CHAPTER V

ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS

The following lessons are to be considered as suggestive rather than directive, as illustrating how the principles of teaching may be applied in a particular subject. Definite knowledge of child-nature and of children's experiences, of the materials to be used, and of the purpose to be accomplished in teaching a subject, determines, in the main, the choice of method. This statement is especially true of history, for, unless it is steadily borne in mind, the temptation is very great to make the teaching of this subject consist in mere memorizing of events and dates.

FORMS I AND II

TYPE LESSON IN THE "STORY STAGE"

The aim of this lesson is to give the pupils the story of "Moses and the Burning Bush," and at the same time to arouse an interest in stories.

As a preparation for the lesson, the teacher should secure pictures, or make sketches, illustrating (1) Moses tending his flocks, (2) the Burning Bush, (3) the rod turning to a serpent, (4) Moses setting out to do God's will. The pictures and sketches are used to make real the verbal story.

A few questions recalling the earlier events in Moses' life should be answered by the pupils, for example: Moses as a baby in the bulrushes, his adoption by the Princess, his life in the palace, his killing of the Egyptian, the cause of his flight into Midian.

The teacher should then narrate in clear, simple language the story of Moses in Midian, dividing it into parts such as: Moses at the well, his home with Jethro, the appearance of the Burning Bush, his talk with God, his excuses, God's proof of power to help, his setting out to do God's will.

In Form I it may be advisable to question, during the story, to ascertain if the language and ideas are understood, but reproduction of each part as it is narrated will probably result in a loss of attention and a lack of interest in the remainder of the story. The reproduction should, therefore, be taken after the completion of the story.

In Form II very short topic-phrases may be written on the black-board. These will serve as a guide to the pupils in the oral or written reproduction that follows.

If illustrated story-books containing this story are in the library, pupils of Form II may be asked to read them.

When practicable, an exercise in sight reading may follow this kind of lesson. The teacher may have slips containing sections of the story prepared beforehand, and may give them to the pupils for sight reading.

FORMS I AND II

THE FIRST THANKSGIVING

Materials: A set of pictures showing "The Mayflower in Plymouth Harbour"; "The Landing of the Pilgrims"; "The Pilgrims going to Church"; "Plymouth Rock"; "The Spinning Wheel." (Perry Picture Co. pictures)

A map of the western coast of Europe and the eastern coast of America drawn on the black-board.

Introduction: A talk on Thanksgiving Day as celebrated now—the returning of thanks to God for a bountiful harvest, the general good-will prevailing, the dinner. How and when did this custom originate?

Presentation: The teacher tells the story of the emigration of the Pilgrim Fathers, and shows the pictures that illustrate the different parts of the story. The voyage is traced on the map and the landing-place in America marked.

This should be followed by a spirited reading of Mrs. Hemans' The Landing of the Pilgrim Fathers, and the telling of The First Thanksgiving. (See Appendix.)

A simple version of this story may be given to pupils in Form I, accompanied by such construction work, in paper cutting and colouring, and in modelling, as they can do.

FORM II

FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE

In the war that England and France were carrying on against Russia in the Crimea about fifty years ago, the English soldiers suffered terrible hardships, so terrible that more than half the army were in the hospital, and many men were dying of starvation and neglect. The people in England knew nothing of this, because they thought that everything the army needed had been sent to it. At last, they found out from the letters of Dr. Russell, the correspondent of the London Times, how great were the sufferings of the soldiers, and they were so shocked at this state of things that they subscribed large sums of money, many thousands of dollars, and sent out to the army Florence Nightingale and thirty-four other nurses to do what they could for the neglected soldiers. After they came, the wounded and sick soldiers were so well cared for that thousands of them lived to come home who would have died if these noble women had not gone out to nurse them.

Do you want to know why Florence Nightingale was the one person out of all the people of England to be asked to go? From her earliest childhood she was always doing what she could to help those who were in trouble. The poor and suffering appealed to her more than to most people. When quite young, she went to visit the poor and sick on her father's estates, carrying to them some little dainties or flowers that they would be sure to like, and helping them to get well. All the animals around her home liked her, because they knew that she would not hurt them; even the shy squirrels would come quite close to her and pick up the nuts she dropped for them. An old gray pony, named Peggy, would trot up to her when she went into the field to see it, and put its nose into her pocket for the apple or other little treat that she always had for it. A sheep dog had been hurt by a stone thrown at it by a boy, and the owner thought that its leg was broken and that he would have to kill it. But it turned out to be only a bad bruise and the dog was soon well with Florence's nursing.

When her rich parents took her to London, she preferred visiting the sick people in the hospitals to enjoying herself at parties or in sight-seeing. When the family travelled in Europe, she visited the hospitals to see how the sick were being looked after. She went to one of the best hospitals in Germany to study how to nurse the sick in the best way. When she came back to England, she did a great deal to improve the hospitals, and for many years she worked so hard that her health began to fail.

It was because of what she had done in this way that she was asked to go to the Crimea to take charge of the hospitals for the English soldiers. When she came there she found things in a terrible condition. The sick and wounded men were crowded in such unhealthy rooms that they had very little chance to get well. She cleaned up the buildings, gave the patients clean beds and clothes, and saw that they had good, well-cooked food to eat. She looked after their comfort, sat beside their beds when they were very ill, and wrote letters for them to their families at home. Because she often walked through the rooms at night, alone, and carrying a little lamp in her hand, to see that everything was all right, she was called "the lady with the lamp." As she went about, speaking to some, nodding and smiling to others, we can imagine how much the poor soldiers thought of her.

When the war was over, the people of England were so grateful to her that the Government gave her a very large sum of money, $250,000, but she gave it all to build a school where nurses might be trained for their work. Queen Victoria gave her a beautiful jewel to show what she thought of the brave work that Florence Nightingale did.

She lived for many years, doing a great deal to show how to treat people who are ill, and how to keep people well by securing for them "pure air, pure water, cleanliness, and light." She died August 10, 1910, but the good she did in saving the lives of so many soldiers will always be remembered.

METHOD

It is not intended that this story should be given to the pupils just as it is here. This account is given to indicate what facts may be told to pupils as young even as those in the senior part of Form I, and how the story may be simplified for their understanding. After the story is told, vividly and sympathetically, the reproduction by the class follows in the usual way.

FORM II

THE POSTMASTER

AN INTRODUCTORY LESSON IN CIVICS

This is an introductory lesson in civics, in which the aim is to make the pupils familiar with the duties, qualifications, salary, and importance of the postmaster.

The teacher and class, in imagination, make a visit to the post-office and describe what may be seen therein. A pupil's letter is prepared, and the teacher, by using an old envelope, shows what is done with the letter till it reaches the person to whom it is addressed, tabulating these points on the black-board: (1) Stamped; (2) Stamp cancelled; (3) Placed in the mail bag; (4) Taken to the railway station; (5) Placed on the train; (6) Received at its destination; (7) Marked to show date on which it was received; (8) Sorted; (9) Delivered. Another used envelope should be shown to the pupils that they may trace, from the impressions stamped upon it, its "sending" and "receiving" offices. From a consideration of these several duties of the postmaster the pupils may be led to see that he should be an honest, careful, courteous, and prompt person.

The teacher next explains how people sent letters, etc., before post-offices were instituted, and shows that the postmaster, in doing his work, is doing it as our representative, and that we should help him in the performance of his duty by plainly addressing our letters, etc.

A further explanation as to the manner of appointment and payment of salary may follow.

In another lesson, the secondary duties of the postmaster—the registration of letters, issuing of money orders and of postal notes, the receiving and forwarding of money to the Savings Bank, and the making of reports to the Post-office Department—may be discussed.

In teaching these the objective method should be used. The teacher should obtain envelopes of registered letters and a registration blank, a blank money order, and a blank postal note, and instruct the pupils in the proper method of filling out these forms.

FORM III

THE CAPTURE OF QUEBEC

The introduction to this lesson will consist of questions recalling the matter of the past lesson or lessons, and the positions of the British and the French forces in the spring of 1759. This can be easily done by sketching on the black-board a map of North America and marking on it with coloured chalk the position of each force. The chief settlements to be mentioned in the lesson of the day should also be marked. For the matter of this see The Ontario Public School History of Canada, pages 83-97, and Parkman's Montcalm and Wolfe.

The teacher describes the voyage of Wolfe from Louisburg to Quebec, mentioning the means taken to secure pilots and to overcome the difficulties of navigating the St. Lawrence.

When the pupils, following the voyage, have arrived at Quebec, a description of the topography of the vicinity should be given, and an enlarged sketch, or better still, a plasticine model, made to show this. (See text-book, page 100.) The difficulty of capturing Quebec may be emphasized by reference to former attempts. On this sketch or model the disposition of the French forces should be shown, and then problems may be given as to actions that might be taken by Wolfe. For example: How would you attempt to destroy the fort? Where may Wolfe land his soldiers? What led the French to place their soldiers down as far as the Montmorenci? No doubt some wrong answers will be given, but the probability is that some boy will say that he would take some guns to the high bank on the Levis side and bombard the town of Quebec. The teacher will then tell what was done and with what results.

This should be outlined briefly on the black-board, and problem questions proposed as to the attempt of Wolfe to dislodge the French at Montmorenci.

This second step is also told and added to the outline, after which the teacher proceeds to explain the final step, dwelling particularly on the illness of Wolfe, his careful arrangement of plans, the courage shown in attempting the surprise of the hill, the speed with which his forces were drawn up on the Plains, the battle with its final outcome.

This is added to the outline, and the whole story is reproduced orally before the class is dismissed.

As desk work, the outline is copied in note-books and the pupils are directed to read the full story in Parkman's Montcalm and Wolfe, or in the History Reader, pp. 284-292.

NOTE: If plasticine be used, miniature cannon, ships, bridges, etc., may be placed in position and a realistic explanation of the battle given. This would require more time and the whole story would require several lesson spaces.

References: The text-book, Weaver's Canadian History for Boys and Girls, and Parkman's Montcalm and Wolfe.

FORM III

THE COMING OF THE UNITED EMPIRE LOYALISTS

1. Narrate briefly the story of the American Revolution, to show why they had to leave the country; describe the treatment given to them by the revolutionists; how they lost their property; how they were driven from their homes and exposed to all sorts of hardships, sometimes fatal to the women and children; emphasize their constant feeling of loyalty in face of all their troubles.

2. There was nothing for them to do but go to some place where the British flag still flew. The pupils may be asked, with the map before them, to consider where they would be most likely to go. What were the probable routes they would follow? That would depend on where they lived in the States. What methods of travel could they use? The class will see from a consideration of these points how they did travel, what routes they followed, and where they settled down. The waterways would have to be emphasized and traced out on the map; by sea from New York and Boston to Nova Scotia; by Lake Champlain and the Richelieu River to Quebec and Eastern Ontario; by the western rivers, the Mohawk, the Genesee, etc., to Western Ontario. (See Fourth Reader, p. 170.)

3. What the Government did for them and how they succeeded. Any account of life in Canada in the early days will give the necessary information. It may be that some old settler of the neighbourhood can supply the story to one of the children.

4. In the Senior Form there may be taken up slightly the political ideals of these Loyalists and how their presence led to changes in affairs in Upper Canada.

FORM III

THE FLAG

In itself a flag is "only a small bit of bunting"; it becomes a powerful aid to patriotism when it receives a meaning from its history. It is the emblem of a nation, the symbol of sovereignty, and as such should have a prominent place in the education of the young. Children should be taught: (1) the history of the struggles and sacrifices of our forefathers in securing and maintaining our liberties; (2) the significance of the flag as standing for liberty, truth, and justice; and (3) its construction, with the special significance of each part.

The last point—the construction of the Union Jack—should be preceded by a series of lessons on the individual "jacks." These lessons should explain the significance of the term "jack"; should give the stories of St. George, the patron saint of England, of St. Andrew, the patron saint of Scotland, and of St. Patrick, the patron saint of Ireland; and the reasons for the placing of the crosses on the jacks of the several countries. (See Appendix.)

These lessons may be taken as follows: that of the "jack" and "St. George" after a lesson on the Crusaders; of "St. Andrew" after the lesson on the Battle of Bannockburn; of "St. Patrick" after the lesson on the Conquest of Ireland by Strongbow.

The opposite course may be followed. The construction or drawing of the flag may be taken in connection with one of the flag days; then the children will be interested in the work itself. The story of the jacks may be given afterwards in the history lessons.

As desk work following each lesson, the pupils should construct the flags, using coloured paper, and these flags should be kept for use in the final lesson. The following sizes may be used in oblong flags:

For St. George's—white ground—2-1/2 in. x 5 in., red cross 1/2 in. For St. Andrew's—blue ground—2-1/2 in. x 5 in., white cross 1/2 in. For St. Patrick's—white ground—2 1/2 in. x 5 in., red cross 1/3 in.

When the story of the union of the crowns of England and Scotland in the reign of James I has been taught, the pupils should be asked to attempt the problem of uniting the two flags into one. For this purpose the flags already made can be used. The flag of England will surmount that of Scotland, and in order that the flag of Scotland may be seen, the white ground of the flag of England must be removed, only a narrow border of white along each arm being retained to represent the ground colour. This narrow border on each side is one third of the width of the red cross.

The final lesson, the construction of the Union Jack of our day, should be given on Empire Day or a few days before. As an introduction the teacher should review the flag of each country in the Union, referring also to the Union Jacks of James and of Anne. The problem of uniting the Irish Jack with the other two might be given the pupils; but as they are not likely to succeed in solving it, it will be better for the teacher to place before them the Union Jack belonging to the school and to lead them to observe:

1. that it is usually oblong—twice as long as wide; (it may also be square);

2. that the St. Andrew's Cross is partially covered by the St. Patrick's;

3. that the St. George's Cross, as before, is one fifth of the width of the jack;

4. that along the side of the St. Patrick's Cross is a strip of white;

5. that this strip of white and the red of the St. Patrick's equal the broad white of the St. Andrew's;

6. that the broad white of the St. Andrew's is partly white cross and partly white ground;

7. that the broad white of the St. Andrew's is uppermost on the parts near the staff.

When these have been noted, the pupils are ready to unite the flags which they had formerly made. The teacher directs them to cut away all of the white ground and half of each arm of the St. Patrick's Cross, retaining the centre. This should then be pasted upon the St. Andrew's Cross as in the Union Jack. They next cut away all of the white ground of the St. George's Cross, except the border (one third of the red), and paste this above the other two. The result will be a correctly made jack, and the pupils will know the several stages in its growth.

Where it is not possible to conduct the series of lessons as above, the following method is suggested. The pupils are provided with white paper and red and blue crayons, and are led to make, as above, a study of the jack belonging to the school. The following directions are then given:

First line in with a ruler the dimensions of the flag, say five inches wide and ten inches long. Draw the diagonals in faint lines. Place the cross of St. George and its border upon the flag according to the measurements mentioned, that is, the cross one inch wide and the border one third of an inch wide. The diagonals will be the centre and dividing lines of the crosses of St. Andrew and St. Patrick. Now place the saltire crosses according to the measurements. The white arm of St. Andrew's Cross will be one-half inch in width, the white border of St. Patrick's Cross one-sixth of an inch wide, and the red cross of St. Patrick one-third of an inch wide. The red cross of St. Patrick is placed touching the diagonal, below in the first and third quarters, and above in the second and fourth quarters. Great care must be exercised in making the drawing of the Union Jack.

The following are the official regulations for the proportions of the Union Jack:

1. It may be either square, or twice as long as it is wide.

2. The proportions are:

Red Cross of St. George 1/5 of width of flag. White border to St. George 1/3 of red of St. George. Red Cross of St. Patrick 1/3 of red of St. George. White border to St. Patrick 1/6 of red of St. George. Broad white of St. Andrew 1/2 of red of St. George.

3. Broad white of St. Andrew is uppermost in the two quarters next the staff; the red of St. Patrick is uppermost in the other quarters.

Its base is the cross of St. George, red on a white ground. On the political union of England and Scotland in 1707, the cross of St. Andrew, which is a white diagonal cross on a blue ground, was added, and to this Union flag there was joined, in 1801, the cross of St. Patrick, a red diagonal cross on a white ground. The colours of the Union Jack are red, which is the emblem of courage; white, the emblem of purity; and blue, the emblem of truth; so that we cannot do anything cowardly without disgracing our flag.

On memorial days the teacher, as he describes the past events that have helped to make our country strong and keep it free, may well refer to the colours of the flag as reminders of the virtues on which our Empire rests.

For memorial days the following, among others, are suggested:

FLAG DAYS

Opening and closing of each term

Jan. 1.—Municipalities incorporated in Canada, 1842. (To be celebrated on the first school day of the new year.)

Feb. 10.—Union of the Canadas, 1841.

March 11.—First Responsible Ministry, 1848.

March 14.—Founding of Upper Canada—Constitutional Act, 1791.

March 24.—Egerton Ryerson's birthday (1803-1882).

Empire Day.—The school day immediately preceding May 24.

May 24.—Victoria Day.

June 3.—The King's Birthday, 1865.

July 1.—Dominion Day: Confederation of the Provinces, 1867.

July 17.—First Parliament of Upper Canada, 1792.

September 13.—Battle of the Plains of Abraham, 1759.

October 13.—Battle of Queenston Heights—Death of Sir Isaac Brock, 1812.

October 21.—Trafalgar Day, 1805.

December 24.—Close of the War of 1812-1814, by the Treaty of Ghent. (To be celebrated on the last school day before Christmas.)

Other days commemorating events connected with various localities may also be chosen.

For information respecting the flag, teachers are referred to Barlow Cumberland's History of the Union Jack (latest edition), to the Flag Charts, by Mrs. Fessenden, and to The Flag of Canada, by Sir Joseph Pope. For the stories of the patron saints of England, Scotland, and Ireland, see Appendix.

THE COLOURS OF THE FLAG

What is the blue on our flag, boys? The waves of the boundless sea, Where our vessels ride in their tameless pride, And the feet of the winds are free; From the sun and smiles of the coral isles To the ice of the South and North, With dauntless tread through tempests dread The guardian ships go forth.

What is the white on our flag, boys? The honour of our land, Which burns in our sight like a beacon light And stands while the hills shall stand; Yea, dearer than fame is our land's great name, And we fight, wherever we be, For the mothers and wives that pray for the lives Of the brave hearts over the sea.

What is the red on our flag, boys? The blood of our heroes slain, On the burning sands in the wild waste lands And the froth of the purple main; And it cries to God from the crimsoned sod And the crest of the waves outrolled, That He send us men to fight again As our fathers fought of old.

We'll stand by the dear old flag, boys, Whatever be said or done, Though the shots come fast, as we face the blast, And the foe be ten to one— Though our only reward be the thrust of a sword And a bullet in heart or brain. What matters one gone, if the flag float on And Britain be Lord of the main!

—Frederick George Scott

THE UNION JACK

It's only a small piece of bunting, It's only an old coloured rag; Yet thousands have died for its honour, And shed their best blood for the flag.

It's charged with the cross of St. Andrew, Which, of old, Scotland's heroes has led; It carries the cross of St. Patrick, For which Ireland's bravest have bled.

Joined with these is our old English ensign, St. George's red cross on white field; Round which, from Richard to Roberts, Britons conquer or die, but ne'er yield.

It flutters triumphant o'er ocean, As free as the wind and the waves; And bondsmen from shackles unloosened, 'Neath its shadows no longer are slaves.

It floats o'er Australia, New Zealand, O'er Canada, the Indies, Hong Kong; And Britons, where'er their flag's flying, Claim the rights which to Britons belong.

We hoist it to show our devotion To our King, our country, and laws; It's the outward and visible emblem, Of progress and liberty's cause.

You may say it's an old bit of bunting, You may call it an old coloured rag; But freedom has made it majestic, And time has ennobled our flag.

FORMS III AND IV

SUGGESTIONS FOR EMPIRE DAY

The exercises on Empire Day may be extended to include most of the subjects on the time-table by providing interesting problems in these subjects which will, at the same time, keep the pupils' attention focused on the purpose of the day.

The purpose of Empire Day may be stated briefly: (1) To increase the pupils' knowledge of the various parts of the Empire; (2) To create in them fine ideals of a larger citizenship; (3) To give a feeling of responsibility for Canada's place and work in the Empire, both now and in the future.

EXERCISES SUGGESTED

1. In literature: Study one or more of the selections in the Public School Readers that are suitable; for example, in the IV Reader, pp. 1, 49, 74, 154, 155, 227, 231, 248, 302, 358, 409; in the III Reader, pp. 55, 140, 246, 258, 274. If these have been studied before, one or two might be read or recited by the pupils. In this Manual poems are given (pp. 73, 74) that may be used in the same way. Pamphlets containing suitable matter for Empire Day have been sent out by the Department of Education on several occasions.

2. In history: (a) Some information about the growth of the Empire; for example, how and when Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, or any other part of the Empire was added; (b) Comparison of the size of the British Empire with that of any earlier Empire, such as the Persian, Greek, or Roman; (c) The growth of Great Britain's commercial and naval supremacy, on what it is founded, what danger there is of losing it, etc.; (d) Interpretation of the Union Jack, or of the Canadian ensign.

3. In geography: (a) Story of the "All-Red" route, or of the "All-Red" cable—explain the meaning of "All-Red" by reference to the map; (b) "The sun never sets on the British flag." Make this clear by having pupils notice on the map that there are red spots, showing British territory, on or not very far from every meridian line; British ships, too, are in every part of the ocean; (c) Compare the population and area of Great Britain, Canada, Australia, the United States, Germany, France, etc.

4. In arithmetic: The pupils may discover how many people there are to the square mile in these countries; they may be asked to work out the population Canada would have if she were as densely populated as England, as the United States, as Germany, etc.; how fast did the population of the United States increase in the first century after the Revolution; what will the population of Canada be in fifty years, if it increases as rapidly as the population of the United States in the last fifty, etc.; at the present rate of increase, when will Canada catch up to Great Britain? When surpass her? Indicate thus the possible position and power of Canada in the not distant future, in order to deepen the sense of responsibility for the use made of our opportunities. (Let the pupils search for as much of the material needed for these calculations as they can find in their text-books.)

5. In composition: Subjects may be given for either oral or written composition; they may be reproductions of some of the exercises mentioned above, or may be on topics connected with them.

6. In drawing: Pupils may draw the flag, or any map needed above.



TYPE LESSONS

FORM IV

INTRODUCTORY

As described in the details of method for Form IV (see p. 28), the ideal method of teaching in this Form is the oral method, which means not only the narration of the story, but the presentation to the pupils of problems connected with the lesson that the experiences of the class may help to solve. The full narration here of the lessons selected would be like doing over again the work of the text-book; accordingly, in the majority of the lessons, a topical analysis is all that is given. The value of a topical analysis is that it emphasizes the principal points that should be described or developed and, more important still, that it assists the pupils to understand the lesson better, that is, to see more clearly the relation of cause and effect. The topical analysis will also suggest to the teacher how to prepare a lesson. There is no better evidence that a period of history is understood by the teacher than the ability to make a clear, concise analysis of it. This analysis should then be used instead of the text-book in teaching the lesson, and the use of it will, after a little practice has made the teacher more expert, contribute, to a surprising degree, to increased interest in the class.

EGERTON RYERSON

One of the objects of instruction in civics is to create in the pupils ideals of citizenship that may influence their conduct in after life. The most powerful agency to use for this object is the life of some useful and patriotic citizen who gave his talents and energy to the bettering of his country. In using biography for this purpose the pupils should be given only such facts as they can comprehend, and these facts should be made as real, vivid, and interesting as possible by appropriate personal details and concrete description. The following sketch may serve as an example:

Dr. Ryerson, in speaking of his birth and parentage, said:

I was born on March 24th, 1803, in the township of Charlotteville, near the village of Vittoria, in the then London district, now the County of Norfolk. My father had been an officer in the British army during the American Revolution, being a volunteer in the Prince of Wales' Regiment of New Jersey, of which place he was a native. His forefathers were from Holland, and his more remote ancestors were from Denmark. At the close of the American revolutionary war, he, with many others of the same class, went to New Brunswick, where he married my mother, whose maiden name was Stickney, a descendant of one of the early Massachusetts Puritan settlers. Near the close of the last century, my father with his family followed an elder brother to Canada, where he drew some 2,500 acres of land from the Government for his services in the army, besides his pension.

Ryerson's mother had a very strong influence over him. She was a very religious woman with a great love for her children, and from her Egerton learned lessons that never ceased to influence him. After telling how she treated him when he had done something naughty, he says that "though thoughtless and full of playful mischief, I never afterwards knowingly grieved my mother, or gave her other than respectful and kind words."

The whole family had to work hard at clearing the land and farming it. Before he was twenty-one years of age he "had ploughed every acre of ground for the season, cradled every stalk of wheat, rye, and oats, and mowed every spear of grass, pitched the whole first on a wagon, and then from the wagon to the haymow or stack." This was the work that gave him strength and health to do the great things that were before him. His years in the district school were few, yet he made such good use of them that when he was only fifteen years old he was asked to take the place of one of his teachers during the latter's illness. Further instruction from teachers was not given him till he came of age. Then he went to Hamilton to study in the Gore district grammar school for one year. Here he studied so strenuously that he was seized with an attack of brain fever, which was followed by inflammation of the lungs. His life was despaired of, but his good constitution and his mother's nursing restored him to health.

Shortly afterwards he began his work as a Methodist preacher. When twenty-three years old, he undertook a mission to the Indians at the Credit and resided among them as one of themselves, to show them better ways of living and working. This is part of his account: "Between daylight and sunrise, I called out four of the Indians in succession and, working with them, showed them how to clear and fence in, and plough and plant their first wheat and cornfields. In the afternoon I called out the schoolboys to go with me, and cut and pile and burn the brushwood in and around the village."

In 1829 The Christian Guardian newspaper was organized as the organ of the Methodists, and the young preacher placed in the editorial chair; in 1841 he was chosen President of Victoria College.

In 1844 Dr. Ryerson was appointed Chief Superintendent of Education for Upper Canada. He immediately set himself to awaken the country to a proper estimate of the importance of education, and to improve the qualifications of teachers. He urged the people to build better schools and to pay better salaries, so that well-qualified teachers could be engaged. He visited foreign countries to study their systems and methods that he might make the schools of Upper Canada more efficient. A Provincial Normal and Model School was established in 1847, better books were provided for the pupils, more and better apparatus and maps for all schools. All this was done in the face of many difficulties inevitable in a new country—popular ignorance, apathy, lack of means to build schools and support them, lack of time to attend them. The opposition of many who did not set the same value on education that he himself did had also to be faced. With unwearied zeal, steadfast courage, and unfailing patience, he met these difficulties. For over thirty years, he devoted his matured manhood and great endowments to the task of developing a public sentiment in favour of education, and of building on sure foundations a system of elementary and secondary schools that is the just pride of our Province and his own best monument.

In 1876 he resigned his position of Chief Superintendent, and was succeeded by a Minister of Education. He had nobly fulfilled the promise he made on accepting office in 1844—"to provide for my native country a system of education, and facilities for intellectual improvement not second to those in any country in the world."

He died in 1882. To honour him in his death as he had served it in his life the whole country seemed assembled, in its representatives, at his funeral. Members of the Legislature, judges, University authorities, ecclesiastical dignitaries, thousands from the schools which he had founded, and above all, the common people, for whose cause he never failed to stand, followed to the grave the remains of the great Canadian who had lived so faithfully and well for his country.

NOTE.—If the pupils have been told about the Pilgrim Fathers, and the U.E. Loyalists, a review of those stories will add interest to this lesson; if not, it will serve as an introduction to them.

For a Form IV class, the following should be included in the lesson:

With the close of the War of 1812 there opened a new era in the history of Canada. Its people had realized that their country was worth fighting for, and they had defended it successfully. A new interest in its political life was awakened, new movements inaugurated. These were along three lines—one, political with responsible government as its object; another, religious with equal rights and privileges for all churches as its aim; a third, educational with equal and efficient instruction for all without distinction of class or creed as its purpose. The first movement is known as the struggle for Responsible Government—the struggle for equal political rights; the second, as the Secularization of the Clergy Reserves—the struggle for equal religious rights; the third as the University Question—the struggle for non-denominational control of education. In the second and third movements Dr. Ryerson played a very prominent part and, because these affected the politics of his day, he took a keen interest in the first.

NOTE.—For purposes of reference, consult The Story of My Life by Dr. Ryerson; The Ryerson Memorial Volume by Dr. J.G. Hodgins; Egerton Ryerson by Nathaniel Burwash in THE MAKERS OF CANADA; and Egerton Ryerson by J.H. Putnam.

THE INTERCOLONIAL RAILWAY

The lesson may be begun best by referring to the provisions in the British North America Act for the building of the railway. (If the class knows nothing yet of this Act, reference may be made to Dominion Day, and the Act associated with it, by explaining the significance of the Day. The date of Confederation, 1867, may be written on the board for reference.) In the B.N.A. Act, it was provided that "the Canadian Government should build a railway connecting the St. Lawrence with Halifax, to be commenced within six months after the Union."

Teacher.—Did you notice the two places that were to be connected by the road?

Pupil.—They were Halifax and the St. Lawrence River.

T.—Why do you think Halifax was chosen as one terminus?

P.—Because it is near the sea.

T.—Well, Quebec is not far from the sea either.

P.—It is the nearest port for ocean-going steamers.

T.—Do you know what happens to the St. Lawrence every winter?

P.—It freezes up.

T.—Yes. It is frozen over for about four months in the winter, and ocean-going vessels cannot use the river then, so Halifax was chosen as a good winter port on the Atlantic. Now, what place on the St. Lawrence would be chosen as the other terminus?

P.—Most likely either Quebec or Montreal.

T.—We can tell better a little later which one was actually chosen. Here is a thing that I want you to think about. Why should they build the railway just to the St. Lawrence? Were there many people living in Upper Canada fifty years ago?

P.—Yes, as many people as there were in Quebec province.

T.—Really there were about 250,000 more here than in Quebec. How would the people here ship their goods in the winter? How do we send our goods to Europe now in winter?

(Several suggestions were made. Finally it was stated that we could ship by water in summer, and by rail in winter.)

T.—You know that there are some rapids on the St. Lawrence before we reach Montreal. How do we manage about them?

P.—By using the canals.

T.—How can we ship by rail?

P.—By using the Grand Trunk or the Canadian Pacific Railway.

T.—Now, I shall have to tell you something about the canals and the first railway from Upper Canada. There were several canals already built on the St. Lawrence: the Lachine, Welland, and others. In fact, we had spent about $1,500,000 on canals before Confederation. The Grand Trunk Railway was running from Sarnia to Quebec city by 1856, just eleven years before Confederation. (Have a pupil trace the line from Sarnia to Quebec, so that the class may see how much of Upper Canada was served by the Grand Trunk.) Can you tell me now what place on the St. Lawrence would be taken as the western terminus of the new railway?

P.—Yes, Quebec would be the one.

T.—Why?

P.—Because the people of Upper Canada had ways already for sending their goods as far as Quebec city.

T.—The next point to think about is—How had Canada been shipping her goods across the sea in winter before this?

(Several suggestions were made. "We would have to keep everything till the next summer." "We would have to use ice-boats." Objections were raised to these methods to show that they were impossible. Finally one pupil thought that we could send our freight through the United States.)

T.—Well, why did the people not continue doing that, instead of wanting to build a railway of their own?

P.—The United States would likely make them pay for doing it.

T.—Let me explain about that. In 1854, a treaty had been made between Canada and the United States, called the Reciprocity Treaty, by which the two countries exchanged their goods freely. This treaty was ended in 1866, and the people of Canada had to depend more on themselves. Besides, there was a good deal of trouble between Britain and the United States, arising out of the Civil War in the latter country, which had just ended. (The pupils are told here about the "Trent" and "Alabama" affairs, and the Fenian raids of 1866.) The people at that time were afraid that there might be war between the two countries and, of course, that would bring Canada into the trouble. Do you see now why a railway was needed from Quebec to Halifax?

P.—Because there was danger of war, and because the United States might interfere with Canadian trade.

T.—There were both military and commercial reasons. We have found now why the road was to run from Halifax to Quebec, and why it had to be built at that time. The next thing to find out is—Where it was to be built. If you were a railway contractor and had to build the road without thinking of anything but getting it done, what route would you be likely to follow?

P.—I think I should take the shortest way.

T.—Where would the road go then?

(Have a pupil place a ruler on the map from Quebec to Halifax.)

Tell where it would run.

P.—Through Quebec Province, the State of Maine, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia.

T.—Would the people build it along that line? Don't forget the reasons for building it at all.

P.—They wouldn't go through the State of Maine, because that is in the United States.

T.—What is the next way they might think of?

P.—The next shortest way so as to keep in Canada.

T.—Where would that be? (Pupil comes up and tells from the map.)

P.—From Quebec city through Quebec, along the edge of Maine, into New Brunswick and Nova Scotia.

T.—Would they take that way?

P.—No, because it is too near the border of the United States.

T.—Why do you say "too near"?

P.—If there was war, soldiers from the United States might come over and wreck the railway. They might dynamite the bridges or tear up the rails.

T.—As a matter of fact, they did not take that way. What route could be taken to prevent any trouble of that kind?

P.—They would stay as far from the border as possible.

T.—Where would that be? (Pupil comes to the map to find out.)

P.—They would have to follow the St. Lawrence for some distance.

T.—How far?

P.—Right down to the other side of New Brunswick. Then down to Halifax.

T.—Would that be the cheapest line to build?

P.—It would cost more, because it is longer than the others.

T.—It is really 138 miles longer than the next shortest. Which of the reasons we have mentioned would make them want to keep as far from the border as they could?

P.—The military reason.

T.—Which country, Canada or Britain, would be the most interested in the military considerations?

P.—Britain, because Canada depended on her for protection.

T.—Is there any other reason, one connected with the cost? Where would the money come from?

P.—Britain would likely have to supply a good part of it.

T.—Why?

P.—Because there were not very many people here then.

T.—Yes, we have to borrow a good deal of money for such purposes even yet. The British Government was to supply the money for the railway, and would want to have something to say as to where it was to be built.

The pupils could now be asked to discover from the map the chief places on the line of the railway. Have them written on the board. The teacher would add some information about the length of the line (1,450 miles), and the total cost ($80,000,000). He might also refer to the fact that the fear of war that caused that route to be followed was not realized, that the Intercolonial did good service in bringing the provinces closer together, and that other railways have since been built on the two rejected routes, namely, the Canadian Pacific Railway and the Grand Trunk Pacific.

The facts of the lesson should then be gone over again, following the black-board outline that has been made as the lesson proceeds.

BLACK-BOARD OUTLINE

1. Provision in the British North America Act for the building of the road

2. Reasons for building the road

(a) Military (b) Commercial

3. Selection of the route

(a) Routes that were possible (b) Reasons for the final choice

4. Facts about the road

(a) Principal places on the road (b) Branches of the road (c) Length and cost

5. Value of the road to the new Dominion

The class may be asked afterwards to draw a map showing the route and the chief commercial centres served by the railway.

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN ENGLAND, 1760-1800.

NOTE.—This lesson should be preceded by an information lesson on the making of cotton goods—the material, how and where the raw material is grown, how it is harvested, the difference between spinning and weaving, the meaning of warp and woof.

The aim of this lesson is to show how a remarkable series of inventions changed completely the processes of manufacturing, made England the greatest manufacturing nation in the world, and gave her a source of wealth that enabled her to carry on the costly wars against Napoleon. The half century of this revolution is one of the most important in English history, on account of the results in methods of transportation, in agriculture, in social conditions, etc., and it is almost impossible to have a satisfactory knowledge of succeeding history without understanding this period. It is for this reason that it is treated at such length.

This may be divided into as many lessons as the teacher wishes. The dates given are not intended to be memorized by the pupils; they are introduced simply to emphasize the order of the inventions. To emphasize further the sequence, the class may be asked at each step what invention would be needed next. The oral method—both pure narrative, and development—is supposed to be used.

1. Domestic System of Manufacture.—Before 1760 the manufacture of cotton goods was carried on in the homes of the people. A spinner would procure a supply of raw cotton from the dealer and carry it home, where, with the help of his family, he would spin it into threads or yarn and return it to the dealer. The spinning was all done by hand or foot-power on a wheel that required one person to run it, and that would make only one thread at a time. The weaving was also done at home. Because of the use of Kay's flying shuttle (1732), the demand of the weavers for yarn was greater than the spinners could supply, because one weaver could use the product of many spinners, and there was great need of finding some way of producing yarn more rapidly, to keep the weavers busy.

2. Hargreaves' Spinning-jenny.—The first important invention of the period was the spinning-jenny of Hargreaves (1764). This man was an ordinary spinner, and the story is told that one day, when he was returning from the dealer with a fresh supply of cotton, he came home before his wife expected him. Supper was not ready, and in her haste to rise to prepare it, she overturned the wheel when it was still in motion. Hargreaves, entering at that moment, noticed that the spindle, usually horizontal, was now revolving in an upright position. This gave him the idea, and a short time afterwards he invented a machine with which one person could spin several threads at once (at first eight). From it has been developed the complicated machinery for spinning used to-day.

3. Arkwright's Spinning-frame or Water-frame. Sir Richard Arkwright invented, in 1771, a machine that accomplished the whole process of spinning, the worker merely feeding the machine and tying breaks in the thread. This machine was run by water-power, thus doing away with hand-power and allowing the operator to attend entirely to the spinning.

4. The Mule. In 1779, Crompton invented a mule, by which threads of a finer and stronger quality could be spun, and thus made it possible to weave any grade of cloth.

5. The Power-loom. The spinners were now able to keep ahead of the weavers, till Cartwright invented, in 1785, a power-loom that enabled the weavers to work faster and use all the thread that the spinners could make.

6. The Steam-engine. These machines were run by hand or water-power. In 1785, Watts' steam-engine, invented several years before this, was used in the manufacture of cotton, and manufacturers were now able to use all the raw material they could get. The use of steam instead of water-power led to the building of factories in cities, where labour was plentiful and transportation facilities good. This meant large cities.

7. The Cotton-gin. Cotton had to be cleaned of its seeds before it could be used in the factory. This had to be done by hand, which greatly hindered the supply of raw material. A good deal of the raw cotton came from the United States, and the planters there grew no more than could be cleaned and sold. In 1792, Eli Whitney, an American, invented the cotton-gin, by which the cotton could be cleaned of its seed very quickly. Formerly a workman could clean by hand only five pounds of cotton a week; by the saw-gin five hundred pounds could be cleaned in an hour. (If a cotton-boll can be procured, the pupils will soon discover how difficult it is to separate the seeds from the cotton.) More cotton was then grown, because it could be sold to the factories, and England was able to get all she required to keep the factories going. It may be added here that the increase in cotton growing required more hands for its cultivation; at that time, this meant more slaves; the cotton-gin was therefore a large factor in the slave troubles in the Southern States that led to the Civil War.

8. Coal-mining and Smelting. These machines were made of iron, and coal was needed to run the engines and to smelt the iron. There was plenty of coal in England, but very little was mined until the steam pump was brought into use to keep the mines clear of water. When this was done, more men went to work in the mines to get out the greater amount of coal that was now needed. There was also plenty of iron ore in England, and before this it had been smelted by means of charcoal, which is made from wood. This slow and wasteful method was followed until Roebuck invented a process of smelting by coal, and thus made possible a plentiful supply of iron for the manufacture of the machines.

9. The Safety Lamp. Coal-mining was a dangerous occupation, because of the fire-damp that is generated in mines. The open lamps used by the miners often caused this gas to explode and many men lost their lives thereby. To remedy this, Sir Humphrey Davy invented the safety lamp in 1815, which gave the miners the light they needed and prevented these explosions.

10. Transportation. Now that there was so much manufacturing carried on, people turned their attention to ways of transporting the goods to where they were needed. The roads were generally wretched, and in many parts of the country goods had to be carried on the backs of horses, as the roads were not fit for wheels. Macadam, by using broken stone to form the road-crust or surface, brought about a great improvement in road-making. (Show pictures of old-time roads and of the roads to-day.)

Transportation by water was difficult by reasons of the obstructions in rivers. To overcome these, canals were dug. The first one was made in 1761 between some coal-mines and the town of Manchester. Before 1800 many more were dug, and transportation became much easier.

11. Agriculture. The number of people engaged in the factories was increasing and these could not grow their own food. This made it necessary for the farmers to increase their output. Farms became larger; better methods of cultivation were used; winter roots were grown, making it possible to raise better cattle; fertilizers were used in greater quantities, and the rotation of crops was introduced to prevent the exhaustion of the soil.

12. Social Conditions. Out of the factory system grew the division of classes into capital and labour, the struggle between which is the great problem of to-day. It was then that labour unions came into existence.

We see, as a result of these inventions, that England was changed from an agricultural country to a land of large manufacturing cities, and became the chief manufacturing centre of the world, able to supply money to defeat Napoleon Bonaparte, who is credited with the statement that it was not England's armies that defeated him, but her "spindles."

NOTE.—The teacher may refer to some of the modern social problems resulting in large part from this industrializing of the country: overcrowding in cities, bad housing and slums, urban and suburban transportation, educational problems, intemperance, decrease in physique, etc. (For the history of this period, see A History of the British Nation, by A.D. Innes, T.C. & E.C. Jack, Edinburgh.)

THE ROAD TO CATHAY

The aim of this lesson is to show how the desire of certain European nations to find a western route to the rich countries of the East—India, Cathay, and Cipango (India, China, and Japan)—led to the discovery and subsequent exploration of America. It can be used as a review lesson on the exploration of Canada. It will also give the pupil practice in collecting information from various sources so as to show the development of history along a certain line.

The subject-matter may be divided into as many lessons as the teacher thinks best, and the oral method should be used. All the dates given are not intended to be memorized; they are used to show the historical sequence; only three or four of the most important need be committed to memory by the class at their present stage. The map should be used frequently.

THE LESSON

One of the results of the Crusades was to reveal to the European nations the wealth of the East. Trade between the East and West grew, and Venice became one of the wealthiest and most powerful of the states of Europe.

In 1295, a Venetian traveller named Marco Polo returned from Cathay after an absence of twenty-five years. His stories of the wealth in silks, spices, pearls, etc., of those eastern countries intensified the desire of the West to trade with them. A great commerce soon grew up, carried on principally by the great Italian cities—Venice, Florence, Genoa, Pisa, Milan—and as these cities controlled the Mediterranean, the only route to Asia then known, they had a monopoly of the Eastern trade, and kept for a time the other western nations—Spain, Portugal, France, and England—from sharing in it. These nations, animated by the hope of gain and by the spirit of adventure and exploration, could not long be denied their share. This spirit was stimulated by the introduction of the mariner's compass, which afforded sailors a safer guide than landmarks and stars; by the invention of gunpowder and the use of cannon, which, through lessening the strength of the mediaeval castle, tended to increase the power of the middle classes; and by the invention of printing, which aided greatly in the diffusion of knowledge.

The problem was to find a route by which to trade with India and China.

Place the map of the world before the pupils and inquire how men travel to-day from Great Britain to India. Show that these routes were not feasible then. The route through the Mediterranean to Asia Minor and thence overland, or through the Red Sea to India, was closed by the Turks, who captured Constantinople in 1453. The Suez Canal was not opened till 1869. The way round the Cape of Good Hope was not discovered till 1497. The western route across the Atlantic and the Pacific was unknown.

Not till the closing years of the fifteenth century were the attempts to solve this problem successful. The discovery of the route to India by Vasco de Gama in 1497 first opened the way to the East, though the still earlier discovery by Columbus was to afford, in later years, a much more complete solution.

Christopher Columbus was a native of Genoa in Italy. An eager student of geography, he became convinced that the earth was a sphere or globe and not a flat surface. He believed that he could reach India and Cathay by sailing west, as well as by going east through the Mediterranean—a route that had been closed since the capture of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453. "This grand idea, together with his services in carrying it out, he offered first to his motherland of Genoa. But Genoa did not want a new route to the East. Then he turned, but in vain, to Portugal. The hopes of Portugal were set upon a passage around the south of Africa. To England and to France Columbus held out his wondrous offer; but these countries were slow and unbelieving. It was to Spain he made his most persistent appeal; and Spain, to his imperishable glory, gave ear." Through the self-denial and devotion of Queen Isabella of Castile he was enabled to put his dream to the test.

A special lesson should be given on the life of Columbus—his efforts, perseverance, courage, failures, successes. The teacher may add at will to the facts given here. Read Joaquin Miller's Poem, "Columbus," High School Reader, pp. 143-145.

When Columbus landed on the island-fringe of America in 1492, he thought he had found what he had set out to find—the eastern country of India; and he believed it all his life. This idea survived for several generations, partly because of the great wealth of Mexico and Peru. When Europeans were at last convinced that it was not India, they began again to seek a way to the East, and looked on the continent of America merely as an obstacle in their path. To find the road to Cathay was still their chief ambition.

In 1497, John Cabot, under a charter from Henry VII of England, set out to find a way to the East, and landed on North America; in 1498, his son, Sebastian Cabot, explored the coast from Labrador to South Carolina, with the same object.

In 1534, on his first voyage, Cartier thought, when he arrived at Gaspe and saw the great river coming from the west, that he had discovered the gateway to the East.

With the same object in view, Champlain, in 1609, explored the Richelieu River and Lake Champlain. In 1613, he listened, only to be deceived, to the story of Vignau about a way to the East up the Ottawa River to a large lake and into another river that would lead to the Western Sea.

Henry Hudson made four voyages in search of a way through or round the continent. On the first, second, and fourth, he tried to go round by a North-west or a North-east passage. On the third voyage, in 1609, he sailed up the Hudson River for 150 miles, only to find his way blocked. A curious fact is that on this voyage he must, at one time, have been only about twenty leagues from Champlain, when the latter was exploring Lake Champlain on the same errand. (Show this on the map.) On his fourth voyage, in 1610, Hudson discovered the bay that now bears his name, and he must have thought, when he saw that great stretch of water to the West, that he was at last successful. He wintered there, and when the ice broke up in the spring, his men mutinied and set him, his young son, and two companions, adrift in a boat, and they were never heard of again. (See The Story of the British People pp. 234-235.)

The Mississippi was long looked upon as a possible way to the Pacific Ocean. La Salle explored the great lakes and the Ohio, Illinois, and Mississippi Rivers. This last he found to flow south into the Gulf of Mexico, instead of west into the Pacific Ocean. His settlement on Montreal Island was called La Chine (the French word for China), in allusion to his desire to find the way to that country.

Later, others were led by the same desire to explore the western part of what is now Canada. Verendrye, in 1731, travelled from Lake Nepigon by way of Rainy Lake, the Winnipeg River, and the Red River, to the junction of the latter with the Assiniboine, where Winnipeg now stands; also up the Saskatchewan River to the Forks. His son, in 1742, explored the Missouri River and came within sight of the Rocky Mountains.

Men of the Hudson's Bay Company and of the North-West Company—Mackenzie, Fraser, Thompson, Simpson, Hearne—amid great hardships and through thrilling adventures, continued the work of exploring the waterways of the West to find an opening to the Pacific.

It has remained to the people of Canada to conquer the passes of the Rockies and Selkirks, build great transcontinental railways and steamship lines, and thus afford a direct short route from Europe to Cathay. What men had striven for during more than four hundred years it has been our lot to accomplish.

Other topics of interest suggested by the lesson may be taken up afterwards; for example, the opening of the Suez Canal and its effect on trade—why it did not restore supremacy to the Italian cities; the opening of the Panama Canal and its probable effect on commerce; the reasons why merchants prefer water routes to land routes, etc.

TOPICAL ANALYSIS OF LESSON ON THE ARMADA

The purpose of this lesson is to show how to construct a topical outline of an important event in history. It is assumed that the teacher will use, in preparing similar lessons, a larger history of Britain than the Public School text-book, in order that the class may be asked, after the lesson is taught, to read in their text-books an account somewhat different in treatment from that of the teacher. The headings should show the sequence of events and should be concise. The smaller print indicates the facts that the brief headings should recall to the pupils after the lesson. The events preceding the coming of the Armada are suggested here among the causes. These headings may be placed on the black-board as the lesson proceeds; they may be suggested by either teacher or pupils. The actual teaching should be by both narrative and development methods.

For the teacher's use a very interesting and trustworthy book is A History of the British Nation, by A.D. Innes, T.C. & E.C. Jack, Edinburgh.

I. CAUSES

1. Political.—(a) Ambition of Philip to rule Europe; chief obstacles were England, France, The Netherlands.

(The opposition of France was overcome by a treaty and by the marriage of Philip and Isabella of France after Elizabeth had refused Philip's offer of marriage. The Netherlands were in full revolt and could not be conquered even by the cruelties of Alva and the destruction of their commerce. England was the chief Protestant power in Europe and, as such, was the chief opponent of Spain.)

(b) The marriage trouble; Elizabeth's religious policy broke off negotiations of marriage with Philip.

(c) Philip received as a legacy the rights of Mary Queen, of Scots to the English throne.

2. Commercial.—Interference of the English in the New World, to which Spain claimed sole right.

(This includes the English settlements as well as the capture of Spanish treasure ships. Recall stories of Drake, Hawkins, etc.)

3. Religious.—Philip was the chief supporter of Roman Catholicism in Europe, and wished to impose his religion on England.

(This was the period of compulsion in religious matters.)

II. EVENTS

1. Preparations in Spain and England.

(Spain set about preparing a large fleet, to carry soldiers as well as sailors. The best Spanish general was in command at first. His death put an incapable man in command, who was largely responsible for the defeat. The Duke of Parma was to co-operate from the Netherlands with a large army. In England, the small battle fleet was increased by the voluntary contributions of all classes till it actually outnumbered the Spanish fleet, though the vessels were very much smaller. A comparison of the fleets as they were on the eve of battle should be made.)

2. Difference in the national spirit in the two countries.

(The Spanish were on an expedition of conquest; the sailors were ill-trained and many serving against their will. The English were defending their homes; they forgot their religious and political differences in their patriotism; the sailors were hardy, fearless, and most skilful in handling their ships.)

3. The affair at Cadiz.

(Retarded the invasion for a year, gave England more time for preparation, and encouraged hopes of success.)

4. The battle in the Channel.

(Armada attacked on the way to Dover, July 28-Aug. 6, 1588; fireships at Calais, Aug. 6; final engagement, Aug. 8-9; a chance for a vivid description by the teacher.)

5. Storm completes the ruin of the Armada.

(Facts to be given as to the losses of the Armada; recall stories of wrecked Spanish vessels on the coasts of Scotland, etc., and recommend class to read some story, such as Kingsley's Westward Ho!)

III. RESULTS

1. Ruin of Spain and of Philip's ambitions. [Connect with I. 1 (a)]

2. Influence on England's patriotism and maritime power.

3. Greater religious tolerance in England.

4. Marvellous growth of literature in England partly due to this.

5. Effect on America. It decided for all time that Spain should not rule the New World, but that the Anglo-Saxons should, with all their ideals of political, social, and religious liberty.

(See P.S. History of England, secs. 135-142.)

LESSON ON THE FEUDAL SYSTEM

(As many lesson periods as may be found desirable)

Aim. To give the pupils a knowledge of the manner in which land was held, (1) by the Saxons at different periods on the continent and in England; (2) by the French; (3) by the Normans under William the Conqueror, showing the changes he made in both Saxon and French systems.

STEP I

1. Introduction. By questioning, the teacher elicits from one pupil that his father owns a farm; from another, that his father rents a farm; from a third, that his father works one "on shares." From this may be derived the meaning of "freehold," "leasehold," and "on shares," as applied to ways of holding land. For town and city classes, a parallel may be made by substituting "house" for "farm." As holding property "on shares" is not so common in cities, suggest possible cases, such as a florist's business, a rink, etc.

2. Let pupils read the sketch of the Saxon or "mark" system given in the Ontario Public School History of England, pp. 22 and 30; and then draw a plan of a Saxon village from the passages read.

STEP II

(Given to the class by the teacher's oral explanation)

1. The Saxon System: Further study of the early land tenure of the Saxons. (See Ontario High School History of England, p. 33.) The following extract from Oman's England before the Norman Conquest may be of assistance:

The typical free settlement of an English maegth (or kindred) consisted first of the large arable fields divided up into narrow strips, of which each household possessed several, next of the almost equally prized meadow, which was hedged off into appropriated lots in summer, but thrown back into common in winter, and lastly of the undistributed waste, from which the whole community would draw its wood supply, and on which it would pasture its swine, or even turn out its cattle for rough grazing at some seasons.

The normal method of agriculture was the "three-field system," with a rotation of wheat, barley, or oats, and in the third year, fallow—to allow of the exhausted soil regaining some measure of its fertility. In the last year the field was left unfenced and the cattle of the community picked up what they could from it, when they were neither on the waste, nor being fed with the hay that had been mowed from the meadow. There seem to have been exceptional cases in which the strips of the arable were not permanently allotted to different households, but were distributed, by lot or otherwise, to different holders in different years. But this was an abnormal arrangement; usually the proprietorship of the strips in each field was fixed. And the usual arrangement would be that the fully endowed ceorl's household had just so much arable in its various strips as a full team of oxen could plough.

Then explain the origin of the names "Eorl" and "Thegn" (P.S. Hist. of Eng., pp. 34 and 37); the idea of protection (P.S. Hist. of Eng., p. 37), and of sharing in the produce of the land, and the payment of necessary fees to the King. Emphasize the ownership of the land by the freeman.

2. The Courts: The Witan, which could displace the king for certain reasons, the Shire or folk-moot, and the Tun-moot; their powers; the people looked to these courts for justice.

3. Change brought about by Danish raids—small freeholders sought protection from the greater lords; the shifting of ownership from small landowners to "eorls."

STEP III

The Feudal System in France: (Read Scott's Quentin Durward.) Barons too powerful for the king for various reasons:

1. Their property was large and compact.

2. They administered justice, issued coinage, etc.

3. Vassals swore allegiance to their immediate superior.

By means of problem-questions develop from the pupils what William would probably do to strengthen his own position.

STEP IV

The Feudal System under William: (Note the innovations of William.)

1. The land belonged solely to the king; it was not the Normans as a tribe, but William personally, who conquered England.

2. The estates of the nobles were divided, either deliberately or because the land was conquered piecemeal and parcelled out as it was conquered. (For example, Odo had 473 manors in 17 counties.)

3. The vassals swore direct allegiance to the king.

4. The Witan was displaced by the Great Council, the members of which were the king's vassals; therefore with him, not against him.

5. The king's use of shire-reeves, personal dependants, who led the military levy of the counties and collected the king's taxes.

6. What were the chief taxes? From them came much political trouble in later times by attempts to rectify abuses in connection with them.

7. The teacher may describe the ceremony of the feudal oath.

The important points of each step should be written on the black-board as they are described or developed.

(The decay of the Feudal System in England may be the topic of another lesson.)

SEIGNIORIAL TENURE

The aim of the lesson is to give the pupils a knowledge of the method of land tenure introduced into Canada by the French; to enable them to trace the effects of this system upon the progress of the people and the development of the country; and to increase their interest in the present system of tenure.

METHOD

In connection with sections 3 and 4 the description of the Feudal System would show how the land was held in France; first by the king, under him by the greater nobles, then by the lesser nobles and the gentry, then by the large farmers who sublet it in small farms or hired men to work it. Every one who held land had to do something for his lord. When this description is complete, let the pupils apply it to Canada, the teacher supplying the names of the corresponding classes in Canada. Then the pupils may be asked to consider what return each holder would make for his land; this leads to a statement of the conditions of tenure in Canada. Then the evils connected with this system may be presented as another problem; for example, how would the actual workers be discouraged in making improvements that they would get no credit for? In connection with section 5, the pupils can contrast the method of holding land that they are familiar with, that is, by complete ownership, and can imagine what changes the English settlers would want. They are then ready to hear how and when these changes were brought about, and at what cost.

The method is therefore a combination of the narrative and development, or problem, methods.

THE LESSON

1. Introduce the lesson by a reference to the system of holding land in Ontario. (See lesson on the Feudal System.) Develop the leading principles of freehold tenure. What Act gave the people of Ontario this method of holding land? We are going to learn something about the system of holding land adopted by the French when they ruled Canada. (See Ontario Public School History, Chapter IX, also Ontario High School History of Canada, Chap. VIII.)

2. Under the French the lands of Canada were held in feudal tenure, which means that the King was regarded as the owner, and that rent was paid to him, not altogether in money, but partly in military service. Large portions of land were granted in this way to officers and nobles. An important and imposing ceremony was that at which the lords of manors annually did homage to the King's representative at Quebec. These seigniors, as they were called, had great powers within their domains. This method of tenure was similar to the system of holding land in France, called the Feudal System.

At this point the teacher might give a short description of the Feudal System. Picture to the pupils the old Feudal castle and its surroundings. Show how ill the common people were provided for in comparison with the lords.

3. Cardinal Richelieu introduced feudalism into Canada about the year 1527. He had two objects in view: (a) to create a Canadian aristocracy, (b) to establish an easy system of dividing land among settlers. This system of holding land came to be known as Seigniorial Tenure. The seignior received vast tracts of land from the King, became his vassal, and in turn made grants to the censitaires, those who held their land on the payment of an annual rental. The censitaires secured habitants to cultivate the soil.

4. The seignior was compelled to clear his estate of forest within a certain time. In order to do this he rented it, at from half a cent to two cents an acre, and received his rent in produce. If the censitaire sold the land which was cleared, he had to pay his seignior one twelfth of the price. If the seignior parted with his estate, he had to pay the King one fifth of the selling price. The forests of Canada were not very attractive to the nobles of France; hence, but few of them settled in this country. Some of the prominent colonists, however, were granted patents of nobility and became seigniors. Prevented by their rank from cultivating the soil, they soon became bankrupt. Then they turned their attention to the fur-trade, and later many of them became explorers and the most gallant defenders of New France.

5. In the year 1760, Canada became a British possession, and English settlers commenced to make homes for themselves in Upper Canada. Their number was greatly increased by the United Empire Loyalists who came over after the American Revolution. The English disliked the French method of holding land. Under Seigniorial Tenure, the seller of land in a seigniory was compelled to pay the seignior an amount equal to one twelfth of the purchase money. As this was chargeable not only on the value of the land, but also on the value of all buildings and improvements, which, costing the seigniors nothing, were often more valuable than the land itself, it was considered by the English settlers an intolerable handicap. (Centuries before this the Feudal System had been abolished in England.)

6. In 1791 the British Parliament passed the Constitutional Act which gave the people of Upper Canada the privilege of holding lands in their own name. In Lower Canada, too, those who wished were allowed to avail themselves of the freehold system, but the French did not take advantage of their opportunity. In the year 1854 Seigniorial Tenure was abolished, the Government recompensing the seigniors for the surrender of their ancient rights and privileges, and freehold tenure, as in Ontario, was introduced.

7. Reasons why the Seigniorial Tenure failed:

(a) It was not adapted to conditions in Canada.

(b) It did not provide sufficient incentive to settlers to improve their lands.

(c) It gave the habitant no chance to rise.

(d) It tended to divide the population into three classes.

(e) It failed to develop a civic spirit. This fact alone made progress practically impossible. Each seignior was the master of his own domain. Thus the people had no opportunity of working together, and under such circumstances no great national spirit could be developed.

8. Note the effect of the conquest of Canada and of the American Revolution, upon Seigniorial Tenure.

CONFEDERATION OF CANADIAN PROVINCES

TOPICAL ANALYSIS

Causes:

1. The idea of union an old one in Canada and the Maritime Provinces; foreshadowed in Durham's Report.

2. Immediate cause in Canada was the question of representation by population; deadlock in Parliament.

3. Immediate cause in Maritime Provinces was the feeling between Britain and the Colonies and the United States over the Trent affair, the Alabama trouble, and the idea in the Northern States that the British Colonies favoured the cause of the South in the Civil War.

Steps toward Confederation:

1. Meeting of delegates from the Maritime Provinces in Charlottetown in 1864.

2. Meeting in Quebec, 1864, of delegates from all the provinces favours Confederation.

3. Newfoundland and Prince Edward Island reject the proposal, and delegates from Upper Canada (Ontario), Lower Canada (Quebec), Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick proceed to London to secure an Act of Union from the Imperial Government.

4. Movement in favour of union hastened by United States giving notice in 1865 of the termination of the Reciprocity Treaty in a year, and by the Fenian Raid, 1866.

5. Union accomplished by means of the British North America Act passed by the British Parliament in 1867, and brought into force on July 1st, 1867. The provinces confederated as the Dominion of Canada; a Federal Union.

Outline of Terms:

See Ontario Public School History of Canada, p. 215. Provision made for admission of new provinces.

Expansion of Confederation:

Admission of other provinces—Manitoba, 1870; British Columbia, 1871; Prince Edward Island, 1873; Alberta and Saskatchewan, 1905; Yukon territory also represented in the Dominion Parliament.

NOTES OF A LESSON ON THE INFLUENCE OF GEOGRAPHICAL CONDITIONS ON THE HISTORY OF A COUNTRY

CORRELATION OF HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY

GENERAL

The history of a nation is influenced very largely by geographical facts. Its internal relations, whether friendly or hostile, are affected by these. Natural barriers, such as mountains, seas, or great lakes and rivers, are often political frontiers exerting protecting or isolating influence.

Its industrial progress depends primarily upon its natural products—minerals, grains, woods, fish, etc., and the facilities which its structure affords for trade, both domestic and foreign. A sea-coast, with satisfactory harbours, tends to produce a sea-faring people, and therefore a trading people.

The character of its people is conditioned by the zone in which the nation is situated. In the north temperate zone is the climate best suited for the growth of peoples vigorous in mind and body, and lovers of freedom.

ENGLAND

Position: The forming of the Straits of Dover cut off a corner of Europe, made Great Britain an island, and later a single political unit. Situated between Europe and America with ports opening toward each, her position gives her the opportunity for naval and commercial greatness. The narrow sea separating her from the continent is a defence in war and a means of intercourse in peace.

Structure: Two regions—one of plain, the other of hills; a line drawn from the mouth of the Tees to the mouth of the Severn and continued to the south coast roughly divides these regions. The part lying east of this line is, roughly speaking, level and fertile, tempting emigration from the continent, and easily explored inward. The Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes found their way into this plain through the rivers that flowed east and south. The Pennines, the Welsh Peninsula, and the southwest of England from Bristol are in the hilly part, which, because of its mineral wealth, has become the great industrial district.

Climate: Though England lies north of the fiftieth parallel, the moist southwest winds from the ocean temper the climate, making the winters mild and the summers cool, a climate favourable to the growth of a vigorous race. There is an abundant rainfall.

Products: On the plains a fertile soil supported a large agricultural, and therefore self-contained, population in the earlier days, and the slopes furnished pasturage for cattle and sheep. Proximity to coal is an almost indispensable condition for industries, though other considerations come in. In the hill country coal and iron, essential materials for a manufacturing nation, lie near to the deposits of limestone necessary for smelting the iron ore. The coal-fields on or near the coast are centres of shipbuilding; and the interior coal-fields the centres of the great textile industries. Because of her insular position and fleets of ships the raw products from other countries can be brought to England easily and cheaply, and then shipped out as manufactured goods.

Consult: A Historical Geography of the British Empire. Hereford B. George, Methuen & Co., London. The Relations of Geography and History. Hereford B. George, Clarendon Press, Oxford.

ANOTHER FORM OF THE LESSON

The teacher will announce the topic for discussion, namely, how the history of Great Britain has been affected by her insular position.

T.—Trace on the map the coast line of Great Britain. (Pupil does so.) What do you notice about the coast line in comparison to the size of the Island?

P.—It is very irregular and has a good many bays and inlets.

T.—Would this have any effect on the life and occupations of the people?

P.—They would almost have to be sailors.

T.—In other words, a maritime people. Do you think that is usual? Look at the coast line of Japan. (Class sees that it is much the same as that of Britain: the Japanese are also a maritime race.) What is one occupation the people would follow?

P.—They would probably be fishermen. (The teacher may give some idea of the extent of the fishing. The same may be done with each new point, as it comes up.)

T.—What else would they do?

P.—They would probably engage in trade or commerce.

T.—With which countries? Study the map for a moment.

P.—With those on the west of Europe, and with America.

T.—Yes. You must notice that Great Britain is situated very favourably for trade with the whole world. Is there anything on the map to show this?

P.—There are a great many lines on the map that show the water routes from Britain to almost every country in the world.

T.—Suppose Britain had trouble with any other country that might be a cause of war, would her position make any difference to her?

P.—No country could attack her except by water.

T.—How would she defend herself?

P.—She would have to depend on her ships. (A good opening for a brief outline of the growth of the navy.)

T.—Where would she get her ships?

P.—She builds them herself.

T.—Isn't she dependent on any other nation at all?

P.—No, she has always had the material in her own country for that.

T.—What are they built of?

P.—The old ships were wooden, and she had plenty of the best timber,—oak.

T.—What are they built of to-day?

P.—Most of them are of iron.

T.—Where does she get that?

P.—From her own mines.

T.—Now, look at the latitude of Britain. What part of our country has the same latitude?

P.—Labrador.

T.—What is the climate of Labrador?

P.—Very cold.

T.—Then the climate of Britain ought to be the same?

P.—The water around it would make it not so cold.

T.—Yes. The ocean currents from the south help to make the climate milder, too. There would be plenty of rain, besides. Now, how would a moist, mild climate affect agriculture in England?

P.—They ought to be able to grow almost everything that we can.

(Similarly, many other points may be taken up and developed with the class.)

ST. LAWRENCE RIVER

INCIDENTAL TEACHING OF HISTORY WITH GEOGRAPHY

Aim.—To show general connection between history and geography.

Material Required.—A black-board sketch of that part of Canada adjacent to the St. Lawrence and a set of pictures (or picture post-cards) showing the important historical sites along the banks of the river.

Introduction.—The teacher asks a few questions to make clear the purpose of the map and to fix the location of the principal towns and cities—Kingston, Brockville, Prescott, Ogdensburg, Morrisburg, Cornwall, Lachine, Montreal, Three Rivers, Levis, Quebec, Tadoussac, and Gaspe.

Presentation.—The lesson is assumed to be a pleasure trip by boat from Port Hope to the Atlantic. The teacher will tell of the departure from Port Hope and the arrival at Kingston, the first port. While there, he will ask why the place was given the name of Kingston. (It was named in honour of George III; as Queenston, at the upper end of the lake, was in honour of Queen Charlotte.) Leaving Kingston the teacher will describe (showing pictures) the appearance of the fort on the point and, with the pupils, will recall its establishment by Frontenac in 1673, and its use as a check on the Indians, and will note its use now as a storehouse, barracks, and training camp for soldiers. (Ontario Public School History, pp. 51, 114.)

As the trip is continued down the river, they notice, in passing, the beautiful Thousand Islands, and the town of Brockville—its name commemorating the hero of Queenston Heights. Immediately below Prescott is seen on the bank of the river an old wind-mill, the scene of the Patriot invasion under Von Schultz, a Polish adventurer. (See Ontario Public School History, p. 178, and picture in Weaver's Canadian History for Boys and Girls, p. 227.)

Across the river lies Ogdensburg, the scene of a raid in 1813. Colonel Macdonell, the British leader, who was drilling his small force on the ice, made a sudden attack upon the town, defeated the Americans, captured a large amount of stores and ammunition, and burned four armed vessels which lay in the harbour. (See Ontario Public School History, p. 155.)

From this point the boat passes rapidly through the narrow part of the river at Iroquois (recall the Indians of that name), past the flourishing town of Morrisburg, until, on the north bank, appears a monument of gray granite, erected as a memorial of the battle of Crysler's Farm, fought in this vicinity in 1813. (See Ontario Public School History, p. 159.)

After passing through the Long Sault Rapids, Cornwall, noted as the seat of the first Grammar School in Ontario, is reached. The river now widens into a lake and does not narrow until it passes Coteau, after which it passes through a chain of rapids and nears Lachine, the "La Chine" of La Salle, and the scene of numerous Indian fights and massacres. (See Ontario School Geography, p. 116, and Ontario Public School History of Canada, p. 60.) Ten miles to the east is Montreal, the most populous city in Canada, with its Royal Mount, and its many memories of early settlement in Canada. (See Ontario School Geography, p. 121.)

Just above Quebec the river, now two miles wide, passes the bold cliffs up which Wolfe's men climbed to the Plains of Abraham, and sweeps around the Citadel and Lower Town. On the heights may be seen the monuments erected in honour of Champlain, and Wolfe and Montcalm. In imagination, pictures may be formed of the scenes that marked the close of French Rule in Canada. The river flows on past Tadoussac, long the centre of the Canadian fur-trade, past Gaspe where Cartier landed and laid claim to the surrounding country in the name of the king of France, till its banks fade from sight and its waters mingle with those of the Atlantic.

In teaching such lessons as this, the oral narrative and question method is used. It is a review lesson, and reproduction may follow in a written exercise.

THE RELATIONS BETWEEN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND FROM 1066 TO 1603

The purpose of this analysis is to explain by what show of right the kings of England interfered so much in Scottish affairs. The analysis also aims to show how correct and definite views on certain topics may be had only by following out those topics through history, neglecting all facts but those bearing on the topic studied.

1. In the tenth century, Malcolm I obtained Strathclyde (see map, Ontario Public School History of England, p. 27) as a fief from Edmund of England. His grandson, Malcolm II, was invested with Lothian, before this a part of the English earldom of Northumbria. These fiefs are the basis of all claims afterwards made by English kings as overlords of Scotland.

2. Malcolm III (1057-1093) married Margaret, sister of Edgar Atheling. The Norman conquest drove many Saxons north, and the Saxon element in Scotland was strengthened by this.

3. William the Conqueror compelled Malcolm's submission, 1072. This kept alive the English claims.

4. Henry I married Matilda of Scotland. Many Normans went to Scotland in the reign of David (1124-1153). The Feudal System was introduced and firmly established under Norman influence. Ecclesiastical foundation begun. Friendly relations strengthened.

5. As the price of his liberty, William the Lyon agreed, by the Convention of Falaise, 1174, to hold Scotland as a fief of England.

6. To raise money for his Crusade, Richard I of England renounced, in 1189, his feudal rights over Scotland for 10,000 marks, and for the first time acknowledged her independence.

7. The border line was fixed for the first time in 1222.

8. The death of Margaret, daughter of Alexander III, 1286, left the crown a bone of contention; Balliol finally secured it by favour of Edward I of England, the overlord of Scotland. Then followed the War of Independence under Wallace and Bruce and the Battle of Bannockburn, 1314. This long and destructive war caused the Scots to have a deadly hatred of the English, and drove Scotland into alliance with France, the great enemy of England, and consolidated the different races in Scotland.

9. Scotland thus became involved in the many wars between England and France and attacked England whenever she and France were at war.

10. In 1327, the independence of Scotland was acknowledged.

11. Friendship with France and distrust of England continued well into the Reformation period, and in the main determined Scotland's foreign policy.

12. With the change of religion in Scotland at the Reformation, French influence came to an end. Religious sympathy overcame the political hatred of England.

13. The trouble in connection with Mary Queen of Scots and her imprisonment made for peace between the two countries, as Scotland did not want to have Mary released for fear of further civil war.

14. The accession of James VI, a Scottish king, to the throne of England, ended almost entirely the differences between the two countries, and led finally to the Legislative Union a century later (1707).

ANALYSIS OF SECTIONS 160-170, ONTARIO PUBLIC SCHOOL HISTORY OF ENGLAND

The Parliament had already established its sole right to levy taxation. (See Green's Short History of the English People, p. 478.) Under Charles I the struggle was mainly about the manner in which the taxes should be spent; in other words, the Parliament was trying to secure control of the executive, the other important element in Responsible Government.

Charles I held very strongly the belief in the "divine right" of kings and, naturally, this belief did not harmonize with the aim of Parliament. Disputes were constant:

1. Differences concerning Charles' marriage.

2. First Parliament, 1626, would grant "tonnage and poundage" for only one year.

3. Second Parliament, 1626, refused money unless the conduct of the Spanish war by Buckingham was inquired into by Parliament.

4. Third Parliament, 1628-9. Charles raised some money by "forced loans," but far too little, for a new war with France was begun. Parliament refused to grant money till the king signed the Petition of Right, which embodied all the points in dispute between them.

5. Charles did not long observe the Petition of Right which he had signed; Laud, Bishop of London, was making changes in the church ceremonies that seemed to bring back the old religion. Parliament solemnly protested against both these things, then quietly adjourned. Some members were arrested—Sir John Eliot died in the Tower—others were kept in prison for eleven years.

6. No Parliament for eleven years. Charles aimed during this period to raise money without Parliament, and to establish the English Church in the whole country.

His methods of raising money were:

(a) By granting monopolies (L200,000).

(b) By Star Chamber fines—large fines for slight offences.

(c) By illegal duties.

(d) By "ship-money" (Trial of Hampden).

His methods of establishing the English Church were:

(a) Religious oppression—chief agent, Laud; chief sufferers, the Puritans.

(b) Attempt to force the English Church prayer-book on Scotland led to rebellion.

This rebellion forced Charles to summon Parliament in order to raise money. Parliament refused to give money till their grievances were redressed. It was dissolved in three weeks. Urgent need of troops to keep back the Scottish rebels made Charles summon Parliament again in six months (1640). This is known as the "Long Parliament."

7. (a) Parliament first accused Laud and Strafford.

(b) The "Grand Remonstrance" named the illegal acts of Charles.

(c) This led to Charles' final blunder—the attempt to arrest the five members.

8. Open war, now the only way out, went on till Charles was captured and beheaded, and Parliament held, for a time, entire control.

SUGGESTIVE OUTLINES FOR REVIEWS

FORM IV

I. The Era of Reform in Britain:

1. The Methodist Revival, which stirred the hearts of the people, and gave them higher ideals

2. Social Reforms: (a) Canning, the friend of the oppressed (b) Wilberforce and the abolition of slavery (c) Elizabeth Fry and prison reform (d) Revision of the criminal code

3. Political Reforms: (a) The Reform Bill (b) The Chartist Agitation (c) The repeal of the Corn Laws