V

350 So the dauntless fowl after his fiery death Happily hastens to his home again, To his beauteous abode. The birds return, Leaving their leader, with lonely hearts, Again to their land; then their gracious lord 355 Is young in his courts. The King Almighty, God alone knows its nature by sex, Male or female; no man can tell, No living being save the Lord only How wise and wondrous are the ways of the bird, 360 And the fair decree for the fowl's creation! There the happy one his home may enjoy, With its welling waters and woodland groves, May live in peace through the passing of winters A thousand in number; then he knows again 365 The ends of his life; over him is laid The funeral fire: yet he finds life again, And wondrously awakened he waxes in strength. He droops not nor dreads his death therefore, The awful agony, since always he knows 370 That the lap of the flame brings life afresh, Peace after death, when undaunted once more Fully feathered and formed as a bird Out of the ashes up he can spring, Safe under the heavens. To himself he is both 375 A father and a son, and finds himself also Ever the heir to his olden life. The Almighty Maker of man has granted That though the fire shall fasten its fetters upon him, He is given new life, and lives again 380 Fashioned with feathers as aforetime he was.

VI

So each living man the life eternal Seeks for himself after sorest cares; That through the darksome door of death he may find The goodly grace of God and enjoy 385 Forever and aye unending bliss As reward for his work— the wonders of heaven. The nature of this fowl is not unlike That of those chosen as children of God, And it shows men a sign of how sacred joys 390 Granted by God they may gain in trial— Hold beneath the heavens through his holy grace, And abide in rapture in the realms above. We have found that the faithful Father created Man and woman through his wondrous might. 395 At first in the fairest fields of his earth He set these sons on a soil unblemished, In a pleasant place, Paradise named, Since they lacked no delight as long as the pair Wisely heeded the Holy word 400 In their new home. There hatred came, The old foe's envy, who offered them food, The fruit of the tree, which in folly they tried; Both ate of the apple against the order of God, Tasted the forbidden. Then bitter became 405 Their woe after eating and for their heirs as well— For sons and daughters a sorrowful feast. Grievously were punished their greedy teeth For that greatest of guilt; God's wrath they knew And bitter remorse; hence bearing their crimes, 410 Their sons must suffer for the sin of their parents Against God's commands. Hence, grieved in soul They shall lose the delights of the land of bliss Through envy of the serpent who deceived our elders In direful wise in days of yore 415 Through his wicked heart, so that they went far hence To the dale of death to doleful life In a sorrowful home. Hidden from them Was the blessed life; and the blissful plain, By the fiend's cunning, was fastened close 420 For many winters, till the Maker of wonders, The King of mankind, Comforter of the weary, Our only Hope, hither came down To the godly band and again held it open.

VII

His advent is likened by learned writers 425 In their works of wisdom and words of truth, To the flight of that fowl, when forth he goes From his own country and becometh old, Weighed with winters, weary in mind, And finds in wandering the forest wood 430 Where a bower he builds: with branches and herbs, With rarest of twigs, he raises his dwelling, His nest in the wood. Great need he hath That he gain again his gladsome youth In the flame of fire that he may find new life, 435 Renew his youth, and his native home, His sunbright seat, he may seek again After his bath of fire. So abandoned before us The first of our parents their fairest plain, Their happy home, their hope of glory, 440 To fare afar on a fearful journey, Where hostile hands harshly beset them; Evil ones often injured them sorely. Yet many men marked well the Lord, Heeded his behests in holy customs, 445 In glorious deeds, so that God, their Redeemer, The high Heaven-King hearkened to them. That is the high tree wherein holy men Hide their home from the harm of their foe And know no peril, neither with poison 450 Nor with treacherous token in time of evil. There God's warrior works him a nest, With doughty deeds dangers avoids, He distributes alms to the stricken and needy, He tells graceless men of the mercy of God, 455 Of the Father's help; he hastens forth, Lessening the perils of this passing life, Its darksome deeds, and does God's will With bravery in his breast. His bidding he seeks In prayer, with pure heart and pliant knee 460 Bent to the earth; all evil is banished, All grim offences by his fear of God; Happy in heart he hopes full well To do good deeds: the Redeemer is his shield In his varied walks, the Wielder of victory, 465 Joy-giver to people. Those plants are the ones, The flowers of fruit, which the fowl of wildness Finds in this world from far and wide And brings to his abode, where it builds a nest With firmness of heart against fear and hatred. 470 So in that place God's soldiers perform With courage and might the Creator's commands. Then they gain them glory: they are given rewards By the gracious God for their goodness of heart. From those is made a pleasant dwelling 475 As reward for their works, in the wondrous city; Since they held in their hearts the holy teachings, Serving their Lord with loving souls By day and by night —and never ceasing— With fervent faith preferring their Lord 480 Above worldly wealth. They ween not, indeed, That long they will live in this life that is fleeting. A blessed earl earns by his virtue A home in heaven with the highest King, And comfort forever,— this he earns ere the close 485 Of his days in the world, when Death, the warrior, Greedy for warfare, girded with weapons, Seeketh each life and sendeth quickly Into the bosom of the earth those deserted bodies Lorn of their souls, where long they shall bide 490 Covered with clay till the coming of the fire. Many of the sons of men into the assembly Are led by the leaders; the Lord of angels, The Father Almighty, the Master of hosts, Will judge with justice the joyful and the sad. 495 Then mortal men in a mass shall arise As the righteous King, the Ruler of angels, The Savior of souls said it must be, Gave command by the trumpet to the tribes of the world. Then ends darkest death for those dear to the Lord; 500 Through the grace of God the good shall depart In clamoring crowds when this cruel world Shall burst into flames, into baleful fire; The earth shall end. Then all shall have Most frightful fear, when the fire crashes over 505 Earth's fleeting fortunes, when the flame eats up Its olden treasures, eagerly graspeth On goodly gold and greedily consumes The land's adornments. Then dawns in light In that awesome hour for all of men, 510 The fair and sacred symbol of the fowl, When the mighty Ruler shall arouse all men, Shall gather together from the grave the bones, The limbs of the body, those left from the flame, Before the knee of Christ: the King in splendor 515 From his lofty seat shall give light to the holy, The gem of glory. It will be joyous and gladsome To the servers of Truth in that sad time.

VIII

There the bodies, bathed of their sins, Shall go in gladness; again shall their spirits 520 To their bony frames, and the fire shall burn, Mounting high to heaven. Hot shall be to many That awful flame, when every man, Unblemished or sinful, his soul in his body, From the depths of his grave seeks the doom of God, 525 Frightfully afraid. The fire shall save men, Burning all sin. So shall the blessed After weary wandering, with their works be clothed, With the fruit of their deeds: fair are these roots, These winsome flowers that the wild fowl 530 Collects to lay on his lovely nest In order that easily his own fair home May burn in the sun, and himself along with it, And so after the fire he finds him new life; So every man in all the world 535 Shall be covered with flesh, fair and comely, And always young, if his own choice leads him To work God's will; then the world's high King Mighty at the meeting mercy will grant him. Then the hymns shall rise high from the holy band, 540 The chosen souls shall chant their songs, In praise of the powerful Prince of men, Strain upon strain, and strengthened and fragrant Of their godly works they shall wend to glory. Then are men's spirits made spotless and bright 545 Through the flame of the fire— refined and made pure. In all the earth let not anyone ween That I wrought this lay with lying speech, With hated word-craft! Hear ye the wisdom Of the hymns of Job! With heart of joy 550 And spirit brave, he boldly spoke; With wondrous sanctity that word he said: "I feel it a fact in the fastness of my soul That one day in my nest death I shall know, And weary of heart woefully go hence, 555 Compassed with clay, on my closing journey, Mournful of mind, in the moldy earth. And through the gift of God I shall gain once more Like the Phoenix fowl, a fair new life, On the day of arising from ruinous death, 560 Delights with God, where the loving throng Are exalting their Lord. I look not at all Ever to come to the end of that life Of light and bliss, though my body shall lie In its gruesome grave and grow decayed, 565 A joy to worms; for the Judge of the world Shall save my soul, and send it to glory After the time of death. I shall trust forever With steadfast breast, in the Strength of angels; Firm is my faith in the Father of all." 570 Thus sang the sage his song of old, Herald to God, with gladsome heart: How he was lifted to life eternal. Then we may truly interpret the token clearly Which the glorious bird gave through its burning. 575 It gathers together the grim bone-remnants, The ashes and embers all into one place After the surge of the fire; the fowl then seizes it With its feet and flies to the Father's garden Towards the sun; for a time there he sojourns, 580 For many winters, made in new wise, All of him young; nor may any there yearn To do him menace with deeds of malice. So may after death by the Redeemer's might Souls go with bodies, bound together, 585 Fashioned in loveliness, most like to that fowl, In rich array, with rare perfumes, Where the steadfast sun streams its light O'er the sacred hosts in the happy city.

IX

Then high over the roofs the holy Ruler 590 Shines on the souls of the saved and the loyal. Radiant fowls follow around him Brightest of birds, in bliss exulting, The chosen and joyous ones join him at home, Forever and ever, where no evil is wrought 595 By the foulest fiend in his fickle deceit; But they shall live in lasting light and beauty, As the Phoenix fowl, in the faith of God. Every one of men's works in that wondrous home, In that blissful abode, brightly shines forth 600 In the peaceful presence of the Prince eternal, Who resembles the sun. A sacred crown Most richly wrought with radiant gems, High over the head of each holy soul Glitters refulgent; their foreheads gleam, 605 Covered with glory; the crown of God Embellishes beautifully the blessed host With light in that life, where lasting joy Is fresh and young and fades not away, But they dwell in bliss, adorned in beauty, 610 With fairest ornaments, with the Father's angels. They see no sorrow in those sacred courts, No sin nor suffering nor sad work-days, No burning hunger, nor bitter thirst, No evil nor age: but ever their King 615 Granteth his grace to the glorious band That loves its Lord and everlasting King, That glorifies and praises the power of God. That host round the holy high-set throne Makes then melody in mighty strains; 620 The blessed saints blithely sing In unison with angels, orisons to the Lord: "Peace to thee, O God, thou proud Monarch, Thou Ruler reigning with righteousness and skill; Thanks for thy goodly gifts to us all; 625 Mighty and measureless is thy majesty and strength, High and holy! The heavens, O Lord, Are fairly filled, O Father Almighty, Glory of glories, in greatness ruling Among angels above and on earth beneath! 630 Guard us, O God of creation; thou governest all things! Lord of the highest heavens above!" So shall the saints sing his praises, Those free from sin, in that fairest of cities, Proclaim his power, the righteous people, 635 The host in heaven hail the Redeemer: Honor without end is only for him, Not ever at all had he any birth, Any beginning of bliss, though he was born in the world, On this earth in the image of an innocent child; 640 With unfailing justice and fairest judgments, High above the heavens in holiness he dwelt! Though he must endure the death of the cross, Bear the bitter burden of men, When three days have passed after the death of his body, 645 He regains new life through the love of God, Through the aid of the Father. So the Phoenix betokens In his youthful state, the strength of Christ, Who in a wondrous wise awakes from the ashes Unto the life of life, with limbs begirded; 650 So the Savior sought to aid us Through the loss of his body, life without end. Likewise that fowl filleth his wings, Loads them with sweet and scented roots, With winsome flowers and flies away; 655 These are the words, wise men tell us, The songs of the holy ones whose souls go to heaven, With the loving Lord to live for aye, In bliss of bliss, where they bring to God Their words and their works, wondrous in savor, 660 As a precious gift, in that glorious place, In that life of light. Lasting be the praise Through the world of worlds and wondrous honor, And royal power in the princely realm, The kingdom of heaven. He is King indeed 665 Of the lands below and of lordly majesty, Encircled with honor in that city of beauty. He has given us leave lucis auctor, That here we may merueri As reward for good gaudia in celo, 670 That all of us may maxima regna Seek and sit on sedibus altis, Shall live a life lucis et pacis, Shall own a home almae letitiae, Know blessings and bliss; blandem and mitem 675 Lord they shall see sine fine, And lift up a song lauda perenne Forever with the angels. Alleluia!

680. This and the following lines are imitated from the original in which the first half line, in Old English, alliterates with the second half line, in Latin. The Latin is here retained. The meaning of the lines is this: "The Author of light has given us leave that we may here merit as a reward for good, joy in heaven, that all of us may seek the mighty kingdom and sit on the high seats, may live a life of light and peace, may own a home of tender joy; may see the merciful and mild Lord for time without end, and may lift up a song in eternal praise, forever with the angels. Alleluia!"



THE GRAVE

[Text used: Kluge, Angelsaechsisches Lesebuch, reprinted from Arnold Schroeer, Anglia, v, 289.

Translation: Longfellow. Discussion of this translation in Archiv fuer das Studium der neueren Sprache, xxix, 205.

It is probably the latest in date of any of the Anglo-Saxon poems.]

Before thou wast born, there was built thee a house; For thee was a mould meant ere thy mother bore thee; They have not made it ready nor reckoned its depth; No one has yet learned how long it shall be. 5 I point out thy path to the place thou shalt be; Now I shall measure thee, and the mould afterwards. Thy house is not highly timbered. It is unhigh and low; when thou lyest therein, The bottom and side boards shall bind thee near: 10 Close above thy breast is builded the roof. Thou shalt dwell full cold in the clammy earth. Full dim and dismal that den is to live in. Doorless is that house, and is dark within; Down art thou held there and death hath the key. 15 Loathly is that house of earth and horrid to live in. There thou shalt tarry and be torn by worms. Thus thou art laid, and leavest thy friends; Thou hast never a comrade who will come to thee, Who will hasten to look how thou likest thy house. 20 Or ever will undo thy door for thee. . . . . . . . . and after thee descend; For soon thou art loathsome and unlovely to see: From the crown of thy head shall the hair be lost; Thy locks shall fall and lose their freshness; 25 No longer is it fair for the fingers to stroke.



III. POEMS FROM THE CHRONICLE



THE BATTLE OF BRUNNANBURG

[Critical edition: Sedgefield, The Battle of Maldon and Six Short Poems from the Saxon Chronicle, Boston, 1904, Belles Lettres Edition.

Translation: Tennyson; Pancoast and Spaeth, Early English Poems, p. 81.

Date: It appears in the Chronicle under the year 937.

Danes living north of the Humber conspired with their kinsmen in Ireland under the two Olafs, together with the Scottish king Constantine and the Strathclyde Britons under their king Eugenius, against Aethelstan, king of Wessex. The allies met in the south of Northumbria. Aethelstan encountered them at Brunnanburg and defeated them.

The site of Brunnanburg has not been identified. The best claim is probably for Bramber, near Preston, in the neighborhood of which, in 1840, was found a great hoard of silver ingots and coins, none later than 950. This was possibly the war chest of the confederacy. Dyngesmere has not been identified.

More than half the half-lines are exact copies from other Anglo-Saxon poems.]

Here Aethelstan the king, of earls the lord, Bracelet-giver of barons and his brother as well, Edmund the Aetheling, honor eternal Won at warfare by the wielding of swords 5 Near Brunnanburg; they broke the linden-wall, Struck down the shields with the sharp work of hammers, The heirs of Edward, as of old had been taught By their kinsmen who clashed in conflict often Defending their firesides against foemen invaders, 10 Their hoards and their homes. The hated ones perished, Soldiers of Scotland and seamen-warriors— Fated they fell. The field was wet With the blood of the brave, after the bright sun Had mounted at morning, the master of planets 15 Glided over the ground, God's candle clear, The Lord's everlasting, till the lamp of heaven Sank to its setting. Soldiers full many Lay mangled by spears, men of the Northland, Shamefully shot o'er their shields, and Scotchmen, 20 Weary and war-sated. The West-Saxons forth All during the day with their daring men Followed the tracks of their foemen's troops. From behind they hewed and harried the fleeing, With sharp-ground swords. Never shunned the Mercians 25 The hard hand-play of hero or warrior Who over the oar-path with Anlaf did come, Who sailed on a ship and sought the land, Fated in fight. Five chieftains lay Killed in the conflict, kings full youthful, 30 Put to sleep by the sword, and seven also Of the earls of Anlaf, and others unnumbered, Of sailors and Scotchmen. Sent forth in flight then Was the prince of the Northmen, pressed hard by need, To the stem of his ship; with a staunch little band 35 To the high sea he hurried; in haste the king sailed Over the fallow flood, fled for his life. Also the sage one sorrowfully northward Crept to his kinsmen, Constantinus, The hoary war-hero; for him was small need 40 To boast of the battle-play; the best of his kinsmen And friends had fallen on the field of battle, Slain at the strife, and his son left behind On the field of fight, felled and wounded, Young at the battle. No boast dared he make 45 Of strife and of sword-play, the silver-haired leader, Full of age and of evil, nor had Anlaf the more. With their vanquished survivors no vaunt could they make That in works of war their worth was unequalled, In the fearful field, in the flashing of standards, 50 In the meeting of men, and the mingling of spears, And the war-play of weapons, when they had waged their battle Against the heirs of Edward on the awful plain. Now departed the Northmen in their nailed ships, Dreary from dart-play on Dyngesmere. 55 Over the deep water to Dublin they sailed, Broken and baffled back to Ireland. So, too, the brothers both went together, The King and the Aetheling; to their kinsmen's home, To the wide land of Wessex —warrior's exultant. 60 To feast on the fallen on the field they left The sallow-hued spoiler, the swarthy raven, Horned of beak, and the hoary-backed White-tailed eagle to eat of the carrion, And the greedy goshawk, and that gray beast, 65 The wolf in the wood. Not worse was the slaughter Ever on this island at any time, Or more folk felled before this strife With the edge of the sword, as is said in old books, In ancient authors, since from the east hither 70 The Angles and Saxons eagerly sailed Over the salt sea in search of Britain,— Since the crafty warriors conquered the Welshmen And, greedy for glory, gained them the land.

31. Anlaf: the Old English form of "Olaf."

52. Heirs of Edward: the English, descendants of Edward the Elder.

58. The Aetheling: Edmund the Aetheling (or prince) of line 3.



THE BATTLE OF MALDON

[Critical edition: Sedgefield, The Battle of Maldon and Six Short Poems from the Saxon Chronicle, Boston, 1904, Belles Lettres Edition.

Date: It appears in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle for 991.

"The Battle of Maldon treats not of legendary heroes of the Germanic races but of an actual historic personage, an English hero and patriot fallen in battle against a foreign invader a very short time before the poem was made. A single event in contemporary history is here described with hardly suppressed emotion by one who knew his hero and loved him. There is none of the allusiveness and excursiveness of the Beowulf; we have here not a member of an epic cycle, but an independent song. Very striking is the absence of ornament from the Battle of Maldon; all is plain, blunt, and stern."—Sedgefield, The Battle of Maldon, pp. vi-vii.]

. . . . . . . . . . was broken; He bade the young barons abandon their horses, To drive them afar and dash quickly forth, In their hands and brave heart to put all hope of success. 5 The kinsman of Offa discovered then first That the earl would not brook dishonorable bearing. He held in his hand the hawk that he loved, Let him fly to the fields; to the fight then he stepped; By this one could know that the knight was unwilling 10 To weaken in war, when his weapons he seized. Edric wished also to aid his chief, His folk-lord in fight; forward he bore His brand to the battle; a brave heart he had So long as he held locked in his hand 15 His board and his broad sword; his boast he made good, Fearless to fight before his lord. Then Byrhtnoth began to embolden the warriors; He rode and counseled them, his comrades he taught How they should stand in the stronghold's defence, 20 Bade them to bear their bucklers correctly, Fast by their hands without fear in their hearts. When the folk by fair words he had fired with zeal, He alighted in a crowd of his loyal comrades, Where he felt that his friends were most faithful and true. 25 Then he stood on the strand; sternly the messenger Of the Vikings called in vaunting words, Brought him the boast of the bloody seamen, The errand to the earl, at the edge of the water: "I am sent to thee by seamen bold; 30 They bade me summon thee to send them quickly Rings for a ransom, and rather than fight It is better for you to bargain with gold Than that we should fiercely fight you in battle. It is futile to fight if you fill our demands; 35 If you give us gold we will grant you a truce. If commands thou wilt make, who art mightiest of warriors, That thy folk shall be free from the foemen's attack, Shall give of their wealth at the will of the seamen, A treasure for tribute, with a truce in return, 40 We will go with the gold again to our ships, We will sail to the sea and vouchsafe to you peace." Byrhtnoth burst forth, his buckler he grasped, His spear he seized, and spoke in words Full of anger and ire, and answer he gave: 45 "Dost thou hear, oh seamen, what our heroes say? Spears they will send to the sailors as tribute, Poisoned points and powerful swords, And such weapons of war as shall win you no battles. Envoy of Vikings, your vauntings return, 50 Fare to thy folk with a far sterner message, That here staunchly stands with his steadfast troops, The lord that will fight for the land of his fathers, For the realm of Aethelred, my royal chief, For his folk and his fold; fallen shall lie 55 The heathen at shield-play; Shameful I deem it With our treasure as tribute that you take to your ships, Without facing a fight, since thus far hither You have come and encroached on our king's domain. You shall not so easily earn our treasure; 60 You must prove your power with point and sword edge, With grim war grip ere we grant you tribute." He bade then his band to bear forth their shields, Until they arrived at the river bank. The waters prevented the warriors' encounter; 65 The tide flowed in, the flood after the ebb, Locked up the land; too long it seemed Until they could meet and mingle their spears. By Panta's stream they stood in array, The East Saxon army and the eager shield-warriors; 70 Each troop was helpless to work harm on the other, Save the few who were felled by a flight of arrows. The flood receded; the sailors stood ready, All of the Vikings eager for victory. Byrhtnoth bade the bridge to be defended, 75 The brave-hearted warrior, by Wulfstan the bold With his crowd of kinsmen; he was Ceola's son, And he felled the first of the foemen who stepped On the bridge, the boldest of the band of men. There waited with Wulfstan the warriors undaunted, 80 Aelfhere and Maccus, men of courage; At the ford not a foot would they flee the encounter, But close in conflict they clashed with the foe, As long as they wielded their weapons with strength. As soon as they saw and perceived it clearly, 85 How fiercely fought was the defense of the bridge, The treacherous tribe in trickery asked That they be allowed to lead their hosts For a closer conflict, to cross over the ford. Then the earl, too eager to enter the fight, 90 Allowed too much land to the loathed pirates. Clearly then called over the cold water Byrhthelm's son; the soldiers listened: "Room is now made for you; rush quickly here Forward to the fray; fate will decide 95 Into whose power shall pass this place of battle." Went then the battle-wolves— of water they recked not— The pirate warriors west over Panta; Over the bright waves they bore their shields; The seamen stepped to the strand with their lindens. 100 In ready array against the raging hosts Stood Byrhtnoth's band; he bade them with shields To form a phalanx, and to defend themselves stoutly, Fast holding the foe. The fight was near, The triumph at conflict; the time had come 105 When fated men should fall in battle. Then arose an alarm; the ravens soared, The eagle eager for prey; on earth was commotion. Then sped from their hands the hardened spears, Flew in fury file-sharpened darts; 110 Bows were busy, boards met javelins, Cruel was the conflict; in companies they fell; On every hand lay heaps of youths. Wulfmere was woefully wounded to death, Slaughtered the sister's son of Byrhtnoth; 115 With swords he was strongly stricken to earth. To the vikings quickly requital was given; I learned that Edward alone attacked Stoutly with his sword, not stinting his blows, So that fell at his feet many fated invaders; 120 For his prowess the prince gave praise and thanks To his chamberlain brave, when chance would permit. So firm of purpose they fought in their turn, Young men in battle; they yearned especially To lead their line with the least delay 125 To fight their foes in fatal conflict, Warriors with weapons. The world seethed with slaughter. Steadfast they stood, stirred up by Byrhtnoth; He bade his thanes to think on battle, And fight for fame with the foemen Danes. 130 The fierce warrior went, his weapon he raised, His shield for a shelter; to the soldier he came; The chief to the churl a challenge addressed; Each to the other had evil intent. The seamen then sent from the south a spear, 135 So that wounded lay the lord of the warriors; He shoved with his shield till the shaft was broken, And burst the spear till back it sprang. Enraged was the daring one; he rushed with his dart On the wicked warrior who had wounded him sore. 140 Sage was the soldier; he sent his javelin Through the grim youth's neck; he guided his hand And furiously felled his foeman dead. Straightway another he strongly attacked, And burst his burnie; in his breast he wounded him. 145 Through his hard coat-of-mail; in his heart there stood The poisoned point. Pleased was the earl, Loudly he laughed, to the Lord he gave thanks For the deeds of the day the Redeemer had granted. A hostile youth hurled from his hand a dart; 150 The spear in flight then sped too far, And the honorable earl of Aethelred fell. By his side there stood a stripling youth, A boy in battle who boldly drew The bloody brand from the breast of his chief. 155 The young Wulfmere, Wulfstan's son, Gave back again the gory war-lance; The point pierced home, so that prostrate lay The Viking whose valor had vanquished the earl. To the earl then went an armed warrior; 160 He sought to snatch and seize his rings, His booty and bracelets, his bright shining sword. Byrhtnoth snatched forth the brown-edged weapon From his sheath, and sharply shook the attacker; Certain of the seamen too soon joined against him, 165 As he checked the arm of the charging enemy; Now sank to the ground his golden brand; He might not hold the hilt of his mace, Nor wield his weapons. These words still he spoke, To embolden the youths; the battle-scarred hero 170 Called on his comrades to conquer their foes; He no longer had strength to stand on his feet, . . . . . . . . he looked to heaven: "Ruler of realms, I render thee thanks For all of the honors that on earth I have had; 175 Now, gracious God, have I greatest of need That thou save my soul through thy sovereign mercy, That my spirit speed to its splendid home And pass into thy power, O Prince of angels, And depart in peace; this prayer I make, 180 That the hated hell-fiends may harass me not." Then the heathen dogs hewed down the noble one, And both the barons that by him stood— Aelfnoth and Wulfmaer each lay slaughtered; They lost their lives in their lord's defence. 185 Then fled from the fray those who feared to remain. First in the frantic flight was Godric, The son of Odda; he forsook his chief Who had granted him gifts of goodly horses; Lightly he leapt on his lord's own steed, 190 In its royal array —no right had he to it; His brothers also the battle forsook. Godwin and Godwy made good their escape, And went to the wood, for the war they disliked; They fled to the fastnesses in fear of their lives, 195 And many more of the men than was fitting, Had they freshly in mind remembered the favors, The good deeds he had done them in days of old. Wise were the words spoken once by Offa As he sat with his comrades assembled in council: 200 "There are many who boast in the mead-hall of bravery Who turn in terror when trouble comes." The chief of the folk now fell to his death, Aethelred's earl; all his companions Looked on their lord as he lay on the field. 205 Now there approached some proud retainers; The hardy heroes hastened madly, All of them eager either to die Or valiantly avenge their vanquished lord. They were eagerly urged by Aelfric's son, 210 A warrior young in winters; these words he spoke— Aelfwine then spoke, an honorable speech: "Remember how we made in the mead-hall our vaunts, From the benches our boasts of bravery we raised, Heroes in the hall, of hard-fought battles; 215 The time has now come for the test of your courage. Now I make known my noble descent; I come from Mercia, of mighty kinsmen; My noble grandsire's name was Ealdhelm, Wise in the ways of the world this elder. 220 Among my proud people no reproach shall be made That in fear I fled afar from the battle, To leave for home with my leader hewn down, Broken in battle; that brings me most grief; He was not only my earl but also my kinsman." 225 Then harboring hatred he hastened forth, And with the point of spear he pierced and slew A seaman grim who sank to the ground Under weight of the weapon. To war he incited His friends and fellows, in the fray to join. 230 Offa shouted; his ash-spear shook: "Thou exhortest, O Aelfwine, in the hour of need, When our lord is lying full low before us, The earl on the earth; we all have a duty That each one of us should urge on the rest 235 Of the warriors to war, while his weapons in hand He may have and hold, his hard-wrought mace, His dart and good sword. The deed of Godric, The wicked son of Offa, has weakened us all; Many of the men thought when he mounted the steed, 240 Rode on the proud palfry, that our prince led us forth; Therefore on the field the folk were divided, The shield-wall was shattered. May shame curse the man Who deceived our folk and sent them in flight." Leofsunu spoke and his linden-shield raised, 245 His board to defend him and embolden his fellows: "I promise you now from this place I will never Flee a foot-space, but forward will rush, Where I vow to revenge my vanquished lord. The stalwart warriors round Sturmere shall never 250 Taunt me and twit me for traitorous conduct, That lordless I fled when my leader had fallen, Ran from the war; rather may weapons, The iron points slay me." Full ireful he went; Fiercely he fought; flight he disdained. 255 Dunhere burst forth; his dart he brandished, Over them all; the aged churl cried, Called the brave ones to battle in Bryhtnoth's avenging: "Let no hero now hesitate who hopes to avenge His lord on the foemen, nor fear for his life." 260 Then forward they fared and feared not for their lives; The clansman with courage the conflict began; Grasped their spears grimly, to God made their prayer That they might dearly repay the death of their lord, And deal defeat to their dastardly foes. 265 A hostage took hold now and helped them with courage; He came from Northumbria of a noble kindred, The son of Ecglaf, Aescferth his name; He paused not a whit at the play of weapons, But unerringly aimed his arrows uncounted; 270 Now he shot on the shield, now he shattered a Viking; With the point of his arrow he pierced to the marrow While he wielded his weapons of war unsubdued. Still in the front stood the stalwart Edward, Burning for battle; his boasts he spoke: 275 He never would flee a foot-pace of land, Or leave his lord where he lay on the field; He shattered the shield-wall; with the shipmen he fought, Till on the treacherous tribesmen his treasure-giver's death He valiantly avenged ere his violent end. 280 Such daring deeds did the doughty Aethric, Brother of Sibyrht and bravest of soldiers; He eagerly fought and the others followed; They cleft the curved shields; keenly they battled; Then burst the buckler's rim, and the burnies sang 285 A song of slaughter. Then was slain in battle, The seaman by Offa; and the earth received him; Soon Offa himself was slain in battle; He had laid down his life for his lord as he promised 290 In return for his treasure, when he took his vow That they both alive from battle should come, Hale to their homes or lie hewn down in battle, Fallen on the field with their fatal wounds; He lay by his lord like a loyal thane. 295 Then shivered the shields; the shipmen advanced, Raving with rage; they ran their spears Through their fated foes. Forth went Wistan, Thurstan's son then, to the thick of the conflict. In the throng he slew three of the sailors, 300 Ere the son of Wigeline sent him to death. The fight was stiff; and fast they stood; In the cruel conflict they were killed by scores, Weary with wounds; woeful was the slaughter. Oswald and Eadwold all of the while, 305 Both the brothers, emboldened the warriors, Encouraged their comrades with keen spoken words, Besought them to strive in their sore distress, To wield their weapons and not weaken in battle. Byrhtwold then spoke; his buckler he lifted, 310 The old companion, his ash-spear shook And boldly encouraged his comrades to battle: "Your courage be the harder, your hearts be the keener, And sterner the strife as your strength grows less. Here lies our leader low on the earth, 315 Struck down in the dust; doleful forever Be the traitor who tries to turn from the war-play. I am old of years, but yet I flee not; Staunch and steadfast I stand by my lord, And I long to be by my loved chief." 320 So the son of Aethelgar said to them all. Godric emboldened them; oft he brandished his lance, Violently threw at the Vikings his war-spear, So that first among the folk he fought to the end; Hewed down and hacked, till the hated ones killed him— 325 Not that Godric who fled in disgrace from the fight. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5. Offa's kinsman is not named. Offa himself is mentioned in line 286.

8. Is the fact that the earl is amusing himself with a falcon just before the battle to be taken as a sign of contempt for the enemy?

65. "The Panta, or Blackwater as it is now called, opens at Maldon into a large estuary, where a strong tide runs."—Sedgefield.

70. The approaches to the bridge were covered with water at high tide; hence the Norsemen feared to cross at high tide and asked for a truce.

140. The soldier is Byrhtnoth.

151. This refers to Byrhtnoth.

271. The two halves of the line rime in the original.

287. Offa: "the kinsman of Gad" in the original. The reference is to Offa and we have avoided confusion by translating the phrase by the name of the man meant.



APPENDIX—SELECTIONS FROM OLD ENGLISH PROSE



ACCOUNT OF THE POET CAEDMON

[From the Anglo-Saxon version of Bede's Ecclesiastical History. Text used: Bright's Anglo-Saxon Reader, pp. 8 ff.]

In the monastery of this abbess [Hild] was a certain brother especially distinguished and gifted with the grace of God, because he was in the habit of making poems filled with piety and virtue. Whatever he learned 5 of holy writ through interpreters he gave forth in a very short time in poetical language with the greatest of sweetness and inspiration, well wrought in the English tongue. Because of his songs the minds of many men were turned from the thoughts of this world and 10 incited toward a contemplation of the heavenly life. There were, to be sure, others after him among the Angles who tried to compose sacred poetry, but none of them could equal him; because his instruction in poetry was not at all from men, nor through the aid of 15 any man, but it was through divine inspiration and as a gift from God that he received the power of song. For that reason he was never able to compose poetry of a light or idle nature, but only the one kind that pertained to religion and was fitted to the tongue of a 20 godly singer such as he.

This man had lived the life of a layman until he was somewhat advanced in years, and had never learned any songs. For this reason often at the banquets where for the sake of merriment it was ruled that they should 25 all sing in turn at the harp, when he would see the harp approach him, he would arise from the company out of shame and go home to his house. On one occasion he had done this and had left the banquet hall and gone out to the stable to the cattle which it was his duty to guard 30 that night. Then in due time he lay down and slept, and there stood before him in his dream a man who hailed him and greeted him and called him by name: "Caedmon, sing me something." Then he answered and said: "I can not sing anything; and for that reason I left 35 the banquet and came here, since I could not sing." Once more the man who was speaking with him said: "No matter, you must sing for me." Then he answered: "What shall I sing?" Thereupon the stranger said: "Sing to me of the beginning of things." When he had 40 received this answer he began forthwith to sing, in praise of God the Creator, verses and words that he had never heard, in the following manner:

Now shall we praise the Prince of heaven, The might of the Maker and his manifold thought, 45 The work of the Father: of what wonders he wrought, The Lord everlasting when he laid out the worlds. He first raised up for the race of men The heaven as a roof, the holy Ruler. Then the world below, the Ward of mankind, 50 The Lord everlasting, at last established As a home for man, the Almighty Lord.

Then he arose from his sleep, and all that he had sung while asleep he held fast in memory; and soon afterward he added many words like unto them befitting 55 a hymn to God. The next morning he came to the steward who was his master and told him of the gift he had received. The steward immediately led him to the abbess and related what he had heard. She bade assemble all the wise and learned men and asked Caedmon to 60 relate his dream in their presence and to sing the song that they might give their judgment as to what it was or whence it had come. They all agreed that it was a divine gift bestowed from Heaven. They then explained to him a piece of holy teaching and bade him if he could, 65 to turn that into rhythmic verse. When he received the instruction of the learned men, he departed for his house. In the morning he returned and delivered the passage assigned him, turned into an excellent poem.

Thereupon, the abbess, praising and honoring the 70 gift of God in this man, persuaded him to leave the condition of a layman and take monastic vows. And this he did with great eagerness. She received him and his household into the monastery and made him one of the company of God's servants and commanded that he 75 be taught the holy writings and stories. He, on his part, pondered on all that he learned by word of mouth, and just as a clean beast chews on a cud, transformed it into the sweetest of poetry. His songs and poems were so pleasing that even his teachers came to learn 80 and write what he spoke. He sang first of the creation of the earth, and of the origin of mankind, and all the story of Genesis, the first book of Moses; and afterwards of the exodus of the Children of Israel from the land of Egypt and the entry into the Promised Land; 85 and many other stories of the Holy Scriptures; the incarnation of Christ, and his suffering and his ascension into heaven; the coming of the Holy Ghost and the teaching of the apostles; and finally he wrote many songs concerning the future day of judgment and of 90 the fearfulness of the pains of hell, and the bliss of heaven; besides these he composed many others concerning the mercies and judgments of God. In all of these he strove especially to lead men from the love of sin and wickedness and to impel them toward the love 95 and practice of righteousness; for he was a very pious man and submissive to the rules of the monastery. And he burned with zeal against those who acted otherwise. For this reason it was that his life ended with a fair death.



ALFRED'S PREFACE TO HIS TRANSLATION OF GREGORY'S "PASTORAL CARE"

[Text: Bright's Anglo-Saxon Reader, pp. 26 ff.]

King Alfred sends greetings to Waerferth in loving and friendly words. I let thee know that it has often come to my mind what wise men there were formerly throughout England among both the clergy and the 5 laity, and what happy times there were then throughout England, and how the kings who held sway over the people in those days obeyed God and his ministers; and how they preserved not only their peace but their morality also and good order at home and extended 10 their possessions abroad; and how prosperous they were both with war and with wisdom; and how zealous the clergy were both in teaching and in learning, and in all the services they owed to God; and how foreigners came to the land in search of wisdom and learning, and 15 how we should now have to secure them from abroad if we were to have them. So complete was this decay in England that there were very few on this side of the Humber who could understand their rituals in English or translate a Latin letter into English; and I feel sure 20 that there were not many beyond Humber. So few there were that I can not remember a single one south of the Thames when I began to reign. Almighty God be thanked that we have any teachers among us now....

Then I considered all this, and brought to mind 25 also how, before it had all been laid waste and burned, the churches throughout all England stood filled with treasures and books; and there was a great multitude of God's servants, but they knew very little about the books, for they could not understand anything in them, 30 since they were not written in their own language—as if they spoke thus: "Our fathers who held these places of old loved wisdom and through it acquired wealth and bequeathed it to us. Here we may still see their tracks, but we can not follow them, and hence we have 35 now lost both the wealth and the wisdom, since we would not incline our hearts after their example."

When I called all this to mind, I wondered very much, considering all the good and wise men who were formerly throughout England and all the books that they 40 had perfectly learned, that they had translated no part of them into their own language. But soon I answered myself and said: "They did not expect that men should ever become as careless and that learning should decay as it has; they neglected it through the desire that the 45 greater increase of wisdom there should be in the land the more should men learn of foreign languages."

I then considered that the law was first found in the Hebrew tongue, and again when the Greeks learned it, they translated it all into their own language. And the 50 Romans likewise when they had learned it, they translated it all through learned scholars into their own language. And all other Christian people have turned some part into their own language. Wherefore it seems to me best, if it seems so to you, that we should translate 55 some books that are most needful for all men to know into the language which we can all understand and that we should bring about what we may very easily do with God's help if we have tranquillity; namely, that all youths that are now in England of 60 free birth, who are rich enough to devote themselves to it, be put to learning as long as they are not fitted for any other occupation, until the time that they shall be able to read English writing with ease: and let those that would pursue their studies further be taught more 65 in Latin and be promoted to a higher rank. When I brought to mind how the knowledge of Latin had formerly decayed throughout England, and yet many knew how to read English writing, I began among other various and manifold troubles of this kingdom to turn 70 into English the book that is called in Latin Pastoralis and in English The Shepherd's Book, sometimes word for word, sometimes thought by thought, as I had learned it from Plegmund my archbishop, and Asser my bishop, and Grimbald my priest, and John my priest. 75 After I had learned it so that I understood it and so that I could interpret it clearly, I translated it into English. I shall send one copy to every bishopric in my kingdom; and in each is a book-mark worth fifty mancuses. And I command in God's name that no man 80 take the book-mark from the monastery. It is not certain that there will be such learned bishops as, thanks be to God, we now have nearly everywhere. Hence I wish the books to remain always in their places, unless the bishop wishes to take them with him, or they be lent 85 out anywhere, or any one be copying them.



THE CONVERSION OF EDWIN.

[From Alfred's translation of Bede's Ecclesiastical History. Text: Bright, Anglo-Saxon Reader, p. 62, line 2—p. 63, line 17.]

When the king heard these words, he answered him [Paulinus, who had been preaching Christianity to him] and said that he was not only willing but expected to accept the faith that he taught; the king said, however, 5 that he wished to have speech and counsel with his friends and advisers, so that if they accepted the faith with him they might all together be consecrated to Christ, the Fountain of Life. The bishop consented and the king did as he said.

10 He now counselled and advised with his wise men, and he asked of each of them separately what he thought of the new doctrine and the worship of God that was preached. Cefi, the chief of his priests, then answered, "Consider, oh king, what this teaching is that is now 15 delivered to us. I declare to you, I have learned for a certainty that the religion we have had up to the present has neither virtue nor usefulness in it. For none of thy servants has applied himself more diligently to the worship of our gods than I, and nevertheless there 20 are many who receive greater gifts and favors from thee than I, and are more prosperous in all their undertakings. I know well that our gods, if they had had any power, would have rewarded me more because I have more faithfully served and obeyed them. It seems 25 to me, therefore, wise, if you consider that these new doctrines which are preached to us are better and more efficacious, to receive them immediately."

Assenting to his words, another of the king's wise men and chiefs spoke further: "O king, this present 30 life of man on earth seems to me, in comparison with the time that is unknown to us, as if thou wert sitting at a feast with thine eldermen and thanes in the winter time, and the fire burned brightly and thy hall was warm, and it rained and snowed and stormed outside; 35 there comes then a sparrow and flies quickly through thy house; in through one door he comes, through the other door he goes out again. As long as he is within he is not rained on by the winter storm, but after a twinkling of an eye and a mere moment he goes immediately 40 from winter back to winter again. Likewise this life of man appeareth for a little time, but what goes before or what comes after we know not. If therefore this teaching can tell us anything more satisfying or certain, it seems worthy to be followed."



THE VOYAGES OF OHTHERE AND WULFSTAN

[From Alfred's version of Orosius's History of the World. Text used: Bright's Anglo-Saxon Reader, pp. 38 ff.]

Ohthere's Voyages

Ohthere told his lord, King Alfred, that he dwelt the farthest north of all the Northmen. He said that he lived in the northern part of the land toward the West Sea. He reported, however, that the land extended very 5 far north thence; but that it was all waste, except in a few places here and there where the Finns dwell, engaged in hunting in winter and sea fishing in summer. He said that on one occasion he wished to find out how far the land lay northward, or whether any man inhabited 10 the waste land to the north. Then he fared northward to the land; for three days there was waste land on his starboard and the wide sea on his larboard. Then he had come as far north as the whale hunters ever go. Whereupon, he journeyed still northward as far as he 15 could in three days sailing. At that place the land bent to the east—or the sea in on the land, he knew not which; but he knew that there he waited for a west wind, or somewhat from the northwest, and then sailed east, near the land, as far as he could in four days. There he had to 20 wait for a wind from due north, since there the land bent due south—or the sea in on the land, he knew not which. From there he sailed due south, close in to the land, as far as he could in five days. At this point a large river extended up into the land. They then followed 25 this river, for they dared not sail beyond it because of their fear of hostile reception, the land being all inhabited on the other side of the river. He had not found any inhabited land since leaving his own home; for the land to the right was not inhabited all 30 the way, except by fishermen, fowlers, and hunters, and these were all Finns; to the left there was always open sea. The Permians had cultivated their soil very well, but they dared not enter upon it. The land of the Terfinns was all waste, except where hunters, fishers, or 35 fowlers dwelt.

The Permians told him many tales both about their own country and about surrounding countries, but he knew not how much was true, for he did not behold it for himself. The Finns and Permians, it appeared to him, 40 spoke almost the same language. He went hither on this voyage not only for the purpose of seeing the country, but mainly for walruses, for they have exceedingly good bone in their teeth—they brought some of the teeth to the king—and their hides are very good for 45 ship-ropes. This whale is much smaller than other whales; it is not more than seven ells long; but the best whale-fishing is in his own country—those are eight and forty ells long, and the largest are fifty ells long. He said that he was one of a company of six who killed 50 sixty of these in two days.

Ohthere was a very rich man in such possessions as make up their wealth, that is, in wild beasts. At the time when he came to the king, he still had six hundred tame deer that he had not sold. The men call these 55 reindeer. Six of these were decoy-reindeer, which are very valuable among the Finns, for it is with them that the Finns trap the wild reindeer. He was among the first men in the land, although he had not more than twenty cattle, twenty sheep, and twenty swine, and the 60 little that he plowed he plowed with horses. Their income, however, is mainly in the tribute that the Finns pay them—animals' skins, birds' feathers, whalebone, and ship-ropes made of the hide of whale and the hide of seal. Every one contributes in proportion to his 65 means; the richest must pay fifteen marten skins and five reindeer skins; one bear skin, forty bushels of feathers, a bear-skin or otter-skin girdle, and two ship-ropes, each sixty ells long, one made of the hide of the whale and the other of the hide of the seal.

70 He reported that the land of the Northmen was very long and very narrow. All that man can use for either grazing or plowing lies near the sea, and even that is very rocky in some places; and to the east, alongside the inhabited land, lie wild moors. The Finns live 75 in these waste lands. And the inhabited land is broadest to the eastward, becoming always narrower the farther north one goes. To the east it may be sixty miles broad, or even a little broader; and in the middle thirty or broader; and to the north, where it was narrowest, 80 he said that it might be three miles broad to the moor. Moreover the moor is so broad in some places that it would take a man two weeks to cross it. In other places it was of such a breadth that a man can cross it in six days.

85 Then there is alongside that land southward, on the other side of the moor, Sweden, as far as the land to the north; and alongside the land northward, the land of the Cwens (Finns). The Finns plunder the Northmen over the moor sometimes and sometimes the Northmen 90 plunder them. And there are very many fresh lakes out over the moor; and the Finns bear their ships over the land to these lakes and then ravage the Northmen; they have very small and very light ships.

Ohthere said that the place was called Halgoland, in 95 which he dwelt. He said that no man lived north of him. There is one port in the southern part of the land which is called Sciringesheal. Thither he said that one might not sail in one month, if he encamped by night and had good wind all day; and all the while he should sail 100 close to land. And on the starboard he has first Ireland, and then the island that is between Ireland and this land. Then he has this land till he comes to Sciringesheal, and all the way he has Norway on the larboard. To the south of Sciringesheal the sea comes far up into 105 the land; the sea is so broad that no man may see across. And Jutland is in the opposite direction, and after that is Zealand. The sea runs many hundred miles up in on that land.

And from Sciringesheal he said that he sailed in five 110 days to that port that is called Haddeby; it lies between the country of the Wends and the Saxons and the Angles, and belongs to the Danes. When he sailed away from Sciringesheal for three days, he had Denmark on the larboard and the wide sea on his starboard; and then, 115 two days before he reached Haddeby, he had Jutland on his starboard and also Zealand and many islands. In that land had dwelt the English before they came hither to this land. And then for two days he had on his larboard the islands which belong to Denmark.

100. Ireland: Iceland is probably meant.

Wulfstan's Voyage

120 Wulfstan said that he set out from Haddeby, and that he arrived after seven days and nights at Truso, the ship being all the way under full sail. He had Wendland (Mecklenburg and Pomerania) on the starboard, and Langland, Laaland, Falster, and Sconey on 125 the larboard; and all these lands belong to Denmark. And then we had on our larboard the land of the Burgundians (Bornholmians), and they have their own king. Beyond the land of the Burgundians we had on our left those lands that were first called Blekinge, and 130 Meore, and Oland, and Gothland; these lands belong to the Swedes. To the starboard we had all the way the country of the Wends, as far as the mouth of the Vistula. The Vistula is a very large river, and it separates Witland from Wendland; and Witland belongs to the 135 Esthonians. The Vistula flows out of Wendland, and runs into the Frische Haff. The Frische Haff is about fifteen miles broad. Then the Elbing empties into the Frische Haff, flowing from the east out of the lake on the shore of which Truso stands; and there they empty 140 together into the Frische Haff, the Elbing from the east, which flows out of Esthonia, and the Vistula from the south, out of Wendland. The Vistula then gives its name to the Elbing, and runs out of the mere west and north into the sea; hence it is called the mouth of the 145 Vistula.

Esthonia is very large, and there are many towns there, and in every town there is a king. There is also very much honey, and fishing. The king and the richest men drink mare's milk, but the poor men and the slaves 150 drink mead. There is much strife among them. There is no ale brewed by the Esthonians; there is, however, plenty of mead. And there is a custom among the Esthonians that when a man dies he lies unburied in his house, with his kindred and friends, for a month—sometimes 155 two; and the kings and most powerful men still longer, in proportion to their riches; it is sometimes half a year that they stay unburnt, lying above ground, in their own houses. All the time that the body is within, drinking and merry-making continue until 160 the day that he is burned. The same day on which they are to bear him to the funeral-pyre they divide his possessions, whatever may be left after the drinking and pleasures, into five or six parts—sometimes into more, in proportion to the amount of his goods. Then they 165 place the largest share about a mile from the town, then the second, then the third, until it is all laid within the one mile; and the smallest portion must be nearest the town in which the dead man lies. Then there are gathered together all of the men in the land that have 170 the swiftest horses, about six or seven miles from the goods. Then they all run toward the possessions, and the one who has the swiftest horse comes to the first and largest part, and so one after another till all is taken up; and the man who arrives at the goods nearest the 175 town obtains the smallest part. Then each man rides his way with the property, and he may keep it all; and for this reason fast horses are very dear in that country. When the property is thus all spent, they bear him out and burn him along with his weapons and his raiment. 180 And generally they spend all his wealth, with the long time that the corpse lies within and with the goods that they lay along the roads, and that the strangers run for and bear off with them. Again, it is a custom with the Esthonians to burn men of every tribe, 185 and if any one finds a bone which is unburned he has to make amends for it. And there is one tribe among the Esthonians that has the power of making cold, and it is because they put this cold upon them that the corpses lie so long and do not decay. And if a man 190 places two vessels full of ale or water, they cause both to be frozen over, whether it is summer or winter.



INDEX TO TITLES



PAGE Account of the Poet Caedmon 179 Alfred's Preface to His Translation of Gregory's "Pastoral Care" 183 Badger, A 51 Battle of Brunnanburg, The 159 Battle of Maldon, The 163 Bede's Death Song 84 Bible, A 52 Bookworm, A 54 Bow, A 52 Brunnanburg, The Battle of 159 Caedmon, Account of the Poet 179 Caedmon's Hymn 83 Charm Against a Sudden Stitch 42 Charm for Bewitched Land 38 Christ, Selections from the 95 Conversion of Edwin, The 187 Crossing of the Red Sea, The 90 Deor's Lament 26 Dough 54 Dream of the Rood, The 108 Edwin, The Conversion of 187 Elene, Selections from the 103 Exeter Gnomes 56 Exodus, Selections from 90 Fates of Men, The 58 Fight at Finnsburg, The 34 Finnsburg, The Fight at 34 Genesis, Selections from 85 Grave, The 157 Gregory's "Pastoral Care," Preface to 183 Horn, A 50 Husband's Message, The 75 Isaac, The Offering of 85 Judith 116 Maldon, The Battle of 163 Nightingale, A 49 Offering of Isaac, The 85 Ohthere and Wulfstan, The Voyages of 189 "Pastoral Care," Preface to 183 Phoenix, The 132 Reed, A 54 Riddles 44 I. Storm, A 44 II. Storm, A 45 III. Storm, A 46 V. Shield, A 48 VII. Swan, A 49 VIII. Nightingale, A 49 XIV. Horn, A 50 XV. Badger, A 51 XXIII. Bow, A 52 XXVI. Bible, A 52 XLV. Dough 54 XLVII. Bookworm, A 54 LX. Reed, A 54 Ruin, The 78 Seafarer, The 68 Shield, A 48 Storm, A 44 Storm, A 45 Storm, A 46 Swan, A 49 Voyages of Ohthere and Wulfstan, The 189 Waldhere 29 Widsith 15 Wife's Lament, The 72

THE END