coal or wood range, it is a good idea to use the black-board and make a rough drawing to illustrate the details, as they are given by the pupils. These details should be evolved from the knowledge gained in the preceding lessons, and the drawing should not be an illustration of any particular stove.
After the best practical stove, according to the pupils' ideas, has been thought out and represented on the black-board, they should examine and criticise the school range and the stoves at home. They are then ready to be given the responsibility of managing any ordinary range.
* * * * *
The following are the necessary details to be considered regarding a kitchen stove:
Material.—(1) Iron, (2) steel
Shape.—Rectangular.
Compartments.—(1) Fire-box, (2) ash-box, (3) oven, (4) passage for hot air, (5) other compartments if desired, such as water tank, warming closet, etc.
Dampers.—(1) Front damper—below the fuel, to control the entrance of oxygen to the fuel. (2) Oven damper—above the fuel at the entrance to the pipe, to control the heat for the oven, and also to control the draught. (3) Check damper—at the front of the stove above the fuel, to admit a cross current of air to check the draught.
Management of the stove.—(1) Lighting the fire, (2) heating the oven, (3) arranging for over night, (4) cleaning and care.
NOTE.—Openings below the level of the fire increase the draught, and those above the level check it.
THE FIRELESS COOKER
Throughout the training given in Household Management, the teacher should emphasize the value of labour-saving devices and aids in the home. How to economize time and energy should be a prominent feature of every practical lesson. If time permit, a lesson may be taken to consider specially such aids as are readily procurable, together with their average cost. In this lesson the fireless cooker is considered.
The principles of the fireless cooker are based on a knowledge of the laws governing the conduction and radiation of heat. For this reason, an elementary science lesson relating to these laws should precede this lesson. Such a science lesson is part of the regular grade work of Form IV, so if a specialist teaches the Household Management of that grade, she and the regular teacher should arrange to co-ordinate their lessons.
PRINCIPLES OF THE FIRELESS COOKER
1. It furnishes no heat, but conserves the heat which is in the food when it is put into the cooker.
2. It conserves the heat in the food, by surrounding it with substances which are poor conductors of heat.
3. Extra heat may be given the food, after it is put in the cooker, by placing heated stone plates above and below the dish that contains the food. The stone used for this purpose must be a good absorbent of heat.
REASONS FOR THE USE OF THE FIRELESS COOKER
1. It saves fuel and is therefore economical.
2. It saves time, because it requires no watching.
3. It conserves the flavour of the food.
4. It obviates all danger of burning the food.
5. It does not heat the room.
WAYS OF USING THE FIRELESS COOKER
1. Food cooked in liquid:
In all cookers where stone plates are not used, only such foods as are cooked in liquids can be prepared. Examples of foods cooked in this way are, meat soup, beef-tea, meat stews, vegetables, fruit, porridge, cereal, puddings, etc.
The prepared food is put into one of the food receptacles belonging to the cooker and is placed over a fire, until it has boiled for a few minutes. The cover is then tightly adjusted, and the dish quickly locked in the cooker, to conserve the heat that the food and liquid have absorbed.
2. Food cooked in dry heat by the use of stone plates:
In this method the food is cold when it is placed in the cooker, and all the heat is supplied by stone plates placed above and below the utensil containing the food. These plates are heated for about twenty minutes over a fire, before they are used in the cooker.
Examples of food cooked in this way are, roasts of meat; baked fruit, such as apples; baked vegetables, such as potatoes or beans; cakes, such as plain cake or fruit cake; quick bread, such as corn-bread and biscuits.
3. Food cooked in liquid, aided by the heat of one stone plate:
In cases where the original heat absorbed by the food is not sufficient to complete the cooking as desired, a heated stone plate may be placed in the cooker below the utensil containing the hot food. The stone may be necessary for one of the following reasons—
(1) Because the amount of food put into the cooker is too small to contain much heat. It is always better to have the food nearly fill the dish.
(2) Because the time required is so long that the heat of the food and liquid becomes exhausted before the cooking is completed.
(3) Because it is desirable to finish the cooking in less time.
A HOME-MADE FIRELESS COOKER
Use a large wooden box or a small trunk with a close-fitting cover. Make it as air-tight as possible by pasting thick paper all over the inside.
Pack it level with clean sawdust or excelsior (the latter preferably), until just enough height is left to set in a covered granite pail, which is to be used for holding the food. Place the pail in the centre, so that its top edge is just about half an inch below the top of the box. Then pack in more excelsior very tightly around the pail, until level with it. This will shape the "nest" for the pail.
Make a thick cushion, or mat, of excelsior to fit in the space between the level of the excelsior and the inside of the cover. Cover the cushion with cheesecloth or denim to keep it intact.
NOTE.—Only food cooked in a liquid can be prepared in a home-made cooker.
CHAPTER VII
FORM IV: JUNIOR GRADE (Continued)
STUDY OF FOOD
The pupils have been working with some of the well-known foods in all of their recipes and should have a fair knowledge of how to prepare them in simple ways for the table. It is now time for them to learn what these foods contain for the use of their bodies. Much of this part of the work can be taught in rooms without special equipment. An earnest teacher, with a few articles from home, can make the study interesting and valuable.
A series of lessons will be necessary for this purpose. The amount of work to be taken at one time is suggested, but this should be judged by the teacher. As in other lessons on theory, the remaining time of the lesson period should be used in practical work. Suggestions for such practical work are given under the lesson on "The Kitchen Fire", page 92.
Practice lessons, to give variety and sustain interest, should be interspersed between these lessons as desired.
LESSON I
USES OF FOOD
The lesson may be introduced by asking the class to think in what way the body of a healthy baby, who is fed regularly, will have changed at the end of six months. It will be larger; it will have more flesh, more bone, more hair, etc. We want to get a name that will apply to any part of the body. No matter which part we examine through a microscope we find the same fine and beautiful texture, and to this we give a name similar to that given to fine, thin paper. We call it tissue—hair tissue, bone tissue, flesh tissue.
What has food done to the baby's tissues? It has enlarged its tissues; the child has grown larger. To the enlargement, or growth, of the tissues, we may apply the term, build, suggested by the building of a house. Then what may we say food does for the tissues of the body? We may say that food builds the tissues of the body.
Think of some persons who have taken food every day, and yet as long as you have known them they have not increased in size. What has food done for their tissues? The class must be told that the tissues of our bodies wear out through use, and that food has furnished the material to replace the worn-out parts. What do we say we are doing to clothes when we replace the worn parts? We are mending or repairing them. What does food do for our worn-out tissues? Food repairs the tissues of the body.
Do not think any more about the tissues of the body. Suppose you had not been able to get any food for several days. In what way would you be different from what you are now? You would not be as strong. Food gives strength or energy by being burned inside the body. There is a fire burning in our bodies all the time we are alive, the fuel being food. What do we require from the fire in our homes? We require heat. The fires in our bodies give us heat also. Any fire gives off both heat and energy. State another use of food to the body. Food produces heat and energy in the body.
But food does more for the body; it contains substances to keep our bodies in order. Suppose the clock gets out of order and does not keep good time, what does the watchmaker do to it? He regulates it. That is what certain kinds of food do for us. What then is another use of food? Food regulates the body.
Name the uses of food to the body.
1. It builds the tissues.
2. It repairs the tissues.
3. It produces heat and energy.
4. It regulates the body.
How then can we judge if a substance be a food? By deciding that it performs one of these duties in the body.
LESSON II
NECESSARY SUBSTANCES IN FOOD
The names of the substances in food which supply the material for the different uses of the body should be taken next.
1. For building and repairing.—(1) Mineral matter—used largely in hard tissues. (2) Nitrogenous matter, or protein—used largely for flesh. (3) Water—used in all tissues.
2. For fuel.—Carbonaceous matter (starch, sugar, fat).
3. For regulating.—Mineral matter, water.
NOTE.—The teacher should call attention to the fact that few foods contain all these substances, some have nearly all, some have only one, some two or more. In order to get all, we must eat a variety of foods. The class is now ready to consider the well-known foods, in order to find out which of these necessary substances each food contains, and to obtain a general idea of their comparative food values.
SOURCES OF FOOD
All nature supplies us with food. The three great divisions of nature are animal, vegetable, and mineral, and from each we obtain food, though most largely from the animal and vegetable kingdoms.
Animal food is some part of an animal's body or some product of an animal: examples—meat or fish, milk, eggs.
Vegetable food is some part of a plant: examples—vegetables, fruit, seeds.
Mineral food is some constituent of the earth's crust used as food. This mineral food is obtained by drinking water which in coursing through the earth has absorbed certain minerals, by eating plants which have absorbed the minerals from the soil, or by eating animal food which was built from plant food.
This preliminary survey of the sources of all our food gives the pupils a basis for classifying the foods with which they are familiar. They may be given exercises in doing this, and will not only find them interesting, but most useful as nature study.
STUDY OF THE COMMON FOODS
In beginning the analysis of the common foods, it must be remembered that the pupils have no knowledge of chemistry, and that what is found in each food must be discovered through the senses (seeing, smelling, tasting, feeling), or through a process of reasoning.
The pupils should also feel quite sure of what they are setting out to do; they are going to examine some particular, well-known food, to find which of the necessary food substances it contains. The food substances for which they are looking are water, mineral matter, nitrogenous matter, and carbonaceous matter (sugar, starch, fat).
It is better to provide each pupil with a sample of the food to be studied, but where conditions make this difficult, the one used by the teacher will suffice.
STUDY OF MILK
LESSON I
COMPOSITION
Milk is the best food to examine first, because it contains all the food elements except starch and because these can be easily found.
The pupils may each be asked to bring a half cup of milk from home. It may be allowed to stand in glasses while other work is taken.
When ready for the lesson, ask the pupils to look at the contents of the glass, and they will observe a difference of colour where the cream has risen. Nature itself has divided the milk into two parts. Pour off the top part and feel it. It feels greasy. Butter is made from this part. We have found fat—a carbonaceous food.
Move the milk around in the glass and let the pupils see that it is a liquid. Tell them that all liquid in a natural food is mostly water. We have, therefore, another food substance—water, a builder and regulator.
Let the pupils compare a glass of water with a glass of skimmed milk, and they see that something is dissolved in the water of the milk, giving it the white colour. Show them a glass of sour milk, where the white substance is separate from the water. Get the names curd and whey. Tell them how the cheesemaker separates sweet milk into curd and whey. If advisable, let them do it, but in any case show them some sweet milk separated by rennet. Examine the sweet whey. It tastes sweet, denoting the presence of sugar—another carbonaceous food.
Notice the greenish-yellow colour. Recall this same colour in water in which potatoes, cabbage, or other vegetables have been cooked. Tell the pupils that this colour is given by mineral matter being dissolved in the water.
There is still the curd of milk to examine. The use of the senses does not allow us to definitely decide what food substance the curd is. Tell the pupils it is protein, or find the name by a process of reasoning, thus: Recall the fact that babies live for several months on milk alone and during that time build all tissues of the body. Milk, therefore, must contain all tissue-building substances. Review the food substances which are necessary to build all body tissues—mineral matter, protein, and water. We have found the mineral matter and water in milk, but not the protein. Since curd is the only remaining part of milk, it must be largely protein.
Tell the pupils that the scum which comes on the top of milk, when it is boiled, is another kind of protein of which there is a small amount in solution in milk.
Lead the pupils to see that if starch were present, it would be in a raw form, and in this form is indigestible.
LESSON II
FOOD VALUE
The analysis of milk gives a key to the food value of milk and each of its by-products (cream, butter, butter-milk, sour milk, skim milk, curd, whey, cheese, junket). These may now be briefly discussed as to composition, food value, and cost.
CARE
Milk readily absorbs odours, bacteria, etc., and should be kept in covered, sterilized dishes in a pure, cool atmosphere.
EFFECT OF HEAT
Experiments should be made to show the effect of simmering and boiling temperatures. To save time, a different experiment may be given to each pupil, and the results reported.
1. Simmer sweet milk and note the flavour.
2. Boil sweet milk and note the flavour.
3. Simmer the curd of milk. Examine its texture.
4. Boil the curd of milk. Examine its texture and compare it with the simmered curd.
5. Boil skim milk and note the scum.
6. Simmer skim milk and note the absence of scum.
NOTE.—From the above experiments deduce the effect of heat on protein.
Practice lessons may now be given in preparing simple dishes in which milk is the main ingredient, or, at least, recipes may be given for these to be made at home. The following would be suitable: cream sauce, cream soups, custard, junket, cottage cheese, albuminized milk.
STUDY OF EGGS
LESSON I
PARTS
(1) Shell, (2) thick membrane, (3) white, (4) thin membrane, (5) yolk.
These parts are easily seen. Attention should be called to the pores in the shell, and it should be explained that these allow the entrance of bacteria which spoil the egg. Any means of closing these pores helps to preserve the egg.
METHODS OF PRESERVING
Cover the holes in the shell as follows:
1. Pack in salt, bran, sawdust, brine, or water-glass.
2. Coat the shells with fat or wax.
3. Wrap the eggs in paper.
TESTS
1. In the shell:
After an egg is laid, the liquid which it contains begins to evaporate through the pores of the shell and, as this continues, a noticeable space is left inside.
(1) Shake the egg, holding it near the ear. If the contents rattle, it is somewhat stale.
(2) Drop the egg in cold water. If it sinks, it is fresh.
(3) Hold the egg between your eye and the light. If clear, it is fresh.
(4) A rough appearance of the shell denotes freshness.
2. Out of the shell:
White—this should be clear and cling to the yolk.
Yolk—this should round up like a ball.
CARE
1. If eggs are to be used in the near future, they should be washed and put in a pure, cool atmosphere. The lower shelf of the refrigerator is best, as odours rise, and eggs readily absorb these.
2. If eggs are to be preserved, they should not be washed unless their condition compels it, as washing removes the natural covering of the pores. They should be stored in a clean, cool place, and packed as soon as possible.
LESSON II
COMPOSITION
It is wiser to develop the food substances in an egg by reasoning, rather than by examining the different parts. The shell is not used for food, so it is the contents that should be studied. The class should be guided in the following sequence of thought:
1. An egg is designed by nature to become a chicken, so it must contain all of the substances necessary to build a chicken.
2. A chicken is an animal, and all animal bodies are made of the same substances. These we have seen to be mineral matter, protein, and water.
3. An egg therefore contains these three substances.
4. An egg must also contain three weeks' food for the chicken, therefore must have fuel food as well. This fuel food is found in the yolk, in the form of fat.
5. The yolk therefore contains water, mineral matter, protein, and fat.
6. The white contains water, mineral matter, and protein.
EFFECT OF HEAT ON EGGS
The following experiments will show the effect on both yolk and white of the usual methods of applying heat to eggs:
1. Boil an egg for three minutes and note the effect.
2. Boil an egg for twenty minutes and note the effect.
3. Put an egg in boiling water, remove from the fire, and let it stand covered from eight to ten minutes.
4. Fry an egg and note the effect.
NOTE.—The eggs may be put to boil and simmer at the beginning of the lesson, and pupils designated to take them from the heat at proper times. The eggs will then be ready to examine when required.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Boiling an egg for three minutes does not allow time for the heat to reach the yolk. The white is hard and tough just next the shell, but soft and liquid as it approaches the yolk.
2. Boiling an egg for twenty minutes hardens and toughens the white, so that it all becomes hard to dissolve or digest. It also gives the heat time to reach the centre and hardens the yolk, but does not toughen it or make it hard to dissolve or digest.
3. Allowing the egg to stand in the hot water coagulates the white to a jelly-like consistency without toughening it; it also cooks the yolk.
LESSONS III, IV, ETC.
USES OF EGGS
To give practice in preparing eggs and to show their special uses the following dishes would be suitable:
1. White:
For food—poached eggs on toast, simmered eggs
For cohesive (sticky) property—potato balls, fish balls
For clearing liquids—coffee
For holding air—foamy omelet
For decoration—hard-boiled eggs cut in fancy shapes for garnishing, meringue on lemon pudding, etc.
2. Yolk:
For food—egg-nog, scrambled eggs
For thickening liquids—custard, salad dressing, lemon pudding
For colouring foods—tapioca cream
For decoration—hard boiled and grated over salads.
STUDY OF VEGETABLE FOOD
Before beginning this part of the work, it would be most helpful if the class had one or two nature study lessons on the structure and organs of plants. With the pupils in possession of some knowledge thus acquired, the Household Management teacher has only to lead up to ideas of the preparation and value of these parts as food. These ideas should, as far as possible, follow in such a natural order that the pupils may even anticipate the sequence.
The outline may be as follows:
LESSON I
SOURCE
All vegetable food is obtained from plants; it is some part of a plant used as food.
PARTS OF PLANTS USED AS FOOD
1. Root—carrot, radish
2. Tuber—potato, artichoke
3. Bulb—onion
4. Stem—rhubarb, asparagus
5. Leaf—spinach, cabbage
6. Flower—cauliflower
7. Fruit—apple, orange
8. Seed—(1) Of trees (nuts)—beechnut, almond
(2) Of grasses (cereals)—wheat, corn, rice
(3) Of vines (legumes)—peas, beans, lentils.
In asking for examples of the different parts, there will be more interest and value if the questions correlate other subjects, for instance: For what fruit is Canada noted? What fruit does she import? Name a nut the squirrels gather.
LESSON II
COMPOSITION OF ANY PART OF A PLANT
From the foregoing, the pupils may infer that there are eight different foods to study. They should be led to see that in reality there is only one, as all parts of plants are, generally speaking, the same in structure. Referring to the animal body, they will know that a bone from the foot is of much the same structure as one from the face; that a piece of flesh from the leg is the same as a piece from any other part of the body. In the same way, if we study one part of a plant, it will be a type of all parts. In general the structure is as follows:
1. A framework, in cellular form, made of a substance called cellulose.
2. Material filling the cells:
(1) A juice in the cells of all parts of plants except seeds
(2) A solid in the cells of seeds.
To show the framework, some vegetable food having a white colour should be chosen, such as potato, parsnip, or apple.
It must be explained that all plants are made of a framework of numerous cells, something like a honey-comb. The cells in plants are of many different shapes, according to the plant, or the part of the plant, in which they are found. They are usually so small that they cannot be distinguished without a microscope; but occasionally they are large enough to be seen without one. Pass sections of orange or lemon, where the cells are visible. Make a drawing on the black-board of the cellular formation of a potato. Lead the class to understand that, in every case, the cell walls must be broken to get out the cell contents. To illustrate this, they may use potatoes, and break the cell walls by grating the potatoes. After they have broken up the framework, the cell contents should be strained through cheesecloth into a glass. They have now two parts to examine—cell walls and cell contents.
Wash the framework to free it of any cell juice and study it first. Give its name, and note its colour and texture. Compare the framework of potatoes, strawberries, lettuce, trees, etc. Tell the class that in some cases part of the cellulose is so fibrous that it is used to make thread, cloth, or twine; for instance, flax and hemp.
Cellulose is most difficult to dissolve, so that practically little of it is digested. It serves a mechanical purpose in the digestive tract by helping to fill the organs and dilute the real food. If fibrous, it acts as an irritant and overcomes sluggishness of the intestines known as constipation. The outer coats of cereals are an example of coarse cellulose, as used in brown bread and some kinds of porridge.
Examine next the juice which was contained in the cells of the potato. The liquid shows much water; the colour indicates mineral matter in solution; the odour suggests a flavour; the white sediment is starch.
COMPOSITION OF POTATO JUICE
Water, mineral matter, flavouring matter, starch.
Draw attention to the fact that the potato is the part of the plant which acts as a storehouse. In such parts, starch is always found as the stored form of sugar; but, in parts which are not storehouses, sugar will be found in its stead. In rare cases both are found, as in the parsnip.
NOTE.—This is a good time to impress the fact that plants are the source of starch for manufacturing purposes. In England, potatoes are largely used; in Canada, corn. It will be interesting to state that the early settlers obtained their starch for laundry purposes at home from potatoes, by chopping or grinding them.
The insolubility of starch in cold liquids may be effectively reviewed at this part of the lesson. The starch has been lying in the water of the potato cells for several months, yet has not dissolved. Let two or three of the class gradually heat the potato juice with its starch sediment, stirring all the time to distribute the sediment evenly. They will find that a little less than boiling temperature dissolves the starch. This will show them that heat is necessary for the solution of starch, and a heat much greater than that in the body, hence raw starch is indigestible. Recall the milk lesson and the uselessness of starch as a component of milk, unless the milk be cooked.
Squeeze the juice from a sour apple or lemon, and note the taste. Explain that all fruit juices contain more or less acid. The effects of this acid in the body are similar to those of mineral matter.
Protein is also found in plant juices; but in such small quantities that it may be disregarded as a source of food supply.
GENERAL COMPOSITION OF PLANT JUICE
Water; mineral matter; flavouring matter; starch or sugar, or both; acid (in fruit juice).
LESSON III
COMPOSITION OF SOLID MATERIAL IN CELLS OF SEEDS
This part of the lesson may be developed as follows:
1. Seeds contain the building material for new plants, as well as their food for a short time.
2. Plants and animals require much the same material to build and feed them.
3. Animals require water, mineral matter, protein, sugar, starch, and fat.
4. Plants require the same; but the seed being a storehouse part of the plant, it will not have sugar, and water has to be supplied when the new plant is to be formed.
5. Seeds contain, therefore, mineral matter, protein, starch, and fat.
NOTE 1.—Seeds will grow in water until their stored food is used: they must then be planted in soil, to get further nourishment.
NOTE 2.—The two fuel foods, starch and fat, are not found together in abundance in seeds; one or the other will be much in excess. For instance, in walnuts there is a great deal of fat, while in peas and beans there is scarcely a trace of fat, but the starch is abundant.
COMPARATIVE FOOD VALUE OF DIFFERENT PARTS OF PLANTS
Only a very general idea of this should be attempted. The food value of any part of a plant can be roughly estimated by considering the office of that particular part in plant structure. Nature study will assist in this. The root collects the food to send it to the parts above; the stem is a hallway through which the food is carried in a more diluted form. The leaves serve the purpose of lungs and will not contain much food, though they naturally have a good deal of flavour; parsley, sage, and tea are examples of this. The fruit is a house to protect the seeds, and is made most attractive and delicious, so that animals will be tempted to eat this part, and thus assist in the dispersal of the seeds. The fruit has comparatively little food value as building material. The seed contains the stored material to build new plants, and therefore is the most nutritive part of all. It is the only part of the plant which contains an appreciable supply of building food, that is, which can take the place of eggs or meat in the diet. Baked beans are sometimes called "nuggets of nourishment" or "the poor man's beef".
LESSON IV
After discussing the food value of the different parts in this broad way, the pupils may be asked to consider the plant foods used in their diet and to compare their nutritive value.
The facts concerning these may be summed up as follows:
1. Green vegetables:
These generally contain much water, hardly any protein or fat, and a small amount of sugar. They are valuable mainly for their mineral matter and cellulose.
2. Root vegetables and tubers:
These are more nutritious than green vegetables, because they contain much more sugar and starch.
3. Ripe seeds (cereals, legumes, and nuts):
These are highly nutritious, because of the large amount of protein and building mineral matter they contain, and also the amount of fuel food.
DRIED VEGETABLES AND FRUIT
It is important that the value of these be pointed out. Dried foods contain all of the constituents of fresh food excepting water and a little flavour lost in evaporation, yet they are often much cheaper. Attention should be directed to the best means of restoring the water and, if necessary, of giving an additional flavour by the use of cloves, cinnamon, etc.
Canning is a better means of preserving food for export or for use when out of season, but where the expense prohibits this method, drying is a good substitute. In districts where fruit and vegetables cannot be grown or in seasons when they cannot be obtained fresh, the dried forms are cheap and have excellent food value.
THE COOKING OF VEGETABLE FOOD
As vegetable food is eaten both raw and cooked, the pupils should be asked to decide when cooking is necessary and what they wish it to accomplish.
* * * * *
There are only two substances in vegetable food which will require cooking, and these are:
1. Cellulose, if it be hard or tough
2. Starch, if it be present.
The pupils have found in their experiment with the potato water, that starch cooks quickly, hence the time of cooking will depend altogether on the texture of the cellulose. When the cellulose is softened at the centre, the last part which the heat reaches, the vegetable or fruit will be cooked.
If the food is cooked in water by boiling or simmering, much of the substance will pass into the cooking water. As the cell walls become softened, they allow the cell contents to partially pass out and the cooking water to pass in to fill the space. If the food is long in cooking, the water may have more value than the vegetable, and it should not be thrown away. It may be used in two ways—as a basis for a sauce or a soup.
GENERAL RULES FOR COOKING VEGETABLES
NOTE.—As the principles in the general rules have been taught, these rules may be dictated to the class.
PREPARATION
1. Wash, pare, peel, or scrape the vegetable, and cut it into convenient sizes.
2. Unless green vegetables are freshly gathered, soak them in cold water for an hour before cooking.
3. Soak dried vegetables at least twelve hours.
COOKING
1. Put all vegetables on to cook in boiling water, except dried vegetables, which should be put on in cold water.
2. Strong-smelling vegetables should be cooked at simmering point, the others may boil gently.
3. For vegetables that grow above ground (including onions), salt the water (one tsp. to a quart).
4. For underground vegetables, do not salt the water.
VEGETABLE RECIPE
Prepare and cook the vegetables until tender, according to the rules given above. Drain off and measure the vegetable water. For each 1/2 cup of vegetable, take 1/4 cup of the water and make into a sauce. Re-heat the vegetable in the sauce and serve in a hot dish.
NOTE 1.—For potatoes and tomatoes do not follow this recipe.
NOTE 2.—The sauce is made by thickening each cup of vegetable water with two tablespoonfuls of flour, and seasoning as desired with salt, pepper, and butter.
NOTE 3.—Another method of saving and using the valuable vegetable water is to make it into a soup.
GENERAL RULES FOR COOKING FRUIT
FRESH FRUIT
1. Stewed.—Put the prepared fruit in a saucepan with enough water to keep it from burning. Cover closely, and stew until tender, stirring often. Add the sugar and let the mixture boil a minute more.
2. Cooked in syrup.—Make a syrup of one part sugar to two or three parts water. Put the prepared fruit in the hot syrup, cover closely, and simmer until tender.
DRIED FRUIT
Wash the fruit thoroughly. Cover with cold water and soak twenty-four hours. Put on to cook in the same water in which it has soaked. Add spices if desired. Cover closely and simmer until tender. Add the sugar and simmer ten minutes longer. Take out the fruit, and, if necessary, boil down the syrup, then pour it over the fruit.
LESSONS V, VI, ETC.
While studying vegetable food, practice will be given in nearly every lesson in the preparation and cooking of vegetables or fruit, but after the completion of this series of lessons, these foods should be prepared and cooked with more intelligence and interest. For this reason, there may be, at the last, one general practical lesson devoted to vegetables and fruit, to review and impress the facts that have been taught. As potatoes, on account of their large amount of starch, require special care, an extra lesson may be given to this vegetable.
In the lesson on potatoes the attention of the class should be directed to the following:
POINTS IN COOKING POTATOES
1. Be sure to soften the cellulose thoroughly.
2. After the potatoes are cooked, get rid of all possible moisture, that they may be white and mealy.
(1) If potatoes are cooked in water, drain them thoroughly, remove the cover, and shake over the heat to dry out the starch.
(2) If potatoes are baked, break the skins and allow the moisture to escape as steam.
3. When serving mashed potatoes, pile them lightly without smoothing.
USE OF STARCH TO THICKEN LIQUIDS
A lesson on the use of starch for thickening purposes should be given before lessons on the making of a sauce or a soup from the water in which vegetables have been cooked. The necessity of separating the starch grains should be shown by experiments.
EXPERIMENTS IN USING STARCH FOR THICKENING
(Any powdered starch may be used)
1. Boil 1/4 cup of water in a small saucepan. While boiling, stir into it 1/2 tsp. of cornstarch and let it boil one minute. Observe the result. Break open a lump and examine it.
2. Mix 1 tsp. of cornstarch with 2 tsp. of cold water, and stir into 1/4 cup of boiling water. Note the result.
3. Mix 1 tsp. of cornstarch with 2 tsp. of sugar and stir into 1/4 cup of boiling water. Note the result.
4. Mix 1 tsp. of cornstarch with 2 tsp. of melted fat in a small saucepan and stir into it 1/4 cup of boiling water. Note the result.
CONCLUSIONS BASED ON THE FOREGOING EXPERIMENTS
1. Starch granules must be separated before being used to thicken a liquid:
(1) By adding a double quantity of cold liquid
(2) By adding a double quantity of sugar
(3) By adding a double quantity of melted fat.
2. The liquid which is being thickened must be constantly stirred, to distribute evenly the starch grains until they are cooked.
BASIC RECIPE FOR LIQUIDS THICKENED WITH FLOUR.
Milk Flour Butter Thin cream sauce 1 cup 1 tbsp. 1 tbsp. Thick cream sauce 1 cup 2 tbsp. 2 tbsp.
NOTE.—Use thick cream sauce to pour over a food. Use thin cream sauce when solid food substance is mixed with the sauce.
VARIATIONS OF BASIC RECIPE
1. Tomato sauce.—Use strained tomato juice instead of milk.
2. Vegetable sauce.—Use vegetable water in place of the milk.
3. Cheese sauce.—Use 1/3 to 1/2 cup of grated cheese in 1 cup of thick cream sauce.
CREAM OF VEGETABLE SOUPS
At least one practice lesson should be given on the making of these soups. The value of the vegetable water should be impressed upon the pupils, and it may be pointed out that these soups are an excellent way of using the cooking water and any left-over vegetable.
The difference between tomatoes and other vegetables should be noted. Tomatoes are a fruit and, as such, contain an acid. The acid would curdle milk and must be neutralized by the use of soda, before milk can be added.
PRINCIPLES OF CREAM SOUPS
1. The liquid may be all milk, part vegetable water and milk, or all vegetable water.
2. The amount of flour used for thickening depends on the vegetable. Starchy vegetables need only 1/2 tbsp. to one cup of liquid; non-starchy vegetables need 1 tbsp. to a cup.
3. The ingredients are combined as follows:
(1) The liquid is heated and thickened with flour.
(2) The seasonings of butter, salt, and pepper are added.
(3) The vegetable pulp is added in any desired quantity, usually about two tbsp. to one cup of liquid.
A special recipe should be given for cream of tomato soup, so that the proportion of soda may be correct.
NOTE.—If flavours of onion, bay-leaf, parsley, etc., are desired, these should be cooked with the vegetables, so as to be extracted in the vegetable water.
OUTLINE OF LESSONS ON COOKING SEEDS
CEREALS: WHEAT, OATS, CORN, RICE, RYE, BARLEY
1. Forms in which used:
(1) Whole or cracked grains—rice, cracked wheat, coarse oatmeal, etc.
(2) Granular—corn meal, cream of wheat, fine oatmeal, etc.
(3) Rolled or flaked grains—wheat, oats, corn, rice, etc.
(4) Powdered—wheat flour, rice flour, etc.
2. Cooking cereals for breakfast:
For 1 cup of water use 1/4 tsp. of salt and the following cereal—
Whole or cracked—1/4 cup of cereal
Granular—3 tbsp. of cereal
Rolled or flaked—1/2 cup of cereal.
Put salt and water in the inner part of a double boiler, and set directly over the fire. When steaming hot, gradually stir in the dry cereal, and keep stirring until the starch has thickened and boiled. Stir carefully, so as not to break the flakes of rolled cereals. Then set the inner dish inside the outer part of the double boiler, in which there should be boiling water, and cook from two to four hours.
NOTE 1.—Rice has very tender cellulose and cooks in 3/4 hr.
NOTE 2.—Rolled or flaked cereals have been steamed an hour or more to soften them for rolling, so require less cooking.
NOTE 3.—Cereals may be cooked for breakfast the day before, but should not be stirred while being re-heated.
LEGUMES: PEAS, BEANS, LENTILS
1. Forms in which used:
(1) Ripe seeds
(2) Meals—pea meal, etc.
2. Cooking of dried legumes:
(1) Soak in cold, soft water for twelve hours or more, and then drain and rinse. Hard water may be softened by boiling, or by the addition of soda (1/8 tsp. of soda to 1 pt. of water).
(2) Cook by simmering in softened water until they are soft.
(3) After simmering, the beans may be baked.
NUTS
Forms in which used:
1. Whole or broken nuts—used as dessert or in cakes, salads, etc.
2. Butters—ground and mixed with other ingredients to make a paste.
3. Meals—ground and used to thicken soups.
SALADS
The series of lessons on vegetable foods being finished, it is a good time to take a salad lesson. All salads were originally made from fresh young plants or salad greens, and though any food material is now used for the purpose, the subject seems to follow naturally the lessons on plant food.
The pupils should derive unusual pleasure from this work. The dishes made are most attractive and appetizing, besides affording an opportunity for each member of the class to display individual artistic skill. None of the principles are new, so that the lesson will be really a review.
The outline of notes for the class will be:
INGREDIENTS OF SALADS
1. Salad plants proper, such as lettuce, water-cress, celery, cabbage
2. Cooked vegetables, such as peas, beans, asparagus, carrots, beets
3. Meat—cold, of any kind
4. Fish—cold, of any kind
5. Eggs—hard-boiled
6. Fruit
7. Combinations of the above in great variety.
FOOD VALUES OF SALADS
This depends on the ingredients. If salad greens only are used, the food value is mainly the mineral matter, but the dish will be refreshing and appetizing, and the oil, butter, or egg used in the dressing adds nutriment.
Salads are prepared with little trouble and with no expense for fuel.
PREPARATION OF SALAD INGREDIENTS
1. Have everything cold before combining.
2. Freshen the greens in cold water until crisp.
3. Meat, fish, and solid ingredients should be seasoned some time before using, so that they may absorb the flavours of the seasoning.
4. In most cases do not combine the ingredients with the dressing until just before serving.
(1) Salad greens.—Wash thoroughly, and put in cold water until crisp, drain on a towel, wrap in a damp cloth, and put in a cool place. Cabbage and lettuce may be finely shredded.
(2) Fruit and cooked vegetables.—Cut into cubes or suitable pieces. Chill and mix with the dressing, to absorb it.
(3) Meats.—Remove the fat, skin, and gristle. Cut in cubes and chill.
(4) Fish.—Remove the bones, flake, chill, and pour dressing over; but do not mix.
DRESSINGS FOR SALADS
1. Cooked salad dressing:
2 tbsp. sugar 1/2 tsp. mustard 1/2 tsp. salt 1/4 cup vinegar 2 eggs 2 tbsp. butter.
(1) Mix the first four ingredients in a saucepan and heat until dissolved.
(2) Beat the eggs very light in a round-bottomed bowl, using a Dover egg beater.
(3) Beat the vinegar mixture into the eggs.
(4) Set the bowl, with its contents, over a dish of boiling water, then beat slowly and constantly until the mixture is thickened.
(5) Lift the bowl from the heat at once.
(6) Beat in the butter and set away to cool.
(7) If desired, a half cup of whipped or plain cream may be added just before the dressing is used.
2. Uncooked salad dressing:
1/4 tsp. salt 1/8 tsp. pepper 4 tbsp. olive oil 2 tbsp. vinegar.
(1) Stir the salt and pepper into the oil.
(2) Add the vinegar slowly and stir vigorously until well blended and slightly thickened.
(3) Serve with any salad made of salad greens.
STUDY OF MINERAL FOOD
As the study of mineral food involves a knowledge of chemistry, little more can be done in Junior classes than to teach that certain mineral compounds are required for the body, to point out their two main uses, and to lead the pupils to know the foods which generally supply these.
Their attention should be directed to the fact that all mineral matter is found, in the first place, in the earth's crust, but that, with the exception of salt, animals cannot use it in that form. Plants can use it, and they absorb it from the soil; then we eat the plants, and in that way obtain the mineral substance, or we may obtain it by eating the animals which have eaten the plants. Water also, in making its way through the earth, may dissolve certain minerals and, by drinking the water, we obtain these.
It will not be necessary to teach the names of the minerals which our food must supply, as most of these will mean nothing to the pupils. They might be asked to name one or two which are very familiar; for instance, the lime in bone and the iron in blood. They may be told that there are a few others which they will learn when they study chemistry in the high school.
The pupils have already learned that mineral matter serves two main functions in the body: that is, building and regulating, and it is a good plan to classify the well-known foods under these two headings. With a little guidance the pupils can do most of this for themselves. They know that milk serves all building purposes in a child's body, and must, therefore, contain mineral matter. Eggs build animal bodies, and must contain this substance also. Meat is the animal body that has been built, therefore meat has this substance; but we shall find in the meat lessons that there is no mineral matter in fat and that the cook cannot dissolve it out of bone, therefore muscle or lean meat must be eaten to obtain it. Seeds, too, contain building material for new plants; therefore, the building mineral matter must be stored in their cells. Hard water is known by the lime it contains, therefore this, if drunk, assists in the formation of bone.
The class must be told that the mineral in the juices of plants is mainly for regulating purposes; that is, to keep our bodies in order, or as we say, healthy. When they get out of order, we usually go to a doctor to be regulated or made well. The medicine which he prescribes often contains some mineral in solution, perhaps iron. The mineral matter which is in the juices of plants, being a more natural form than the mineral matter in the medicine, is more easily made use of in the bodily processes. This is one reason why people should eat plenty of vegetables and fruit.
Many springs also furnish water with large quantities of mineral matter in solution, which is used mainly for medicinal purposes. The pupils may know some places where we find such springs, and these should be mentioned, such as Preston Springs, Banff, and Mount Clemens, which have become health resorts through the presence of these waters. When the springs are in a distant country and their waters are known to contain a certain mineral which our bodies need, the water is bottled and shipped to us, and may be obtained from a druggist. Hunyadi Janos, Apenta, Vichy, and Apollinaris are well-known medicinal waters shipped from European springs.
SUMMARY OF SOURCES OF MINERAL FOODS
1. Building mineral matter.—Milk, eggs, lean meat, seeds, hard water
2. Regulating mineral matter.—Fruit, vegetables, mineral waters, salt.
NOTE.—This classification will be most useful to the pupils in preparing well-balanced meals in their diet lessons.
DIET
After studying in this elementary way the composition of the animal and vegetable foods, the pupils will be ready for simple lessons on diet. The class may now be said to have a working knowledge of the well-known foods, and they should be given a chance to use this knowledge, by combining and serving these foods for simple meals.
REFERENCE TABLES OF FOOD CONSTITUENTS
It will be helpful in this work, to guide the pupils in making out a reference table of the food constituents. This will give lists of food in which each constituent predominates, as follows:
1. Water:
Beverages (water, milk, tea, coffee, cocoa), fruit, vegetables.
2. Mineral matter:
(1) For building—milk, eggs (yolk and white), lean meat or fish, seeds, hard water
(2) For regulating—fruit, vegetables, mineral waters.
3. Protein:
Milk (curd), eggs (yolk and white), lean meat or fish, seeds.
4. Sugar:
Fruit (juice), non-starchy vegetables (juice), milk (whey), commercial sugar.
5. Starch:
Parts of plants which serve as storehouses:
Tubers—potatoes, artichokes
Roots—parsnip, tapioca, arrowroot
Stem—sago
Seeds—cereals, legumes, some nuts (peanuts, chestnuts).
6. Fat:
Milk (cream), egg-yolk, meat or fish (fat), fruit, as the olive (oil), most nuts (walnut, butternut, pecan, peanut, etc.).
Besides the necessary substances in food, the pupils must be told that there are other points for the housekeeper to consider when preparing the meals, namely:
1. The amount of each food substance required daily.
2. Special requirements of individuals according to: (1) age, (2) occupation, (3) climate, (4) season.
Under 1, above, it may be explained, that when a meal is prepared which gives the body a correct proportion of each food substance, it is said to be well balanced. From numerous experiments the "Dietary Standard" for one day for a grown person has been calculated to be:
Water—about 5 pints, two of which are taken in solid food
Mineral matter—1 ounce
Protein—3 to 4 1/2 ounces
Fat—2 ounces
Sugar and starch (together)—14 to 18 ounces.
Although the pupils cannot be expected to follow this table accurately, from lack of sufficient knowledge, it will be of some assistance to them in choosing a combination of food for the home meals.
Under 2, above, some of the variations of food are obvious, but some must be taught. Children require simple, nourishing food, which will contain plenty of protein and mineral matter for tissue building as well as much fuel food. Their diet should be varied and abundant.
In old age the diet should also be simple, because of the lack of vigour in the digestive organs, but the amount of building material should be decreased. The food of old people should contain proportionately more carbonaceous material.
Brain workers require less food than those engaged in active muscular work, and it should be less stimulating and less bulky. Their diet should be in a form that is easily digested.
With the foregoing general ideas in mind, the pupils may be asked to prepare menus for simple home meals. These should be assigned as home work, so that plenty of time can be given to their consideration, and then they may be brought to the class for criticism. The best of these should be chosen for actual practice in school work.
NOTE.—It is intended that this part of the work shall be presented in a very rudimentary way. The teacher should feel satisfied if she succeeds in implanting ideas of the importance of these food considerations, so that the pupils will be ready for more specific instruction to be gained in higher schools or from their own reading. Cheap bulletins on Human Nutrition, published by Cornell University, will be excellent reading on this subject.
PREPARING AND SERVING MEALS
Before the pupils are given a meal to prepare and serve, table setting should be reviewed, and the rules of table service taught as follows:
RULES FOR SERVING
1. The hostess serves the soup, salad, dessert, tea, and coffee; the host serves the meat and fish.
2. Vegetables and side dishes may be served by some one at the table or passed by the waitress.
3. Dishes are served at the left of each person, commencing with the chief guest.
4. Guests are served first; ladies before gentlemen.
5. In each course, remove the dishes containing the food before removing the soiled plates.
6. When one course is finished, take the tray in the left hand, stand on the left side of the person, and remove the individual soiled dishes with the right hand, never piling them.
7. Before dessert is served, if necessary, remove the crumbs from the cloth with a brush, crumb knife, or napkin.
8. Tea or coffee may be poured at table or served from a side table by the waitress.
NOTE.—Extra cutlery and napkins should be conveniently placed on a side table, in case of accident.
Where the class consists of twelve or more pupils, it must be divided for the preparation and serving of a meal. Each section should prepare and serve a meal for the others, until all have had experience. As breakfast and luncheon are the simpler meals, they should be taken first in the order of lessons. The duties of the cooking and serving should be definitely settled, and each girl given entire responsibility for a certain part of the work.
Those who are served should represent a family. Members should be chosen to act as father, mother, lady guest, gentleman guest, and children of varying ages, so that the duties and serving of each may be typified.
CHAPTER VIII
FORM IV: JUNIOR GRADE (Continued)
CARE OF THE HOUSE
The pupils of Form IV Junior should be urged to take entire care of their own bed-rooms. The Household Management teacher can do much to encourage them in this. She may include such work as part of the week's practice.
The order of work should be discussed and planned by the pupils, the teacher guiding the class by her questioning. In lessons of this kind, the main work of the teacher is to ascertain what the pupil knows and to systematize her knowledge.
A typewritten sheet of directions may be given each pupil to hang in her room, and may serve as an incentive to her to perform the duties outlined.
DIRECTIONS FOR THE DAILY CARE OF A BED-ROOM
1. Open the window, if it has been closed during dressing.
2. Throw the bed-clothing over the foot of the bed, using a chair to hold it from the floor, or place it over two chairs near the window.
3. Put night clothing to air.
4. Put away any other clothing in drawers and closet.
5. Tidy and dust the top of the dressing-table.
6. Make the bed, after it has been aired at least half an hour.
Once a week the following work should be added:
1. The blankets and comforter should be hung outside to air.
2. The mattress should be turned, and fresh bed-linen placed on the bed.
3. The room should be thoroughly swept and dusted.
After the pupils have had training in the care of their bed-rooms, this experience, together with their lessons in cleaning, should enable them to keep any of the other rooms in the house in good order.
It should be pointed out that, in these days of sanitary building and furnishing, there is no necessity for the semi-annual "housecleaning" of former times. Each week the house can be thoroughly gone over, with the exception of laundering curtains and washing wood-work, and these duties might be taken in turn, a room at a time every week, so that the work will not accumulate.
The class should be taught to consider the economy of time and energy and encouraged to provide themselves with all the latest aids they can afford.
The cleaning methods which are necessary for this work and which have not been formally taught, should now be definitely outlined. These are the weekly sweeping, weekly dusting, and cleaning special metals.
DIRECTIONS FOR WEEKLY SWEEPING
1. Dust and put away all small articles.
2. Lift the small rugs, sweep them on both sides, out-of-doors if possible, and leave them to air. Rugs too large to take out should be brushed and folded over to allow of sweeping the under side and wiping the floor beneath.
3. Cover the furniture with dust sheets.
4. Shut the doors and open a window.
5. Begin at the side of the room farthest from the door and sweep toward the centre; sweep from the other side toward the centre; gather the dust in a dust-pan and empty it into the garbage pail or fire.
6. Put away the broom and dust-pan.
7. Leave the room shut up for a few minutes, in order to allow the dust to settle.
8. Use a "dustless" mop to dust the floor.
DIRECTIONS FOR WEEKLY DUSTING
1. Use a soft cotton or cheesecloth duster very slightly dampened.
2. Roll up the covers that are over the furniture and carry them outside, in order to shake off the dust.
3. Wipe the dust from the furniture, pictures, window-sills, ledges, doors, and baseboard, being careful not to scatter it in the air.
4. Change the duster when necessary.
5. Replace the small articles.
6. Wash and dry the dusters.
CARE AND CLEANING OF METALS
IRON OR STEEL
Utensils made of these are heavy, but strong and durable, and hold the heat well.
1. Care:
They must be kept dry and smooth. Moisture causes rust, roughens the surfaces of the utensils, and makes them more difficult to clean. If they are not to be used for some time, the surfaces should be greased or coated with paraffin.
2. Cleaning:
(1) Wash in hot soap-suds, rinse in hot water, and dry thoroughly.
(2) If food is burned on, scour with some gritty material or boil in a solution of washing soda, rinse in hot water, and dry thoroughly.
TIN
Utensils made of this are light and inexpensive; they are good conductors of heat, but they are also good radiators and lose heat quickly.
1. Care:
As tinware is steel or iron coated with liquid tin, the grades vary according to the "base-metal" used and the thickness of the coating. Utensils made of this metal must be carefully kept from scratches, since deep scratches expose the base-metal and allow the formation of rust.
2. Cleaning:
(1) Wash in hot soap-suds, rinse, and dry thoroughly.
(2) If food is burned on, boil in a weak solution of washing soda, rinse in hot water, and dry thoroughly.
NOTE.—Whiting may be used to brighten the tin, but scouring is not recommended, as it wears off the coating.
GRANITE AND ENAMEL WARE
Utensils made of this are attractive, not heavy, and they do not tarnish or rust.
1. Care:
These wares are made by coating steel or sheet-iron with a specially prepared glassy substance called enamel or glaze. Two or three coats are applied. The durability depends on the ingredients used in the glaze and on the number of coats applied.
Such utensils should be heated gradually, scraped carefully, and handled without knocking, to avoid "chipping".
2. Cleaning:
(1) Wash in hot soap-suds.
(2) If stained, use some scouring powder; wash and dry.
(3) If food is burned on, boil in a solution of washing soda and then scour; wash and dry.
ALUMINIUM
Utensils made of this are very light in weight and, as they have no crevices, are easily cleaned. They are also good conductors of heat.
1. Care:
This metal warps under a high temperature, and should, therefore, be used with care. Do not turn the gas on full, or, if used over wood or coal fires, be sure to leave the stove lid on.
Some foods injure the metal, if they are allowed to remain in it very long.
2. Cleaning:
(1) Wash in hot water, with mild soap. Alkalies should not be used, as they darken the surface.
(2) If food is burned on, the dish should be soaked in water and then scoured with bathbrick or emery powder.
(3) Whiting may be used to brighten it.
ZINC
This is not used for utensils, but for table tops and for placing under stoves, etc.
Cleaning:
(1) Use hot water and mild soap. Alkalies and acids affect zinc and should be used with care.
(2) If stained, rub with coal-oil or a paste made of coal-oil and soda, and then wash in hot water.
GALVANIZED IRON
This is used for garbage pails, ash pans, stove pipes, etc. It is made by dipping sheet-iron into melted zinc.
Cleaning:
The same as for zinc.
COPPER OR BRASS
Utensils made of these are heavy but durable and are good conductors of heat. They are dangerous, if not properly cleaned.
Cleaning:
(1) Wash in hot water, using a little washing soda to remove any grease, rinse well, and dry.
(2) If stained or tarnished, scour with salt and vinegar, then rinse thoroughly, and dry.
SILVER
This is used for spoons, knives, forks, and serving dishes, but never for cooking utensils, on account of its cost. It is the best conductor of heat among the house metals.
Cleaning:
(1) Wash in hot soap-suds.
(2) If stained or tarnished, use whiting or silver polish, wash, and dry.
RECIPE FOR SILVER POLISH
2 tbsp. borax 1 cup boiling water 1/2 cup alcohol whiting.
1. Dissolve the borax in the water.
2. When cold, add the alcohol and enough whiting to make a thin cream.
3. Bottle, and shake when used.
NOTE.—The care and cleaning of the metals out of which ordinary utensils are made, such as granite ware, tin, and steel, may be taught incidentally as the utensils are used.
CHAPTER IX
FORM IV: JUNIOR GRADE (Continued)
LAUNDRY WORK
This work is but a continuation of the lessons on cleaning. It is the process of removing foreign matter from cotton, linen, woollen, or silk fabrics by the use of water and additional cleansing agents. It also includes the finishing of these materials by the use of blueing, starch, and heated irons, to restore as far as possible their original appearance.
The principles of laundry work have been taught in the washing of dish cloths and towels, and now these principles have only to be extended to white cotton and linen clothes of any kind.
The pupils may be asked to bring soiled articles of white linen or cotton from home for use at school in exemplifying the necessary processes. In schools which lack an equipment, these processes may be discussed in class and then practised at home. The teacher should choose from the following outline what is most suitable to the class:
OUTLINE OF LESSONS ON THE WASHING OF WHITE COTTON AND LINEN CLOTHES
LESSON I
MATERIALS
1. Water:
(1) Use: (a) To soften and dissolve certain foreign substances in the clothes. (b) To carry away all the foreign matter that has been dissolved or rubbed out of the clothes.
(2) Kinds: (a) Hard water (b) Soft water
For laundry purposes, the water should be soft. The quality known as hardness, which some water has, is due to the lime which it has dissolved in making its way through the earth.
Water is said to be temporarily or permanently hard according to the kind of lime it has in solution. Temporarily hard water may be softened by boiling; the lime will be deposited, as may be seen in the "furring" of tea-kettles. Boiling has no effect in softening permanently hard water, so a substance known as an alkali is used for this purpose.
(3) Methods of softening water by alkalies.—For each gallon of water use one of the following: (a) One tablespoonful of borax or ammonia dissolved in one cup of water. (b) Two tablespoonfuls of a solution made by dissolving one pound of washing soda in one quart of boiling water. (c) One fourth tablespoonful of lye dissolved in one cup of water.
2. Alkalies (borax, ammonia, washing soda, lye):
(1) Use: (a) To soften hard water (b) To assist in dissolving greasy substances.
(2) Kinds: (a) Borax.—This alkali is one of the mildest, and for this reason is less harmful to the clothing. It is useful when an alkali is required to soften water for coloured clothes or woollens. It also has a tendency to keep white clothes a good colour. (b) Ammonia.—This also is a mild alkali, but is apt to "yellow" white materials. As it is very volatile, it should not be used unless the washing can be done quickly. (c) Washing soda.—This is a cheap substance and stronger than borax or ammonia. It should be made into a solution before it is used, for fear of too great strength.
(d) Lye, or caustic soda.—This alkali is very strong and should be employed with great care. It must not be used except in weak solutions, otherwise it would entirely dissolve fabrics. It is not advisable for home laundry work.
3. Soap:
(1) Use.—To act on greasy matter.
Soap-suds penetrate fabrics more completely than water alone, and when the soap comes in contact with fatty material, it emulsifies it, that is, very finely divides it into minute particles, so that it can be easily removed. If a soap is used that contains free alkali, this substance unites with the greasy impurities to form new soap which has cleansing value.
(2) Kinds.—(a) Neutral, (b) medium, (c) strong.
All soap is a compound of an alkali and fat, and according as one or the other of these substances predominates, the kind of soap is determined.
When just enough alkali is used to completely saponify the amount of fat, the product is called a neutral, or mild, soap. When an excess of alkali is present, the soap is termed medium or strong, according to the amount of free alkali it contains.
A mild soap should be used when free alkali would be injurious, as in washing woollens or fabrics that have delicate colours.
4. Soap substitutes, or adjuncts:
(1) Use.—To act alone or with soap in exerting a solvent action on greasy impurities, so that the cleansing process may be facilitated.
(2) Kinds: (a) Alkalies.—These must be used in excess of the amount needed for softening the water. (b) Harmless solvents, such as turpentine, paraffin, coal-oil, gasolene.—The clothing must be well rinsed to get rid of any odour. (c) Washing powders.—These are prepared mixtures of soap and some other solvent of greasy matter.
5. Blueing:
(1) Use.—To make clothes which have a yellow tinge appear whiter in colour.
(2) Kinds.—There are several kinds on the market, but the names of these will be of no value to the class.
NOTE.—Sufficient blueing should be used to make the blueing water a pale sky-blue colour when a little of it is lifted in the hand.
6. Starch:
(1) Use: (a) To stiffen fabrics and thus improve their appearance. (b) To give fabrics a glazed surface, so that they will shed dust and other impurities.
(2) Kinds.—(a) Cold starch, (b) boiled starch.
Raw starch does not give as durable a finish as cooked starch, but it does give greater stiffness. A fabric will take up more starch in the raw form, and the heat of the iron cooks the starch, thus producing the stiffness. The "body", or stiffness, produced by cooked starch is usually preferable, though on account of its preparation, it is not so convenient to use.
(3) Recipes for starch— (a) Cold Starch
2 tbsp. laundry starch 1/2 tsp. borax 2 cups cold water.
Dissolve the borax in a little boiling water. Add the cold water gradually to the starch and mix thoroughly. Add the dissolved borax and stir well before using.
(b) Boiled Starch
2 tbsp. starch 4 tbsp. cold water 1/2 tsp. lard, butter, or paraffin 1 qt. boiling water.
Mix the starch with the cold water until free from lumps. Add the lard, then gradually stir in the boiling water, and keep stirring until thickened. Cook fifteen minutes and use hot.
NOTE.—Borax in starch gives greater gloss and increases the stiffness. It also gives more lasting stiffness. Lard, butter, or wax is used to give a smoother finish and to prevent the starch from sticking to the iron.
LESSON II
PREPARATION FOR WASHING WHITE LINEN OR COTTON CLOTHES
1. Sort the clothes: (1) Table linen and clean towels (2) Bed and body linen (3) Handkerchiefs (4) Soiled towels and cloths. 2. Mend the clothes. 3. Remove stains. 4. Look after necessary materials.
PROCESS OF WASHING WHITE LINEN OR COTTON CLOTHES
Steps Method
1. Soaking:
Wet the clothes; rub the soiled parts with soap and roll each article separately; pack in a tub, placing the clothing most soiled at the bottom; cover with warm soapy water and soak from one hour to over night.
The soaking softens and loosens the fibres of fabrics, so that the foreign matter in them can be more easily separated. It also dissolves the soluble impurities in the fabrics.
2. Rubbing:
Wring the clothes out of the soaking water, and place them in a tub of clean warm water or soap-suds; rub the soiled parts first on one side and then on the other, using the knuckles, a washboard, or a washing-machine. When each piece is clean, wring it tightly.
The rubbing scrapes or rubs out the foreign matter which has been loosened by the soaking.
3. Rinsing:
Shake out each piece and put it into a tub of clear water; rub, and move about in the water to get rid of any soiled water that the clothes may contain; wring tightly.
4. Boiling:
Shake out each piece and place it in a boiler of cold water with or without soap; bring to boiling heat, and boil briskly for twenty minutes.
The boiling kills any germs and assists in whitening the clothes.
5. Rinsing:
Lift the clothes from the boiling water by means of a clothes stick and place them in a tub of clear, cold water; proceed as in the first rinsing.
6. Blueing:
Open out each piece and place one or two at a time in a tub of blueing water for just a moment; wring tightly, and shake out each piece.
The blueing tends to counteract any yellow tinge in the clothes, making them appear whiter.
7. Starching:
Dip one piece at a time into the starch mixture until well saturated; then wring.
Only certain articles or parts of articles will require this part of the process, to give them body or stiffness and, it may be, glossiness.
8. Hanging:
Shake out each piece thoroughly; fasten to a clothes-line or hang on a rack to allow the moisture to evaporate. This should be out-of-doors in the sunlight if possible.
REMOVAL OF STAINS
Foreign matter which is difficult or impossible to remove by the ordinary washing process is called a stain. Such matter is not dissolved by the usual cleansing agents used in laundry work, such as water and soap, but requires some special solvent to act on it. The choice of the agent to be used will depend on the nature of the foreign matter to be removed. In some cases it is difficult to find an agent which will not act also on the colour of the fabric; in other cases to find one which does not injure the fibre of the goods.
The pupils should be asked to give instances from their own experience where special solvents were used to remove stains, and be required to make a list of these. If necessary, the teacher should supplement this list with the names of other agents and the methods of using them.
OUTLINE OF LESSONS ON THE WASHING OF WOOLLENS
The washing of woollen materials is part of the Course for the work of the Senior Grade of Form IV, but, for the sake of convenience, the laundry lessons of both Grades of Form IV are outlined in one section of this Manual.
Before allowing the class any practice in this branch of laundry work, it will be necessary for the teacher to make certain principles very clear:
1. That wool is an animal product. As such it tends to be shrunken and hardened by (1) heat, (2) alkalies.
2. That the surface of each wool fibre woven into woollen materials is seen under the microscope to be covered with notches, or scales. If these notches in any way become entangled, the material is thereby drawn up, or "shrunken".
3. That these notches may be entangled by:
(1) Wetting the woollen material and then rubbing or twisting it. When the fibres are wet, they expand somewhat and the projecting scales, or notches, are loosened. If the material is rubbed at this time, the notched edges interlock.
(2) The use of strong soaps or alkalies. These act chemically on the fibres and soften and expand them, causing the notched edges to become so prominent that they catch in one another.
NOTE.—The structure of woollen fibres may be sketched on the black-board and compared with those of cotton and linen.
To impress the foregoing principles, a few experiments will be found most useful.
EXPERIMENTS WITH CLOTH MADE OF WOOL FIBRE
1. Boil a piece of new woollen cloth for five minutes. Dry, and compare with an original piece.
2. Saturate a piece of new woollen cloth with a strong solution of washing soda. Dry, and compare with an original piece.
3. Wash a piece of new woollen cloth in each of the following ways:
(1) By rubbing soap directly on the cloth and then sousing the goods in the water.
(2) By using a soap solution instead of the soap, as in (1).
(3) By rubbing on a wash-board.
In each case dry the cloth and compare with an original piece.
After the results of the experiments have been discussed, the pupils may formulate a series of "points" to be observed in the washing of woollen fabrics.
POINTS IN WASHING WOOLLENS
1. Use lukewarm, soft water.
2. Do not use strong soaps or alkalies.
3. Do not rub soap directly on the woollen material, but use soap solutions.
4. Do not rub or twist woollen cloth when it is wet.
5. Do not boil to sterilize.
6. Do not dry in extreme heat.
STEPS IN WASHING WOOLLEN MATERIALS
1. Shake or brush the clothing to free it from dust.
2. Put it into lukewarm, soapy water to soak for a few minutes.
3. Wash on both sides by squeezing and sousing in the water.
4. Rinse in clear, lukewarm water; use several waters, if necessary, to remove the soap.
5. Pass through a loosely set wringer or squeeze the water out by hand.
6. Shake, in order to raise the woolly fibres.
7. Dry in a moderate temperature, in a wind, if possible.
CHAPTER X
FORM IV: SENIOR GRADE
FOODS
The Senior Fourth class is the preparatory class for entrance into the high school, and for many girls it is the final school year. For this reason the Course of this year should cover as many of the remaining household operations as possible.
The training of the previous years should have formed good habits of work and have given experience in ordinary cleaning, and in the cooking and serving of the simple food materials. Through this training the pupils should also have been impressed with the value of food, and should have learned the sources of food and of all well-known household materials.
The training of this last year, while continuing the Junior work, should also emphasize the household processes that require greater mental development to understand and greater practical skill to carry out. It is the border year between the public school and the high school, and must necessarily anticipate the elementary science of the latter. In this year more responsibility should be given to the pupils and more originality should be expected of them. Where they have hitherto followed recipes and been given rules, they should now follow principles and deduce rules.
Of the several topics outlined in the Course for Form IV Senior, it is advisable to start with the preservation of food. Fruit and vegetables are most plentiful when the school year opens, and September is the most opportune month to preserve these for winter use. Facts concerning food preservation may have been taken incidentally in previous lessons, but now the subject should be systematically taught, so that canning, preserving, and pickling may be intelligently practised.
PRESERVATION OF FOOD
CAUSE OF DECAY
The lesson may be introduced by referring to the unusual attention given to fruit at the time of ripening. The economical housekeeper takes certain foods when they are most plentiful and preserves them for use when they are not in season. Some foods require special care to keep them from decaying. The decay is caused by the action of microscopic plants called "bacteria", which get into the food.
BACTERIA
It is difficult for any one to get a correct conception of bacteria; especially is it so for children. The teacher should be most careful not to attempt to give the class unimportant details, but the few necessary facts should be made very clear and real. The following points should be impressed:
1. Bacteria are plants. (This fact should be kept clearly in mind.)
2. They are microscopic in size and hence the more difficult to deal with.
3. They are found everywhere that there is life—in the air, in water, in the soil.
4. They multiply very rapidly under favourable conditions.
5. Some bacteria are useful to the housekeeper; many kinds are her enemies.
6. Some of these enemies get into food and, growing there, cause a change in it—then we say the food is spoiled.
CONDITIONS OF BACTERIAL GROWTH
All plants have the same requirements. Any well-known plant may be put before the class to help them to think of these. They must be told that microscopic plants differ from other plants in one respect; they do not need light. Hence bacterial requirements are as follows: (1) water, (2) food, (3) air (oxygen), (4) heat.
The class should be led to see that if any one of these conditions is removed, the remaining ones are insufficient for the plant's activity.
MEANS OF OVERCOMING BACTERIA
To the housekeeper, preserving food means overcoming bacteria. There are only two ways of doing this, either of which may be chosen:
1. Kill the bacteria in the food and exclude others.
2. Subject the food to conditions which are unfavourable for bacterial growth.
In the first way, extreme heat is used to kill the bacteria in the food, and then while hot, the food is sealed to keep out other bacteria: Example, canning.
In the second way, conditions are made unfavourable to the bacteria in the food, as follows:
1. The bacteria are deprived of water; the food is dried.
2. The bacteria are deprived of sufficient heat to be active; cold storage is used.
3. Large quantities of certain substances which are detrimental to the growth of bacteria are put into the food, and the bacteria become inactive. Examples: salt, sugar, spices, vinegar, smoke, or certain chemicals.
When the lesson is finished, the class is ready to practise the principles it involves. The lessons on the special preservation of fruit may follow at once.
CANNING
As canning is the method of preservation most commonly used, practice should be given in this method. In rural schools with a limited equipment, it may be that only one jar can be prepared. In other schools, it may be impossible to provide each pupil with material for work, on account of the expense. In the latter case, the materials may all be brought from home, or each pupil may bring her own jar and fruit, and the school supply the sugar.
Instruction on the care of jars and the preparation of fruit and syrup must precede the practical work.
CARE OF JARS
1. See that the jars are air-tight; partly fill the jar with water; place rubbers, covers, and rims; screw tightly, and invert. If any water oozes out, the jar is not air-tight. Often an extra rubber will correct the trouble.
2. Wash the jars thoroughly with the aid of a small brush.
3. Sterilize the jars in every part; dip them in boiling water, or place them on a rest (folded paper or wooden slats) in a kettle, to prevent the jars from touching the bottom. Fill and surround them with tepid water, then place them over heat until the water boils. Keep them in the boiling water until ready to fill with fruit. Dip the rubber bands in boiling water, but do not allow them to remain in it. Use new rubbers each season.
4. When filling the jars, place them on a folded cloth wrung out of warm water, then seal, and invert until cool. |
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