2. Sometimes the Future has Imperative force; as, dices, say!

Perfect Indicative.

262. A. PRESENT PERFECT. Several Present Perfects denote the state resulting from a completed act, and so seem equivalent to the Present; as,—

novi, cognovi, I know (lit. I have become acquainted with);

consuevi, I am wont (lit. I have become accustomed).

B. HISTORICAL PERFECT. The Historical Perfect is the tense of narration (as opposed to the Imperfect, the tense of description); as,—

Regulus in senatum venit, mandata exposuit, reddi captivos negavit esse utile, Regulus came into the Senate, set forth his commission, said it was useless for captives to be returned.

1. Occasionally the Historical Perfect is used of a general truth ('Gnomic Perfect').

Pluperfect Indicative.

263. The Latin Pluperfect, like the English Past Perfect, denotes an act completed in the past; as,—

Caesar Rhenum transire decreverat, sed naves deerant, Caesar had decided to cross the Rhine, but had no boats.

a. In those verbs whose Perfect has Present force (Sec. 262, A), the Pluperfect has the force of an Imperfect; as,—

noveram, I knew.

Future Perfect Indicative.

264. The Future Perfect denotes an action completed in future time. Thus:—

scribam epistulam, cum redieris, I will write the letter when you have returned (lit. when you shall have returned).

a. The Latin is much more exact in the use of the Future Perfect than the English, which commonly employs the Present Perfect instead of the Future Perfect.

b. In those verbs whose Perfect has Present force (Sec. 262, A) the Future Perfect has the force of a Future; as,—

novero, I shall know.

Epistolary Tenses.

265. In letters the writer often uses tenses which are not appropriate at the time of writing, but which will be so at the time when his letter is received; he thus employs the Imperfect and the Perfect for the Present, and the Pluperfect for the Present Perfect; as,—

nihil habebam quod scriberem, neque enim novi quidquam audieram et ad tuas omnes epistulas jam rescripseram, I have nothing to write, for I have heard no news and have already answered all your letters.

TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE.

266. A. In Independent sentences. See Sec. 272-280.

B. In Dependent Sentences. In dependent sentences the tenses of the subjunctive usually conform to the so-called

Sequence of Tenses.

267. 1. In the Subjunctive the Present and Perfect are Principal tenses, the Imperfect and Pluperfect, Historical.

2. By the Sequence of Tenses Principal tenses are followed by Principal, Historical by Historical. Thus:—

PRINCIPAL SEQUENCE,—

video quid facias, I see what you are doing.

videbo quid facias, I shall see what you are doing.

videro quid facias, I shall have seen what you are doing.

video quid feceris, I see what you have done.

videbo quid feceris, I shall see what you have done.

videro quid feceris, I shall have seen what you have done.

HISTORICAL SEQUENCE,—

videbam quid faceres, I saw what you were doing.

vidi quid faceres, I saw what you were doing.

videram quid faceres, I had seen what you were doing.

videbam quid fecisses, I saw what you had done.

vidi quid fecisses, I saw what you had done.

videram quid fecisses, I had seen what you had done.

3. The Present and Imperfect Subjunctive denote incomplete action, the Perfect and Pluperfect completed action, exactly as in the Indicative.

Peculiarities of Sequence.

268. 1. The Perfect Indicative is usually an historical tense (even when translated in English as a Present Perfect), and so is followed by the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive; as,—

demonstravi quare ad causam accederem, I have shown why I took the case (lit. I showed why, etc.).

2. A dependent Perfect Infinitive is treated as an historical tense wherever, if resolved into an equivalent Indicative, it would be historical; as,—

videor ostendisse quales dei essent, I seem to have shown of what nature the gods are (ostendisse here corresponds to an Indicative, ostendi, I showed).

3. The Historical Present is sometimes regarded as a principal tense, sometimes as historical. Thus:—

Sulla suos hortatur ut forti animo sint, Sulla exhorts his soldiers to be stout-hearted;

Gallos hortatur ut arma caperent, he exhorted the Gauls to take arms.

4. Conditional sentences of the 'contrary-to-fact' type are not affected by the principles for the Sequence of Tenses; as,—

honestum tale est ut, vel si ignorarent id homines, sua tamen pulchritudine laudabile esset, virtue is such a thing that even if men were ignorant of it, it would still be worthy of praise for its own loveliness.

5. In conditional sentences of the 'contrary-to-fact' type the Imperfect Subjunctive is usually treated as an Historical tense; as,—

si solos eos diceres miseros, quibus moriendum esset, neminem tu quidem eorum qui viverent exciperes, if you called only those wretched who must die, you would except no one of those who live.

6. In clauses of Result and some others, the Perfect Subjunctive is sometimes used as an historical tense. Thus:—

rex tantum motus est, ut Tissaphernem hostem judicarit, the king was so much moved that he adjudged Tissaphernes an enemy.

This construction is rare in Cicero, but frequent in Nepos and subsequent historians. The Perfect Subjunctive in this use represents a result simply as a fact without reference to the continuance of the act, and therefore corresponds to an Historical Perfect Indicative of direct statement. Thus, judicarit in the above example corresponds to adjudicavit, he adjudged. To denote a result as something continuous, all writers use the Imperfect Subjunctive after historical tenses.

7. Sometimes perspicuity demands that the ordinary principles of Sequence be abandoned altogether. Thus:

a) We may have the Present or Perfect Subjunctive after an historical tense; as,—

Verres Siciliam ita perdidit ut ea restitui non possit, Verres so ruined Sicily that it cannot be restored (Direct statement: non potest restitui);

ardebat Hortensius dicendi cupiditate sic, ut in nullo flagrantius studium viderim, Hortensius burned so with eagerness to speak that I have seen in no one a greater desire (Direct statement: in nullo vidi, I have seen in no one).

NOTE.—This usage is different from that cited under 6. Here, by neglect of Sequence, the Perfect is used, though a principal tense; there the Perfect was used as an historical tense.

b) We may have a principal tense followed by the Perfect Subjunctive used historically; as,—

nescio quid causae fuerit cur nullas ad me litteras dares, I do not know what reason there was why you did not send me a letter.

Here fuerit is historical, as is shown by the following Imperfect Subjunctive.

Method of Expressing Future Time in the Subjunctive.

269. The Future and Future Perfect, which are lacking to the Latin Subjunctive, are supplied in subordinate clauses as follows:—

1. a) The Future is supplied by the Present after principal tenses, by the Imperfect after historical tenses.

b) The Future Perfect is supplied by the Perfect after principal tenses, by the Pluperfect after historical tenses.

This is especially frequent when the context clearly shows, by the presence of a future tense in the main clause, that the reference is to future time. Thus:—

Galli pollicentur se facturos, quae Caesar imperet, the Gauls promise they will do what Caesar shall order;

Galli pollicebantur se facturos, quae Caesar imperaret, the Gauls promised they would do what Caesar should order;

Galli pollicentur se facturos quae Caesar imperaverit, the Gauls promise they will do what Caesar shall have ordered;

Galli pollicebantur se facturos quae Caesar imperavisset, the Gauls promised they would do what Caesar should have ordered.

2. Even where the context does not contain a Future tense in the main clause, Future time is often expressed in the subordinate clauses by the Present and Imperfect Subjunctive. Thus:—

timeo ne veniat, I am afraid he will come;

Caesar exspectabat quid consili hostes caperent, Caesar was waiting to see what plan the enemy would adopt.

3. Where greater definiteness is necessary, the periphrastic forms in -urus sim and -urus essem are employed, especially in clauses of Result, Indirect Questions, and after non dubito quin; as,—

non dubito quin pater venturus sit, I do not doubt that my father will come;

non dubitabam quin pater venturus esset, I did not doubt that my father would come.

4. Where the verb has no Future Active Participle, or where it stands in the passive voice, its Future character may be indicated by the use of the particles mox, brevi, statim, etc., in connection with the Present and Imperfect Subjunctive; as,—

non dubito quin te mox hujus rei paeniteat, I do not doubt that you will soon repent of this thing;

non dubitabam quin haec res brevi conficeretur, I did not doubt that this thing would soon be fnished.

TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE.

270. 1. The tenses of the Infinitive denote time not absolutely, but with reference to the verb on which they depend. Thus:—

a) The Present Infinitive represents an act as contemporaneous with the time of the verb on which it depends; as,—

videtur honores adsequi, he seems to be gaining honors;

videbatur honores adsequi, he seemed to be gaining honors.

b) The Perfect Infinitive represents an act as prior to the time of the verb on which it depends; as,—

videtur honores adsecutus esse, he seems to have gained honors;

visus est honores adsecutus esse, he seemed to have gained honors.

c) The Future Infinitive represents an act as subsequent to that of the verb on which it depends; as,—

videtur honores adsecuturus esse, he seems to be about to gain honors;

visus est honores adsecuturus esse, he seemed to be about to gain honors.

2. Where the English says 'ought to have done,' 'might have done,' etc., the Latin uses debui, oportuit, potui (debebam, oportebat, poteram), with the Present Infinitive; as,—

debuit dicere, he ought to have said (lit. owed it to say);

oportuit venire, he ought to have come;

potuit videre, he might have seen.

a. Oportuit, volo, nolo (and in poetry some other verbs), may take a Perfect Infinitive instead of the Present; as,—

hoc jam pridem factum esse oportuit, this ought long ago to have been done.

3. PERIPHRASTIC FUTURE INFINITIVE. Verbs that have no Participial Stem, express the Future Infinitive Active and Passive by fore ut or futurum esse ut, with the Subjunctive; as,—

spero fore ut te paeniteat levitatis, I hope you will repent of your fickleness (lit. hope it will happen that you repent);

spero futurum esse ut hostes arceantur, I hope that the enemy will be kept off.

a. The Periphrastic Future Infinitive is often used, especially in the Passive, even in case of verbs which have the Participial Stem; as,—

spero fore ut hostes vincantur, I hope the enemy will be conquered.

4. Passives and Deponents sometimes form a Future Perfect Infinitive with fore; as,—

spero epistulam scriptam fore, I hope the letter will have been written;

dico me satis adeptum fore, I say that I shall have gained enough.

THE MOODS.

MOODS IN INDEPENDENT SENTENCES.

The Indicative in Independent Sentences.

271. The Indicative is used for the statement of facts, the supposition of facts, or inquiry after facts.

1. Note the following idiomatic uses:—

a) With possum; as,—

possum multa dicere, I might say much;

poteram multa dicere, I might have said much (Sec. 270, 2).

b) In such expressions as longum est, aequum est, melius est, difficile est, utilius est, and some others; as,—

longum est ea dicere, it would be tedious to tell that;

difficile est omnia persequi, it would be difficult to enumerate everything.

The Subjunctive in Independent Sentences.

272. The Subjunctive is used in Independent Sentences to express something—

1. As willed—Volitive Subjunctive; 2. As desired—Optative Subjunctive; 3. Conceived of as possible—Potential Subjunctive.

VOLITIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.

273. The Volitive Subjunctive represents the action as willed. It always implies authority on the part of the speaker, and has the following varieties:—

A. HORTATORY SUBJUNCTIVE.

274. The Hortatory Subjunctive expresses an exhortation. This use is confined to the first person plural of the Present. The negative is ne. Thus:—

eamus, let us go;

amemus patriam, let us love our country;

ne desperemus, let us not despair.

B. JUSSIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.

275. The Jussive Subjunctive expresses a command. The Jussive stands regularly in the Present Tense, and is used—

1. Most frequently in the third singular and the third plural; as,—

dicat, let him tell;

dicant, let them tell;

quare secedant improbi, wherefore let the wicked depart!

2. Less frequently in the second person, often with indefinite force; as,—

isto bono utare, use that advantage;

modeste vivas, live temperately.

C. PROHIBITIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.

276. The Subjunctive is used in the second and third persons singular and plural, with ne, to express a prohibition. Both Present and Perfect occur, and without appreciable difference of meaning; as,—

ne repugnetis, do not resist!

tu vero istam ne reliqueris, don't leave her!

impii ne placare audeant deos, let not the impious dare to appease the gods!

a. Neither of these constructions is frequent in classical prose.

b. A commoner method of expressing a prohibition in the second person is by the use of noli (nolite) with a following infinitive, or by cave or cave ne with the Subjunctive; as,—

noli hoc facere, don't do this (lit. be unwilling to do)!

nolite mentiri, do not lie!

cave ignoscas, cave te misereat, do not forgive, do not pity!

cave ne haec facias, do not do this (lit. take care lest you do)!

D. DELIBERATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.

277. The Deliberative Subjunctive is used in questions and exclamations implying doubt, indignation, the impossibility of an act, obligation, or propriety. The Present is used referring to present time, the Imperfect referring to past. The negative is non. Thus:—

quid faciam, what shall I do?

ego redeam, I go back!

huic cedamus! hujus condiciones audiamus! are we to bow to him! are we to listen to his terms!

quid facerem, what was I to do?

hunc ego non diligam, should I not cherish this man?

a. These Deliberative Questions are usually purely Rhetorical in character, and do not expect an answer.

E. CONCESSIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.

278. The Subjunctive is used to indicate something as granted or conceded for the sake of argument. The Present is used for present time, the Perfect regularly for past. The negative is ne. Thus:—

sit hoc verum, I grant that this is true (lit. let this be true);

ne sint in senectute vires, I grant there is not strength in old age;

fuerit malus civis aliis; tibi quando esse coepit, I grant that he was a bad citizen to others; when did he begin to be so toward you?

OPTATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.

279. The Optative Subjunctive occurs in expressions of wishing. The negative is regularly ne.

1. The Present Tense, often accompanied by utinam, is used where the wish is conceived of as possible.

di istaec prohibeant, may the gods prevent that!

falsus utinam vates sim, oh that I may be a false prophet!

ne veniant, may they not come!

2. The Imperfect expresses, in the form of a wish, the regret that something is not so now; the Pluperfect that something was not so in the past. The Imperfect and Pluperfect are regularly accompanied by utinam; as,—

utinam istud ex animo diceres, would that you were saying that in earnest (i.e. I regret that you are not saying it in earnest);

Pelides utinam vitasset Apollinis arcus, would that Achilles had escaped the bow of Apollo;

utinam ne natus essem, would that I had not been born.

POTENTIAL SUBJUNCTIVE.

280. The Potential Subjunctive expresses a possibility. The negative is non. The following uses are to be noted:—

1. The 'May' Potential.—The Potential Subjunctive may designate a mere possibility (English auxiliary may). Both Present and Perfect occur, and without appreciable difference of meaning. Thus:—

dicat aliquis, some one may say;

dixerit aliquis, some one may say.

a. This construction is by no means frequent, and is confined mainly to a few phrases like those given as examples.

2. 'Should'-'Would' Potential.—The Potential Subjunctive may represent something as depending upon a condition expressed or understood (English auxiliary should, would). Both Present and Perfect occur, and without appreciable difference of meaning. Thus:—

fortunam citius reperias quam retineas, one would more quickly find Fortune than keep it (i.e. if one should make the trial);

crediderim, I should believe.

a. Here belongs the use of velim, malim, nolim, as softened forms of statement for volo, malo, nolo. Thus:—

velim mihi ignoscas, I wish you would forgive me;

nolim putes me jocari, I don't want you to think I'm joking.

b. When the condition is expressed, we get one of the regular types of Conditional Sentences (see Sec. 303); as,—

dies deficiat, si coner enumerare causas, time would fail if I should attempt to enumerate the reasons.

3. 'Can'-'Could' Potential.—In the Present and Imperfect the Potential occurs in the second person singular (with indefinite force; Sec. 356, 3) of a few verbs of perceiving, seeing, thinking, and the like; as,—

videas, cernas, one can see, one can perceive;

crederes, one could believe;

videres, cerneres, one could see, perceive;

putares, one could imagine.

4. The Imperfect and Pluperfect in the Apodosis of conditional sentences of the contrary-to-fact type (see Sec. 304) are also Potential in character. By omission of the Protasis, such an Apodosis sometimes stands alone, particularly vellem, nollem, mallem; as,—

vellem id quidem, I should wish that (i.e. were I bold enough).

The Imperative.

281. The Imperative is used in commands, admonitions and entreaties (negative ne), as,—

egredere ex urbe, depart from the city;

mihi ignosce, pardon me;

vale, farewell.

1. The Present is the tense of the Imperative most commonly used, but the Future is employed—

a) Where there is a distinct reference to future time, especially in the apodosis of conditional sentences; as,—

rem vobis proponam; vos eam penditote, I will lay the matter before you; do you (then) consider it;

si bene disputabit, tribuito litteris Graecis, if he shall speak well, attribute it to Greek literature.

b) In laws, treaties, wills, maxims, etc.; as,—

consules summum jus habento, the consuls shall have supreme power;

hominem mortuom in urbe ne sepelito, no one shall bury a dead body in the city;

amicitia regi Antiocho cum populo Romano his legibus et condicionibus esto, let there be friendship between Antiochus and the Roman people on the following terms and conditions;

quartae esto partis Marcus heres, let Marcus be heir to a fourth (of the property);

ignoscito saepe alteri, numquam tibi, forgive your neighbor often, yourself never.

2. Except with the Future Imperative the negative is not used in classical prose. Prohibitions are regularly expressed in other ways. See Sec. 276, b.

3. Questions in the Indicative introduced by quin (why not?) are often equivalent to an Imperative or to the Hortatory Subjunctive; as,—

quin abis, go away! (lit. why don't you go away?);

quin vocem continetis, keep still! (lit. why don't you stop your voices?);

quin equos conscendimus, let us mount our horses (lit. why do we not mount our horses?)

MOODS IN DEPENDENT CLAUSES.

Clauses of Purpose.

282. 1. Clauses of Purpose are introduced most commonly by ut (uti), quo (that, in order that), ne (in order that not, lest), and stand in the Subjunctive, as,—

edimus ut vivamus, we eat that we may live;

adjuta me quo hoc fiat facilius, help me, in order that this may be done more easily;

portas clausit, ne quam oppidani injuriam acciperent, he closed the gates, lest the townspeople should receive any injury.

a. Quo, as a rule, is employed only when the purpose clause contains a comparative or a comparative idea. Occasional exceptions occur; as,—

haec faciunt quo Chremetem absterreant, they are doing this in order to frighten Chremes.

b. Ut ne is sometimes found instead of ne. Thus:—

ut ne quid neglegenter agamus, in order that we may not do anything carelessly.

c. Ut non (not ne) is used where the negation belongs to some single word, instead of to the purpose clause as a whole. Thus:—

ut non ejectus ad alienos, sed invitatus ad tuos videare, that you may seem not driven out among strangers, but invited to your own friends.

d. To say 'and that not' or 'or that not,' the Latin regularly uses neve (neu); as,—

ut earum rerum vis minueretur, neu ponti nocerent, that the violence of these things might be lessened, and that they might not harm the bridge;

profugit, ne caperetur neve interficeretur, he fled, that he might not be captured or killed.

e. But neque (for neve) is sometimes used in a second Purpose Clause when ut stands in the first, and, after the Augustan era, even when the first clause is introduced by ne.

f. Purpose Clauses sometimes stand in apposition with a preceding noun or pronoun: as,—

hac causa, ut pacem haberent, on this account, that they might have peace.

2. A Relative Pronoun (qui) or Adverb (ubi, unde, quo) is frequently used to introduce a Purpose Clause; as,—

Helvetii legatos mittunt, qui dicerent, the Helvetii sent envoys to say (lit. who should say);

haec habui, de senectute quae dicerem, I had these things to say about old age;

non habebant quo se reciperent, they had no place to which to flee (lit. whither they might flee).

a. Qui in such clauses is equivalent to ut is, ut ego, etc.; ubi to ut ibi; unde to ut inde; quo to ut eo.

3. Relative Clauses of purpose follow dignus, indignus, and idoneus; as,—

idoneus fuit nemo quem imitarere, there was no one suitable for you to imitate (cf. nemo fuit quem imitarere, there was no one for you to imitate);

dignus est qui aliquando imperet, he is worthy to rule sometime.

4. Purpose Clauses often depend upon something to be supplied from the context instead of upon the principal verb of their own sentences; as,—

ut haec omnia omittam, abiimus, to pass over all this, (I will say that) we departed.

Clauses of Characteristic.

283. 1. A relative clause used to express a quality or characteristic of a general or indefinite antecedent is called a Clause of Characteristic, and usually stands in the Subjunctive; as,—

multa sunt, quae mentem acuant, there are many things which sharpen the wits.

Clauses of Characteristic are opposed to those relative clauses which are used merely to state some fact about a definite antecedent, and which therefore take the Indicative; as,—

Cato, senex jucundus, qui Sapiens appellatus est, Cato, a delightful old man, who was called 'The Wise.'

The Clause of Characteristic implies 'a person of the sort that does something'; the Indicative relative clause implies 'a particular person who does something.'

2. Clauses of Characteristic are used especially after such expressions as, est qui; sunt qui; nemo est qui; nullus est qui; unus est qui; solus est qui; quis est qui; is qui; etc. Thus:—

sunt qui dicant, there are (some) who say;

nemo est qui nesciat, there is nobody who is ignorant;

sapientia est una quae maestitiam pellat, philosophy is the only thing that drives away sorrow;

quae civitas est quae non everti possit, what state is there that cannot be overthrown?

non is sum qui improbos laudem, I am not the sort of man that praises the wicked.

a. Sometimes (very rarely in Cicero and Caesar) the clause of characteristic is used after comparatives; as,—

non longius hostes aberant quam quo telum adigi posset, the enemy were not too far off for a dart to reach them (lit. further off than [a point] to which a dart could be cast).

3. The Clause of Characteristic often conveys an accessory notion of cause (since) or opposition (although). Thus:—

a) Cause. The relative is then frequently accompanied by ut, quippe, utpote; as,—

o fortunate adulescens, qui tuae virtutis Homerum praeconem inveneris, O fortunate man, since you have found a Homer as the herald of your valor;

ut qui optimo jure eam provinciam obtinuerit, since he held that province by excellent right.

b) Opposition:—

egomet qui sero Graecas litteras attigissem, tamen complures dies Athenis commoratus sum, I, although I had taken up Greek literature late in life, nevertheless tarried several days at Athens.

4. Clauses of Characteristic may also be introduced by quin = qui (quae, quod) non; as,—

nemo est quin saepe audierit, there is no one who has not often heard;

nemo fuit militum quin vulneraretur, there was no one of the soldiers who was not wounded.

5. Related to Clauses of Characteristic are also phrases of the type:

quod sciam, so far as I know; quem (quam, quod), audierim, so far as I have heard.

Clauses of Result.

284. 1. Clauses of Result are usually introduced by ut (that, so that), negative ut non (so that not), and take the Subjunctive. The main clause often contains tantus, talis, tot, is (= talis), tam, ita, sic, adeo, or some similar word. Thus:—

quis tam demens est ut sua voluntate maereat, who is so senseless as to mourn of his own volition?

Siciliam ita vastavit ut restitui in antiquum statum non possit, he so ravaged Sicily that it cannot be restored to its former condition;

mons altissimus impendebat, ut facile perpauci prohibere possent, a very high mountain overhung, so that a very few could easily stop them;

non is es ut te pudor umquam a turpitudine avocarit, you are not so constituted that shame ever called you back from baseness.

2. A Result Clause is often introduced by a Relative Pronoun or Adverb, qui (= ut is), quo (= ut eo), etc.; as,—

nemo est tam senex qui se annum non putet posse vivere, nobody is so old as not to think he can live a year;

habetis eum consulem qui parere vestris decretis non dubitet, you have a consul such as does not hesitate to obey your decrees.

a. These Relative Clauses of Result are closely related to the Clause of Characteristic, and sometimes it is difficult to distinguish the two constructions. It is best to class the relative clause as one of Characteristic, unless the result idea is clear and unmistakable.

3. Result clauses may also be introduced by quin = ut non; as,—

nihil tam difficile est quin quaerendo investigari possit, nothing is so difficult that it cannot be discovered by searching;

nemo est tam fortis quin rei novitate perturbetur, no one is so steadfast as not to be thrown into confusion by a strange occurrence.

4. Note the use of quam ut (sometimes quam alone) to denote Result after comparatives; as,—

urbs erat munitior quam ut primo impetu capi posset, the city was too strongly fortified to be taken at the first attack (lit. more strongly fortified than [so] that it could be taken, etc.).

Causal Clauses.

285. Causal clauses are introduced chiefly by the following particles:—

1. Quod, quia, quoniam. 2. Cum. 3. Quando.

286. The use of moods is as follows:—

1. Quod, quia, quoniam take the Indicative when the reason is that of the writer or speaker; they take the Subjunctive when the reason is viewed as that of another. Thus:—

Parthos timeo quod diffido copiis nostris, I fear the Parthians, because I distrust our troops.

Themistocles, quia non tutus erat, Corcyram demigravit, Themistocles, since he was not safe, moved to Corcyra.

neque me vixisse paenitet, quoniam bene vixi, I do not regret having lived, since I have lived well.

Socrates accusatus est quod corrumperet juventutem, Socrates was arraigned on the ground that he was corrupting the young. (Here the reason is not that of the writer but of the accuser. Hence the Subjunctive.)

Haedui Caesari gratias egerunt quod se periculo liberavisset, the Haedui thanked Caesar because he had delivered them from danger. (The reason of the Haedui.)

quoniam Miltiades dicere non posset, verba pro eo fecit Tisagoras, since Miltiades could not speak, Tisagoras spoke for him. (The reason of Tisagoras.)

noctu ambulabat Themistocles, quod somnum capere non posset, Themistocles used to walk at night because (as he said) he couldn't sleep.

a. Verbs of thinking and saying often stand in the Subjunctive in causal clauses as though the act of thinking or saying, and not the contents of the thought or language, constituted the reason. Thus:—

Bellovaci suum numerum non compleverunt quod se suo nomine cum Romanis bellum gesturos dicerent, the Bellovaci did not furnish their complement, because they said they were going to wage war with the Romans on their own account.

b. Non quod, non quo (by attraction for non eo quod), non quia, not that, not because; and non quod non, non quo non, non quin, not that ... not; not because ... not; not but that, are usually employed merely to introduce a hypothetical reason, and hence take the Subjunctive; as,—

id feci, non quod vos hanc defensionem desiderare arbitrarer, sed ut omnes intellegerent, this I did, not because I thought you needed this defense, but that all might perceive;

Crasso commendationem non sum pollicitus, non quin eam valituram apud te arbitrarer, sed egere mihi commendatione non videbatur, I did not promise a recommendation to Crassus, not that I did not think it would have weight with you, but because he did not seem to me to need recommendation.

c. But clauses introduced by non quod, non quia take the Indicative if they state a fact, even though that fact is denied to be the reason for something; as,—

hoc ita sentio, non quia sum ipse augur, sed quia sic existimare nos est necesse, this I think, not because I am myself an augur (which I really am), but because it is necessary for us to think so.

2. Cum causal regularly takes the Subjunctive; as,—

quae cum ita sint, since this is so;

cum sis mortalis, quae mortalia sunt, cura, since you are mortal, care for what is mortal.

a. Note the phrase cum praesertim (praesertim cum), especially since; as,—

Haeduos accusat, praesertim cum eorum precibus adductus bellum susceperit, he blamed the Haedui, especially since he had undertaken the war at their entreaties.

3. Quando (less frequent than the other causal particles) governs the Indicative; as,—

id omitto, quando vobis ita placet, I pass over that, since you so wish.

Temporal Clauses introduced by Postquam, Ut, Ubi, Simul ac, etc.

287. 1. Postquam (posteaquam), after; ut, ubi, when; cum primum, simul, simul ac (simul atque), as soon as, when used to refer to a single past act regularly take the Perfect Indicative; as,—

Epaminondas postquam audivit vicisse Boeotios, 'Satis' inquit 'vixi,' Epaminondas, after he heard that the Boeotians had conquered, said, 'I have lived enough;'

id ut audivit, Corcyram demigravit, when he heard this, he moved to Corcyra;

Caesar cum primum potuit, ad exercitum contendit, Caesar, as soon as he could, hurried to the army;

ubi de Caesaris adventu certiores facti sunt, legatos ad eum mittunt, when they were informed of Caesar's arrival, they sent envoys to him.

a. The Historical Present may take the place of the Perfect in this construction.

2. To denote the repeated occurrence of an act, ut, ubi, simul atque, as often as, when following an historical tense, take the Pluperfect Indicative (compare Sec. 288, 3; 302, 3); as,—

ut quisque Verris animum offenderat, in lautumias statim coniciebatur, whenever anybody had offended Verres's feelings, he was forthwith put in the stone-quarry;

hostes, ubi aliquos egredientes conspexerant, adoriebantur, whenever the enemy had seen any men disembarking, they attacked them.

a. In Livy and succeeding historians the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive are used to denote this repeated occurrence of an act ('Indefinite Frequency'); as,—

id ubi dixisset hastam mittebat, whenever he had said that, he hurled a spear.

3. Occasionally the above conjunctions are followed by the Pluperfect Indicative of a single occurrence. This is regularly the case with postquam in expressions denoting a definite interval of time (days, months, years, etc.), such as post tertium annum quam, triennio postquam. Thus:—

quinque post diebus quam Luca discesserat, ad Sardiniam venit five days after he had departed from Luca he came to Sardinia;

postquam occupatae Syracusae erant, profectus est Carthaginem, after Syracuse had been seized, he set out for Carthage.

4. The Imperfect Indicative also sometimes occurs, to denote a continued state; as,—

postquam Romam adventabant, senatus consultus est, after they were on the march toward Rome, the Senate was consulted;

postquam structi utrimque stabant, after they had been drawn up on both sides and were in position.

5. Rarely postquam, posteaquam, following the analogy of cum, take the Subjunctive, but only in the historical tenses; as,—

posteaquam sumptuosa fieri funera coepissent, lege sublata sunt, after funerals had begun to be elaborate, they were done away with by law.

Temporal Clauses introduced by Cum.

A. Cum REFERRING TO THE PAST.

288. 1. Cum, when referring to the past, takes,—

A. The Indicative (Imperfect, Historical Perfect, or Pluperfect) to denote the point of time at which something occurs.

B. The Subjunctive (Imperfect or Pluperfect) to denote the situation or circumstances under which something occurs.

Examples:—

INDICATIVE.

an tum eras consul, cum in Palatio mea domus ardebat, or were you consul at the time when my house burned up on the Palatine?

credo tum cum Sicilia florebat opibus et copiis magna artificia fuisse in ea insula, I believe that at the time when Sicily was powerful in riches and resources there were great crafts in that island;

eo tempore paruit cum parere necesse erat, he obeyed at the time when it was necessary to obey;

illo die, cum est lata lex de me, on that day when the law concerning me was passed.

SUBJUNCTIVE.

Lysander cum vellet Lycurgi leges commutare, prohibitus est, when Lysander desired to change the laws of Lycurgus, he was prevented;

Pythagoras cum in geometria quiddam novi invenisset, Musis bovem immolasse dicitur, when Pythagoras had discovered something new in geometry, he is said to have sacrificed an ox to the Muses.

a. Note that the Indicative is much less frequent in such clauses than the Subjunctive, and is regularly confined to those cases where the main clause has tum, eo die, eo anno, eo tempore or some similar correlative of the cum. Sometimes it depends entirely upon the point of view of the writer whether he shall employ the Indicative or Subjunctive.

2. Cum Inversum. When the logical order of the clauses is inverted, we find cum with the Perfect Indicative or Historical Present, in the sense of when, when suddenly. The main clause in such cases often has jam, vix, aegre, nondum; as,—

jam Galli ex oppido fugere apparabant, cum matres familiae repente procurrerunt, the Gauls were already preparing to flee, when suddenly the matrons rushed forth (logically, the matrons rushed forth as the Gauls were preparing to flee);

Treviri Labienum adoriri parabant, cum duas legiones venisse cognoscunt, the Treviri were preparing to attack, when (suddenly) they learned that two legions had arrived.

3. To denote a recurring action in the past, cum is followed by the Indicative, particularly of the Pluperfect (compare Sec. 287, 2; 302, 3); as,—

cum ad aliquod oppidum venerat, eadem lectica ad cubiculum deferebatur, whenever he had arrived at some town, he was (always) carried in the same litter to his room;

cum equitatus noster se in agros ejecerat, essedarios ex silvis emittebat, whenever our cavalry had advanced into the fields, he would send his charioteers out from the woods.

a. Sometimes the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive is thus used; as,—

saepe cum aliquem videret minus bene vestitum, suum amiculum dedit, often, wherever he saw some one more poorly clothed, he gave him his own mantle;

cum procucurrissent, Numidae effugiebant, as often as they had advanced, the Numidians ran away.

This construction is frequent in Livy and subsequent historians.

B. Cum REFERRING TO THE PRESENT OR FUTURE.

289. When cum refers to the Present or Future it regularly takes the Indicative; as,—

tum tua res agitur, paries cum proximus ardet, your own interests are at stake when your neighbor's house is burning;

cum videbis, tum scies, when you see, then you will know.

a. The Indicative of the Present or Future may denote also a recurring action; as,—

stabilitas amicitiae confirmari potest, cum homines cupidinibus imperabunt, firm friendship can be established whenever men shall control their desires.

C. OTHER USES OF Cum.

290. 1. Cum Explicative. Cum, with the Indicative, is sometimes used to indicate the identity of one act with another; as,—

cum tacent clamant, their silence is a shout (lit. when they are silent, they shout).

2. Cum ... tum. When cum ... tum mean both ... and, the cum-clause is in the Indicative; but when cum has the force of while, though, it may take the Subjunctive; as,—

cum te semper dilexerim, tum tuis factis incensus sum, while I have always loved you, at the same time I am stirred by your conduct.

Clauses introduced by Antequam and Priusquam.

A. WITH THE INDICATIVE.

291. Antequam and priusquam (often written ante ... quam, prius ... quam) take the Indicative to denote an actual fact.

1. Sometimes the Present or Future Perfect; as,—

prius respondes quam rogo, you answer before I ask;

nihil contra disputabo priusquam dixerit, I will say nothing in opposition, before he speaks.

2. Sometimes the Perfect, especially after negative clauses; as,—

non prius jugulandi finis fuit, quam Sulla omnes suos divitiis explevit, there was no end of murder until Sulla satisfied all his henchmen with wealth.

B. WITH THE SUBJUNCTIVE.

292. Antequam and priusquam take the Subjunctive to denote an act as anticipated.

1. Thus the Subjunctive may denote—

a) An act in preparation for which the main act takes place; as,—

priusquam dimicarent, foedus ictum est, i.e. in anticipation of the fight, a treaty was struck.

By an extension of this usage, the Subjunctive is sometimes used of general truths, where the anticipatory notion has faded out; as,—

tempestas minatur antequam surgat, the tempest threatens before it rises.

b) An act anticipated and forestalled; as,—

priusquam telum adici posset, omnis acies terga vertit, before a spear could be hurled, the whole army fled.

c) An act anticipated and deprecated; as,—

animum omittunt priusquam loco demigrent, they die rather than quit their post.

2. After historical tenses the Imperfect Subjunctive is used, especially by some writers, where the notion of anticipation has practically vanished; as,—

sol antequam se abderet fugientem vidit Antonium, the sun before it set saw Antony fleeing.

Clauses introduced by Dum, Donec, Quoad.

293. 1. Dum, while, regularly takes the Indicative of the Historical Present; as,—

Alexander, dum inter primores pugnat, sagitta ictus est, Alexander, while he was fighting in the van, was struck by an arrow;

dum haec geruntur, in fines Venellorum pervenit, while these things were being done, he arrived in the territory of the Venelli.

II. Dum, donec, and quoad, as long as, take the Indicative; as,—

dum anima est, spes est, as long as there is life, there is hope;

Lacedaemoniorum gens fortis fuit, dum Lycurgi leges vigebant, the race of the Lacedaemonians was powerful, as long as the laws of Lycurgus were in force;

Cato, quoad vixit, virtutum laude crevit, Cato, at long as he lived, increased in the fame of his virtues.

III. Dum, donec, and quoad, until, take:—

1. The Indicative, to denote an actual event; as,—

donec rediit, fuit silentium, there was silence till he came;

ferrum in corpore retinuit, quoad renuntiatum est Boeotios vicisse, he kept the iron in his body until word was brought that the Boeotians had conquered.

a. In Livy and subsequent historians dum and donec in this sense often take the Subjunctive instead of the Indicative; as,—

trepidationis aliquantum edebant donec timor quietem fecisset, they showed some trepidation, until fear produced quiet.

2. The Subjunctive, to denote anticipation or expectancy; as,—

exspectavit Caesar dum naves convenirent, Caesar waited for the ships to assemble;

dum litterae veniant, morabor, I shall wait for the letter to come.

Substantive Clauses.

294. A Substantive Clause is one which as a whole serves as the Subject or Object of a verb, or stands in some other case relation.

A. Substantive Clauses developed from the Volitive.

295. Substantive Clauses Developed from the Volitive are used with the following classes of verbs:—

1. With verbs signifying to admonish, request, command, urge, persuade, induce,[51] etc. (conjunctions ut, ne, or ut ne); as,—

postulo ut fiat, I demand that it be done (dependent form of the Jussive fiat, let it be done!);

orat, ne abeas, he begs that you will not go away;

milites cohortatus est ut hostium impetum sustinerent, he exhorted his soldiers to withstand the attack of the enemy;

Helvetiis persuasit ut exirent, he persuaded the Helvetii to march forth.

a. Jubeo, command, order, regularly takes the Infinitive.

2. With verbs signifying to grant, concede, permit, allow,[52] etc. (conjunction ut); as,—

huic concedo ut ea praetereat, I allow him to pass that by (dependent form of the Jussive ea praetereat, let him pass that by!);

consuli permissum est ut duas legiones scriberet, the consul was permitted to enroll two legions.

3. With verbs of hindering, preventing,[53] etc. (conjunctions ne, quominus, quin); as,—

ne lustrum perficeret, mors prohibuit, death prevented him from finishing the lustrum (dependent form after past tense of ne lustrum perficiat, let him not finish, etc.);

prohibuit quominus in unum coirent, he prevented them from coming together;

nec quin erumperet, prohiberi poterat, nor could he be prevented from rushing forth.

a. Quin is used only when the verb of hindering is accompanied by a negative, or stands in a question implying a negative; it is not necessarily used even then.

4. With verbs of deciding, resolving,[54] etc. (conjunctions ut, ne, or ut ne); as,—

constitueram ut pridie Idus Aquini manerem, I had decided to remain at Aquinum on the 12th;

decrevit senatus ut Opimius videret, the Senate decreed that Opimius should see to it;

convenit ut unis castris miscerentur, it was agreed that they should be united in one camp.

5. With verbs of striving,[55] etc. (conjunctions ut, ne, or ut ne); as,—

fac ut eum exores, see to it that you prevail upon him!

cura ut vir sis, see to it that you are a man!

laborabat ut reliquas civitates adjungeret, he was striving to join the remaining states to him.

a. Conor, try, always takes the Infinitive.

NOTE.—Verbs of all the above classes also admit the Infinitive, especially in poetry.

6. With a few other expressions, such as necesse est, reliquus est, sequitur, licet, oportet; as,—

sequitur ut doceam, it remains for me to show;

licet redeas, you may return;

oportet loquamur, we must speak.

On the absence of ut with licet and oportet, see paragraph 8.

7. Here also belong phrases of the type: nulla causa est cur, quin; non est cur, etc.; nihil est cur, etc.; as,—

nulla causa est cur timeam, there is no reason why I should fear (originally Deliberative: why should I fear? There's no reason);

nihil est quin dicam, there is no reason why I should not say.

8. Many of the above classes of verbs at times take the simple Subjunctive without ut. In such cases we must not recognize any omission of ut, but simply an earlier form of expression which existed before the ut-clause arose. This is regularly the case with necesse est, licet, and oportet; see 6. Other examples are:—

eos moneo desinant, I warn them to stop;

huic imperat adeat civitates, he orders him to visit the states.

B. Substantive Clauses developed from the Optative.

296. Substantive Clauses Developed from the Optative occur:—

1. With verbs of wishing, desiring, especially cupio, opto, volo, malo (conjunctions ut, ne, ut ne); as,—

opto ut in hoc judicio nemo improbus reperiatur, I hope that in this court no bad man may be found (here ut reperiatur represents a simple optative of direct statement, viz. reperiatur, may no bad man be found!);

cupio ne veniat, I desire that he may not come.

a. The simple Subjunctive (without ut) sometimes occurs with verbs of this class. (See Sec. 295, 8.) Examples are: velim scribas, I wish you would write; vellem scripsisset, I wish he had written.

2. With expressions of fearing (timeo, metuo, vereor, etc.). Here ne means that, lest, and ut means that not; as,—

timeo ne veniat, I fear that he will come (originally: may he not come! I'm afraid [he will]);

timeo ut veniat, I fear that he will not come (originally: may he come! I'm afraid [he won't]).

a. Ne non sometimes occurs instead of ut, especially where the verb of fearing has a negative, or where the writer desires to emphasize some particular word in the dependent clause; as,—

non vereor ne hoc non fiat, I am not afraid that this will not happen;

vereor ne exercitum firmum habere non possit, I fear that he is unable (non possit) to have a strong army.

C. Substantive Clauses of Result.

297. Substantive Clauses of Result (introduced by ut, ut non) are a development of pure Result clauses, and occur with the following classes of words:—

1. As object clauses after verbs of doing, accomplishing (especially facio, efficio, conficio). Thus:—

gravitas morbi facit ut medicina egeamus, the severity of disease makes us need medicine.

2. As the subject of several impersonal verbs, particularly fit, efficitur, accidit, evenit, contingit, accedit, fieri potest, fore, sequitur, relinquitur. Thus:—

ex quo efficitur, ut voluptas non sit summum bonum, from which it follows that pleasure is not the greatest good;

ita fit, ut nemo esse possit beatus, thus it happens that no one can be happy;

accedebat ut naves deessent, another thing was the lack of ships (lit. it was added that ships were lacking).

3. As predicate or appositive after expressions like jus est, mos est, consuetudo est; also after neuter pronouns, hoc, illud, etc. Thus:—

est mos hominum ut nolint eundem pluribus rebus excellere, it is the way of men not to wish the same person to excel in many things.

D. Substantive Clauses introduced by Quin.

298. Substantive Clauses introduced by quin (used sometimes as subject, sometimes as object) occur after negative and interrogative expressions of doubt, omission, and the like, particularly after non dubito, I do not doubt; quis dubitat, who doubts?; non (haud) dubium est, there is no doubt. The mood is the Subjunctive. Examples:—

quis dubitat quin in virtute divitiae sint, who doubts that in virtue there are riches?

non dubium erat quin venturus esset, there was no doubt that he was about to come.

a. In Nepos, Livy, and post-Augustan writers an Infinitive sometimes takes the place of the quin-clause after non dubito; as,—

non dubitamus inventos esse, we do not doubt that men were found

b. Non dubito, I do not hesitate, is regularly followed by the Infinitive, though sometimes by a quin-clause.

E. Substantive Clauses Introduced by Quod.

299. 1. Quod, the fact that, that, introduces Substantive Clauses in the Indicative. This construction occurs especially—

a) In apposition with a preceding demonstrative, as hoc, id, illud, illa, ex eo, inde, etc. Thus:—

illud est admiratione dignum, quod captivos retinendos censuit, this is especially worthy of admiration, that he thought the prisoners ought to be kept;

hoc uno praestamus vel maxime feris, quod colloquimur inter nos, in this one respect we are especially superior to the beasts, that we talk with each other.

b) After bene fit, bene accidit, male fit, bene facere, miror, etc.; as,—

bene mihi evenit, quod mittor ad mortem, it is well for me that I am sent to death;

bene fecisti quod mansisti, you did well in remaining.

2. Quod at the beginning of the sentence sometimes has the force of as regards the fact that. Thus:—

quod multitudinem Germanorum in Galliam traduco, id mei muniendi causa facio, as regards the fact that I am transporting a multitude of Germans into Gaul, I am doing it for the sake of strengthening myself;

quod me Agamemnona aemulari putas, falleris, as regards your thinking that I emulate Agamemnon, you are mistaken.

F. Indirect Questions.

300. 1. Indirect Questions are Substantive Clauses used after verbs of asking, inquiring, telling, and the like. They take their verb in the Subjunctive[56]. Like Direct Questions (see Sec. 162) they may be introduced—

a) By Interrogative Pronouns or Adverbs; as,—

dic mihi ubi fueris, quid feceris, tell me where you were, what you did;

oculis judicari non potest in utram partem fluat Arar, it cannot be determined by the eye in which direction the Arar flows;

bis bina quot essent, nesciebat, he did not know how many two times two were.

NOTE.—Care should be taken to distinguish Indirect Questions from Relative Clauses. The difference between the two appears clearly in the following:—

effugere nemo id potest quod futurum est, no one can escape what is destined to come to pass; but saepe autem ne utile quidem est scire quid futurum sit, but often it is not even useful to know what is coming to pass.

b) By num or -ne, without distinction of meaning; as,—

Epaminondas quaesivit num salvus esset clipeus, or salvusne esset clipeus, Epaminondas asked whether his shield was safe;

disputatur num interire virtus in homine possit, the question is raised whether virtue can die in a man;

ex Socrate quaesitum est nonne Archelaum beatum putaret, the question was asked of Socrates whether he did not think Archelaus happy.

NOTE.—Nonne in Indirect Questions occurs only after quaero, as in the last example above.

2. Often the Indirect Question represents a Deliberative Subjunctive of the direct discourse; as,—

nescio quid faciam, I do not know what to do. (Direct: quid faciam, what shall I do!)

3. After verbs of expectation and endeavor (exspecto, conor, experior, tempto) we sometimes find an Indirect Question introduced by si; as,—

conantur si perrumpere possint, they try whether they can break through.

a. Sometimes the governing verb is omitted; as,—

pergit ad proximam speluncam si forte eo vestigia ferrent, he proceeded to the nearest cave (to see) if the tracks led thither.

4. Indirect Double Questions are introduced in the main by the same particles as direct double questions (Sec. 162, 4); viz.;—

utrum ... an; -ne ... an; —— ... an; —— ... ne.

Examples:—

quaero utrum verum an falsum sit, } quaero verumne an falsum sit, } I ask whether it quaero verum an falsum sit, } is true or false? quaero verum falsumne sit, }

a. 'Or not' in the second member of the double question is ordinarily expressed by necne, less frequently by an non; as,—

di utrum sint necne, quaeritur, it is asked whether there are gods or not.

5. Haud scio an, nescio an, by omission of the first member of the double question, occur with the Subjunctive in the sense: I am inclined to think, probably, perhaps; as,—

haud scio an ita sit, I am inclined to think this is so.

6. In early Latin and in poetry the Indicative is sometimes used in indirect Questions.

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.

301. Conditional Sentences are compound sentences (Sec. 164) consisting of two parts, the Protasis (or condition), usually introduced by si, nisi, or sin, and the Apodosis (or conclusion). There are the following types of Conditional Sentences:—

First Type.—Nothing Implied as to the Reality of the Supposed Case.

302. 1. Here we regularly have the Indicative in both Protasis and Apodosis. Any tense may be used; as,—

si hoc credis, erras, if you believe this, you are mistaken;

naturam si sequemur, numquam aberrabimus, if we follow Nature, we shall never go astray;

si hoc dixisti, errasti, if you said this, you were in error.

2. Sometimes the Protasis takes the Indefinite Second Person Singular (Sec. 356, 3) of the Present or Perfect Subjunctive, with the force of the Indicative; as,—

memoria minuitur, nisi eam exerceas, memory is impaired unless you exercise it.

3. Here belong also those conditional sentences in which the Protasis denotes a repeated action (compare Sec. 287, 2; 288, 3); as,—

si quis equitum deciderat, pedites circumsistebant, if any one of the horsemen fell, the foot-soldiers gathered about him.

a. Instead of the Indicative, Livy and subsequent writers employ the Subjunctive of the Historical tenses in the Protasis to denote repeated action; as,—

si dicendo quis diem eximeret, if (ever) anybody consumed a day in pleading; si quando adsideret, if ever he sat by.

4. Where the sense demands it, the Apodosis in conditional sentences of the First Type may be an Imperative or one of the Independent Subjunctives (Hortatory, Deliberative, etc.); as,—

si hoc creditis, tacete, if you believe this, be silent;

si hoc credimus, taceamus, if we believe this, let us keep silent.

Second Type.—'Should'-'Would' Conditions.

303. Here we regularly have the Subjunctive (of the Present or Perfect tense) in both Protasis and Apodosis; as,—

si hoc dicas, erres, or si hoc dixeris, erraveris, if you should say this, you would be mistaken;

si velim Hannibalis proelia omnia describere, dies me deficiat, if I should wish to describe all the battles of Hannibal, time would fail me;

mentiar, si negem, I should lie, if I should deny it;

haec si tecum patria loquatur, nonne impetrare debeat, if your country should plead thus with you, would she not deserve to obtain her request?

a. The Subjunctive in the Apodosis of conditional sentences of this type is of the Potential variety.

b. Sometimes we find the Indicative in the Apodosis of sentences of the Second Type, where the writer wishes to assert the accomplishment of a result more positively; as,—

aliter si faciat, nullam habet auctoritatem, if he should do otherwise, he has no authority.

Third Type.—Supposed Case Represented as Contrary to Fact.

304. 1. Here we regularly have the Subjunctive in both Protasis and Apodosis, the Imperfect referring to present time, and the Pluperfect referring to past; as,—

si amici mei adessent, opis non indigerem, if my friends were here, I should not lack assistance;

si hoc dixisses, errasses, if you had said this, you would have erred;

sapientia non expeteretur, si nihil efficeret, philosophy would not be desired, if it accomplished nothing;

consilium, ratio, sententia nisi essent in senibus, non summum consilium majores nostri appellassent senatum, unless deliberation, reason, and wisdom existed in old men, our ancestors would not have called their highest deliberative body a senate.

2. Sometimes the Imperfect Subjunctive is found referring to the past, especially to denote a continued act, or a state of things still existing; as,—

Laelius, Furius, Cato si nihil litteris adjuvarentur, numquam se ad earum studium contulissent, Laelius, Furius, and Cato would never have devoted themselves to the study of letters, unless they had been (constantly) helped by them;

num igitur si ad centesimum annum vixisset, senectutis eum suae paeniteret, if he had lived to his hundredth year, would he have regretted (and now be regretting) his old age?

3. The Apodosis in conditional sentences of this type sometimes stands in the Indicative (Imperfect, Perfect, or Pluperfect), viz.—

a) Frequently in expressions of ability, obligation, or necessity; as,—

nisi felicitas in socordiam vertisset, exuere jugum potuerunt, unless their prosperity had turned to folly, they could have thrown off the yoke;

NOTE.—In sentences of this type, however, it is not the possibility that is represented as-contrary-to-fact, but something to be supplied in thought from the context. Thus in the foregoing sentence the logical apodosis is et exuissent understood (and they would have shaken it off). When the possibility itself is conditioned, the Subjunctive is used.

eum patris loco colere debebas, si ulla in te pietas esset, you ought to revere him as a father, if you had any sense of devotion.

b) With both the Periphrastic Conjugations; as,—

si Sestius occisus esset, fuistisne ad arma ituri, if Sestius had been slain, would you have proceeded to arms?

si unum diem morati essetis, moriendum omnibus fuit, if you had delayed one day, you would all have had to die.

Protasis expressed without Si.

305. 1. The Protasis is not always expressed by a clause with si, but may be implied in a word, a phrase, or merely by the context; as,—

alioqui haec non scriberentur, otherwise (i.e. if matters were otherwise) these things would not be written;

non potestis, voluptate omnia dirigentes, retinere virtutem, you cannot retain virtue, if you direct everything with reference to pleasure.

2. Sometimes an Imperative, or a Jussive Subjunctive, serves as Protasis. Thus:—

cras petito, dabitur, if you ask to-morrow, it shall be given you (lit. ask to-morrow, etc.);

haec reputent, videbunt, if they consider this, they will see (lit. let them consider, etc.);

roges Zenonem, respondeat, if you should ask Zeno, he would answer.

Use of Nisi, Si Non, Sin.

306. 1. Nisi, unless, negatives the entire protasis; si non negatives a single word; as,—

ferreus essem, nisi te amarem, I should be hard-hearted unless I loved you; but—

ferreus essem, si te non amarem, I should be hard-hearted if I did NOT love you.

In the first example, it is the notion of loving you that is negatived, in the second, the notion of loving.

2. Si non (si minus) is regularly employed:—

a) When an apodosis with at, tamen, certe follows; as,—

dolorem si non potuero frangere, tamen occultabo, if I cannot crush my sorrow, yet I will hide it.

b) When an affirmative protasis is repeated in negative form; as,—

si feceris, magnam habebo gratiam; si non feceris, ignoscam, if you do it, I shall be deeply grateful; if you do not do it, I shall pardon you.

a. But if the verb is omitted in the repetition, only si minus or sin minus is admissible; as,—

hoc si assecutus sum, gaudeo; si minus, me consolor, if I have attained this, I am glad; if not, I console myself.

3. Sin. Where one protasis is followed by another opposed in meaning, but affirmative in form, the second is introduced by sin; as,—

hunc mihi timorem eripe; si verus est, ne opprimar, sin falsus, ut timere desinam, relieve me of this fear; if it is well founded, that I may not be destroyed; but if it is groundless, that I may cease to fear.

4. Nisi has a fondness for combining with negatives (non, nemo, nihil); as,—

nihil cogitavit nisi caedem, he had no thought but murder.

a. Non and nisi are always separated in the best Latinity.

5. Nisi forte, nisi vero, nisi si, unless perchance, unless indeed (often with ironical force), take the Indicative; as,—

nisi vero, quia perfecta res non est, non videtur punienda, unless indeed, because an act is not consummated, it does not seem to merit punishment.

Conditional Clauses of Comparison.

307. 1. Conditional Clauses of Comparison are introduced by the particles, ac si, ut si, quasi, quam si, tamquam si, velut si, or simply by velut or tamquam. They stand in the Subjunctive mood and regularly involve an ellipsis (see Sec. 374, 1), as indicated in the following examples:—

tantus patres metus cepit, velat si jam ad portas hostis esset, as great fear seized the senators as (would have seized them) if the enemy were already at the gates;

sed quid ego his testibus utor quasi res dubia aut obscura sit, but why do I use these witnesses, as (I should do) if the matter were doubtful or obscure;

serviam tibi tam quasi emeris me argento, I will serve you as though you had bought me for money.

2. Note that in sentences of this kind the Latin observes the regular principles for the Sequence of Tenses. Thus after principal tenses the Latin uses the Present and Perfect (as in the second and third examples), where the English uses the Past and Past Perfect.

Concessive Clauses.

308. The term 'Concessive' is best restricted to those clauses developed from the Jussive Subjunctive which have the force of granted that, etc.; (see Sec. 278) as,—

sit fur, sit sacrilegus, at est bonus imperator, granted that he is a thief and a robber, yet he is a good commander;

haec sint falsa, granted that this is false;

ne sit summum malum dolor, malum certe est, granted that pain is not the greatest evil, yet it is certainly an evil.

Adversative Clauses with Quamvis, Quamquam, etc.

309. Clauses introduced by quamvis, quamquam, etsi, tametsi, cum, although, while often classed as 'Concessive,' are yet essentially different from genuine Concessive clauses. As a rule, they do not grant or concede anything, but rather state that something is true in spite of something else. They accordingly emphasize the adversative idea, and are properly Subordinate Adversative Clauses. The different particles used to introduce these clauses have different meanings and take different constructions, as follows:—

1. Quamvis, however much, although, does not introduce a statement of fact, but represents an act merely as conceived. It is followed by the Subjunctive, usually of the present tense; as,—

homines quamvis in turbidis rebus sint, tamen interdum animis relaxantur, in however stirring events men may engage, yet at times they relax their energies;

non est potestas opitulandi rei publicae quamvis ea prematur periculis, there is no opportunity to succor the state, though it be beset by dangers.

2. Quamquam, etsi, tametsi, although, introduce a statement of fact, and are followed by the Indicative (of any tense); as,—

quamquam omnis virtus nos allicit, tamen justitia id maxime efficit, although all virtue attracts us, yet justice does so especially;

Caesar, etsi nondum consilium hostium cognoverat, tamen id quod accidit suspicabatur, Caesar, though he did not yet know the plans of the enemy, yet was suspecting what actually occurred.

a. Etsi, although, must be distinguished from etsi, even if. The latter is a conditional particle and takes any of the constructions admissible for si. (See Sec. 302-304.)

3. Cum, although, is followed by the Subjunctive; as,—

Atticus honores non petiit, cum ei paterent, Atticus did not seek honors, though they were open to him.

4. Licet sometimes loses its verbal force (see Sec. 295, 6) and sinks to the level of a conjunction with the force of although. It takes the Subjunctive, Present or Perfect; as,—

licet omnes terrores impendeant, succurram, though all terrors hang over me, (yet) I will lend aid.

5. Quamquam, with the force and yet, is often used to introduce principal clauses; as,—

quamquam quid loquor, and yet why do I speak?

6. In post-Augustan writers quamquam is freely construed with the Subjunctive, while quamvis is often used to introduce statements of fact, and takes either the Indicative or the Subjunctive. Thus:—

quamquam moveretur his vocibus, although he was moved by these words;

quamvis multi opinarentur, though many thought;

quamvis infesto animo perveneras, though you had come with hostile intent.

Clauses with Dum, Modo, Dummodo, denoting a Wish or a Proviso.

310. These particles are followed by the Subjunctive (negative ne) and have two distinct uses:—

I. They are used to introduce clauses embodying a wish entertained by the subject of the leading verb; as,—

multi honesta neglegunt dummodo potentiam consequantur, many neglect honor in their desire to obtain power (if only they may attain);

omnia postposui, dum praeceptis patris parerem, I made everything else secondary, in my desire to obey the injunctions of my father;

nil obstat tibi, dum ne sit ditior alter, nothing hinders you in your desire that your neighbor may not be richer than you.

II. They are used to express a proviso ('provided that'); as,—

oderint, dum metuant, let them hate, provided they fear;

manent ingenia senibus, modo permaneat studium et industria, old men retain their faculties, provided only they retain their interest and vigor;

nubant, dum ne dos fiat comes, let them marry, provided no dowry goes with it.

Relative Clauses.

311. Relative Clauses are introduced by Relative Pronouns, Adjectives, or Adverbs.

312. 1. Relative clauses usually stand in the Indicative Mood, especially clauses introduced by those General Relatives which are doubled or have the suffix -oumque; as,—

quidquid id est, timeo Danaos et dona ferentes, whatever it is, I fear the Greeks even when they offer gifts;

quidquid oritur, qualecumque est, causam a natura habet, whatever comes into being, of whatever sort it is, has its primal cause in Nature.

2. Any simple Relative may introduce a conditional sentence of any of the three types mentioned in Sec. 302-304; as,—

qui hoc dicit, errat, he who says this is mistaken (First Type);

qui hoc dicat, erret, he would be mistaken who should say this (Second Type);

qui hoc dixisset, errasset, the man who had said this would have been mistaken.

INDIRECT DISCOURSE (ORATIO OBLIQUA).

313. When the language or thought of any person is reproduced without change, that is called Direct Discourse (Oratio Recta); as, Caesar said, 'The die is cast.' When, on the other hand, one's language or thought is made to depend upon a verb of saying, thinking, etc., that is called Indirect Discourse (Oratio Obliqua); as, Caesar said that the die was cast; Caesar thought that his troops were victorious.

a. For the verbs most frequently employed to introduce Indirect Discourse, see Sec. 331.

MOODS IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE.

Declarative Sentences.

314. 1. Declarative Sentences upon becoming Indirect change their main clause to the Infinitive with Subject Accusative, while all subordinate clauses take the Subjunctive; as,—

Regulus dixit quam diu jure jurando hostium teneretur non esse se senatorem, Regulus said that as long as he was held by his pledge to the enemy he was not a senator. (Direct: quam diu teneor non sum senator.)

2. The verb of saying, thinking, etc., is sometimes to be inferred from the context; as,—

tum Romulus legatos circa vicinas gentes misit qui societatem conubiumque peterent: urbes quoque, ut cetera, ex infimo nasci, then Romulus sent envoys around among the neighboring tribes, to ask for alliance and the right of intermarriage, (saying that) cities, like everything else, start from a modest beginning.

3. Subordinate clauses which contain an explanatory statement of the writer and so are not properly a part of the Indirect Discourse, or which emphasize the fact stated, take the Indicative; as,—

nuntiatum est Ariovistum ad occupandum Vesontionem, quod est oppidum maximum Sequanorum contendere, it was reported that Ariovistus was hastening to seize Vesontio, which is the largest town of the Sequani.

4. Sometimes a subordinate clause is such only in its external form, and in sense is principal. It then takes the Infinitive with Subject Accusative. This occurs especially in case of relative clauses, where qui is equivalent to et hic, nam hic, etc.; as,—

dixit urbem Atheniensium propugnaculum oppositum esse barbaris, apud quam jam bis classes regias fecisse naufragium, he said the city of the Athenians had been set against the barbarians like a bulwark, near which (= and near it) the fleets of the King had twice met disaster.

5. The Subject Accusative of the Infinitive is sometimes omitted when it refers to the same person as the subject of the leading verb, or can easily be supplied from the context; as,—

cum id nescire Mago diceret, when Mago said he did not know this (for se nescire).

Interrogative Sentences.

315. 1. Real questions of the Direct Discourse, upon becoming indirect, are regularly put in the Subjunctive; as,—

Ariovistus Caesari respondit: se prius in Galliam venisse quam populum Romanum. Quid sibi vellet? Cur in suas possessiones veniret, Ariovistus replied to Caesar that he had come into Gaul before the Roman people. What did he (Caesar) mean? Why did he come into his domain? (Direct: quid tibi vis? cur in meas possessiones venis?)

2. Rhetorical questions, on the other hand, being asked merely for effect, and being equivalent in force to emphatic statements, regularly stand in the Infinitive in Indirect Discourse. Thus :—

quid est levius (lit. what is more trivial, = nothing is more trivial) of the Direct Discourse becomes quid esse levius in the Indirect.

3. Deliberative Subjunctives of the Direct Discourse remain unchanged in mood in the Indirect: as,—

quid faceret, what was he to do? (Direct: quid faciat?)

Imperative Sentences.

316. All Imperatives or Jussive Subjunctives of the Direct Discourse appear as Subjunctives in the Indirect; as,—

milites certiores fecit paulisper intermitterent proelium, he told the soldiers to stop the battle for a little. (Direct: intermittite.)

a. The negative in such sentences is ne; as,—

ne suae virtuti tribueret, let him not attribute it to his own valor!

TENSES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE.

A. Tenses of the Infinitive.

317. These are used in accordance with the regular principles for the use of the Infinitive as given in Sec. 270.

a. The Perfect Infinitive may represent any past tense of the Indicative of Direct Discourse. Thus:—

scio te haec egisse may mean—

I know you were doing this.(Direct: haec agebas.)

I know you did this. (Direct: haec egisti.)

I know you had done this. (Direct: haec egeras.)

B. Tenses of the Subjunctive.

318. These follow the regular principle for the Sequence of Tenses, being Principal if the verb of saying is Principal; Historical if it is Historical. Yet for the sake of vividness, we often find the Present Subjunctive used after an historical tense (Repraesentatio); as,—

Caesar respondit, si obsides dentur, sese pacem esse facturum, Caesar replied that, if hostages be given, he would make peace.

a. For the sequence after the Perfect Infinitive, see Sec. 268, 2.

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE.

Conditional Sentences of the First Type.

319. A. THE APODOSIS. Any tense of the Indicative is changed to the corresponding tense of the Infinitive (Sec. 270; 317, a).

B. THE PROTASIS. The protasis takes those tenses of the Subjunctive which are required by the Sequence of Tenses.

Examples:—

DIRECT. INDIRECT. si hoc credis, erras, dico, si hoc credas, te errare; dixi, si hoc crederes, te errare. si hoc credes, errabis, dico, si hoc credas, te erraturum esse; dixi, si hoc crederes, te erraturum esse. si hoc credideris, errabis, dico, si hoc crederis, te erraturum esse; dixi, si hoc credidisses, te erraturum esse. si hoc credebas, erravisti, dico, si hoc crederes, te erravisse; dixi, si hoc crederes, te erravisse.

a. Note that a Future Perfect Indicative of the Direct Discourse regularly appears in the Indirect as a Perfect Subjunctive after a principal tense, and as a Pluperfect Subjunctive after an historical tense.

Conditional Sentences of the Second Type.

320. A. THE APODOSIS. The Present Subjunctive of the Direct Discourse regularly becomes the Future Infinitive of the Indirect.

B. THE PROTASIS. The Protasis takes those tenses of the Subjunctive demanded by the sequence of tenses.

Examples:—

si hoc credas, erres, dico, si hoc credas, te erraturum esse; dixi, si hoc crederes, te erraturum esse;

Conditional Sentences of the Third Type.

321. A. THE APODOSIS.

1. The Imperfect Subjunctive of the Direct Discourse becomes the Future Infinitive.

a. But this construction is rare, being represented in the classical Latinity by a single example (Caesar, V. 29. 2). Some scholars question the correctness of this passage.

2. The Pluperfect Subjunctive of the Direct Discourse becomes:—

a) In the Active Voice the Infinitive in -urus fuisse.

b) In the Passive Voice it takes the form futurum fuisse ut with the Imperfect Subjunctive.

B. THE PROTASIS. The protasis in Conditional Sentences of this type always remains unchanged.

Examples:—

si hoc crederes, errares, dico (dixi), si hoc crederes, te erraturum esse; si hoc credidisses, dico (dixi), si hoc credidisses, te erravisses, erraturum fuisse; si hoc dixisses, punitus dico (dixi), si hoc dixisses, futurum esses. fuisse ut punireris.

322. When an apodosis of a conditional sentence of the Third Type referring to the past is at the same time a Result clause or a quin-clause (after non dubito, etc.), it stands in the Perfect Subjunctive in the form -urus fuerim; as,—

ita territi sunt, ut arma tradituri fuerint,[57] nisi Caesar subito advenisset, they were so frightened that they would have given up their arms, had not Caesar suddenly arrived;

non dubito quin, si hoc dixisses, erraturus fueris,[57] I do not doubt that, if you had said this, you would have made a mistake.

a. This peculiarity is confined to the Active Voice. In the Passive, such sentences, when they become dependent, remain unchanged; as,—

non dubito quin, si hoc dixisses, vituperatus esses, I do not doubt that, if you had said this, you would have been blamed.

b. When an Indirect Question becomes an apodosis in a conditional sentence of the Third Type, -urus fuerim (rarely -urus fuissem) is used; as,—

quaero, num, si hoc dixisses, erraturus fueris (or fuisses).

c. Potui, when it becomes a dependent apodosis in sentences of this Type, usually changes to the Perfect Subjunctive; as,—

concursu totius civitatis defensi sunt, ut frigidissimos quoque oratores populi studia excitare potuerint, they were defended before a gathering of all the citizens, so that the interest of the people would have been enough to excite even the most apathetic orators.

IMPLIED INDIRECT DISCOURSE.

323. The Subjunctive is often used in subordinate clauses whose indirect character is merely implied by the context; as,—

demonstrabantur mihi praeterea, quae Socrates de immortalitate animorum disseruisset, there were explained to me besides, the arguments which Socrates had set forth concerning the immortality of the soul (i.e. the arguments which, it was said, Socrates had set forth);

Paetus omnes libros quos pater suus reliquisset mihi donavit, Paetus gave me all the books which (as he said) his father had left.

SUBJUNCTIVE BY ATTRACTION.

324. 1. Subordinate clauses dependent upon the Subjunctive are frequently attracted into the same mood especially when they do not express a fact, but constitute an essential part of one complex idea; as,—

nemo avarus adhuc inventus est, cui, quod haberet, esset satis, no miser has yet been found who was satisfed with what he had;

cum diversas causas afferrent, dum formam sui quisque et animi et ingenii redderent, as they brought forward different arguments, while each mirrored his own individual type of mind and natural bent;

quod ego fatear, pudeat? should I be ashamed of a thing which I admit?

2. Similarly a subordinate clause dependent upon an Infinitive is put in the Subjunctive when the two form one closely united whole; as,—

mos est Athenis quotannis in contione laudari eos qui sint in proeliis interfecti, it is the custom at Athens every year for those to be publicly eulogized who have been killed in battle. (Here the notion of 'praising those who fell in battle' forms an inseparable whole.)

NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FORMS OF THE VERB.

325. These are the Infinitive, Participle, Gerund, and Supine. All of these partake of the nature of the Verb, on the one hand, and of the Noun or Adjective, on the other. Thus:—

As Verbs,—

a) They may be limited by adverbs; b) They admit an object; c) They have the properties of voice and tense.

As Nouns or Adjectives,—

a) They are declined; b) They take Noun or Adjective constructions.

THE INFINITIVE.

Infinitive without Subject Accusative.

326. This is used chiefly as Subject or Object but also as Predicate or Appositive.

NOTE.—The Infinitive was originally a Dative, and traces of this are still to be seen in the poetical use of the Infinitive to express purpose; as, nec dulces occurrent oscula nati praeripere, and no sweet children will run to snatch kisses.

A. As Subject.

327. 1. The Infinitive without Subject Accusative is used as the Subject of esse and various impersonal verbs, particularly opus est, necesse est, oportet, juvat, delectat, placet, libet, licet, praestat, decet, pudet, interest, etc.; as,—

dulce et decorum est pro patria mori, it is sweet and noble to die for one's country;

virorum est fortium toleranter dolorem pati, it is the part of brave men to endure pain with patience;

senatui placuit legatos mittere, the Senate decided (lit. it pleased the Senate) to send envoys.

2. Even though the Infinitive itself appears without Subject, it may take a Predicate Noun or Adjective in the Accusative; as,—

aliud est iracundum esse, aliud iratum, it is one thing to be irascible, another to be angry;

impune quaelibet facere, id est regem esse, to do whatever you please with impunity, that is to be a king.

a. But when licet is followed by a Dative of the person, a Predicate Noun or Adjective with esse is attracted into the same case; as, licuit esse otioso Themistocli, lit. it was permitted to Themistocles to be at leisure. So sometimes with other Impersonals.

B. As Object.

328. 1. The Infinitive without Subject Accusative is used as the Object of many verbs, to denote another action of the same subject, particularly after—

volo, cupio, malo, nolo, debeo, cogito, meditor, purpose, ought; intend; statuo, constituo, decide; neglego, neglect; audeo, dare; vereor, timeo, fear; studeo, contendo, strive; maturo, festino, propero, contendo, paro, prepare (so paratus); hasten; incipio, coepi, instituo, assuesco, consuesco, accustom begin; myself (so assuetus, insuetus, pergo, continue; assuefactus); desino, desisto, cease; disco, learn; possum, can; scio, know how; conor, try; soleo, am wont;

as,—

tu hos intueri audes, do you dare to look on these men?

Demosthenes ad fluctus maris declamare solebat, Demosthenes used to declaim by the waves of the sea.

2. A Predicate Noun or Adjective with these Infinitives is attracted into the Nominative; as,—

beatus esse sine virtute nemo potest, no one can be happy without virtue;

Cato esse quam videri bonus malebat, Cato preferred to be good rather than to seem so.

Infinitive with Subject Accusative.

329. This is used chiefly as Subject or Object but also as Predicate or Appositive.

A. As Subject.

330. The Infinitive with Subject Accusative (like the simple Infinitive) is used as Subject with esse and Impersonal verbs, particularly with aequum est, utile est, turpe est, fama est, spes est, fas est, nefas est, opus est, necesse est, oportet, constat, praestat, licet, etc.; as,—

nihil in bello oportet contemni, nothing ought to be despised in war;

apertum est sibi quemque natura esse carum, it is manifest that by nature everybody is dear to himself.

B. As Object.

331. The Infinitive with Subject Accusative is used as Object after the following classes of verbs:

1. Most frequently after verbs of saying, thinking, knowing, perceiving, and the like (Verba Sentiendi et Declarandi). This is the regular construction of Principal Clauses of Indirect Discourse. Verbs that take this construction are, among others, the following: sentio, audio, video, cognosco; puto, judico, spero, confido; scio, memini; dico, affirmo, nego (say that ... not), trado, narro, fateor, respondeo, scribo, promitto, glorior. Also the phrases: certiorem facio (inform), memoria teneo (remember), etc.

Examples:—

Epicurei putant cum corporibus simul animos interire, the Epicureans think that the soul perishes with the body;

Thales dixit aquam esse initium rerum, Thales said that water was the first principle of the universe;

Democritus negat quicquid esse sempiternum, Democritus says nothing is everlasting;

spero eum venturum esse, I hope that he will come.

II. With jubeo, order, and veto, forbid; as,—

Caesar milites pontem facere jussit, Caesar ordered the soldiers to make a bridge.

a. When the name of the person who is ordered or forbidden to do something is omitted, the Infinitive with jubeo and veto is put in the Passive; as, Caesar pontem fieri jussit.

III. With patior and sino, permit, allow; as,—

nullo se implicari negotio passus est, he did not permit himself to be involved in any difficulty.

IV. With volo, nolo, malo, cupio, when the Subject of the Infinitive is different from that of the governing verb; as,—

nec mihi hunc errorem extorqueri volo, nor do I wish this error to be wrested from me;

eas res jactari nolebat, he was unwilling that these matters should be discussed;

te tua frui virtute cupimus, we desire that you enjoy your worth.

a. When the Subject of both verbs is the same, the simple Infinitive is regularly used in accordance with Sec. 328, 1. But exceptions occur, especially in case of esse and Passive Infinitives as,—

cupio me esse clementem, I desire to be lenient;

Timoleon maluit se diligi quam metui, Timoleon preferred to be loved rather than feared.

b. Volo also admits the Subjunctive, with or without ut; nolo the Subjunctive alone. (See Sec. 296, 1, a.)

V. With Verbs of emotion (joy, sorrow, regret, etc.), especially gaudeo, laetor, doleo; aegre fero, moleste fero, graviter fero, am annoyed, distressed; miror, queror, indignor; as,—

gaudeo te salvum advenire, I rejoice that you arrive safely;

non moleste ferunt se libidinum vinculis laxatos esse, they are not troubled at being released from the bonds of passion;

miror te ad me nihil scribere, I wonder that you write me nothing.

a. Instead of an Infinitive these verbs also sometimes admit a quod- clause as Object. (See Sec. 299.) Thus:—

miror quod non loqueris, I wonder that you do not speak.

VI. Some verbs which take two Accusatives, one of the Person and the other of the Thing (Sec. 178, 1), may substitute an Infinitive for the second Accusative; as,—

cogo te hoc facere, I compel you to do this (cf. te hoc cogo);

docui te contentum esse, I taught you to be content (cf. te modestiam docui, I taught you temperance).

Passive Construction of the Foregoing Verbs.

332. Those verbs which in the Active are followed by the Infinitive with Subject Accusative, usually admit the personal construction of the Passive. This is true of the following and of some others:—

a) jubeor, vetor, sinor; as,—

milites pontem facere jussi sunt, the soldiers were ordered to build a bridge;

pons fieri jussus est, a bridge was ordered built;

milites castris exire vetiti sunt, the troops were forbidden to go out of the camp;

Sestius Clodium accusare non est situs, Sestius was not allowed to accuse Clodius.

b) videor, I am seen, I seem; as,—

videtur comperisse, he seems to have discovered.

c) dicor, putor, existimor, judicor (in all persons); as,—

dicitur in Italiam venisse, he is said to have come into Italy;

Romulus primus rex Romanorum fuisse putatur, Romulus is thought to have been the first king of the Romans.

d) fertur, feruntur, traditur, traduntur (only in the third person); as,—

fertur Homerus caecus fuisse, Homer is said to have been blind;

carmina Archilochi contumeliis referta esse traduntur, Archilochus's poems are reported to have been full of abuse.

NOTE.—In compound tenses and periphrastic forms, the last two classes of verbs, c), d), more commonly take the impersonal construction; as—

traditum est Homerum caecum fuisse, the story goes that Homer was blind.

Infinitive with Adjectives.

333. The Infinitive with Adjectives (except paratus, assuetus, etc.; see Sec. 328, 1) occurs only in poetry and post-Augustan prose writers; as,—

contentus demonstrasse, contented to have proved;

audax omnia perpeti, bold for enduring everything.

Infinitive in Exclamations.

334. The Infinitive is used in Exclamations implying scorn, indignation, or regret. An intensive -ne is often attached to some word in the clause. Examples:—

huncine solem tam nigrum surrexe mihi, to think that to-day's sun rose with such evil omen for me!

sedere totos dies in villa, to stay whole days at the villa.

Historical Infinitive.

335. The Infinitive is often used in historical narrative instead of the Imperfect Indicative. The Subject stands in the Nominative; as,—

interim cottidie Caesar Haeduos frumentum flagitare, meanwhile Caesar was daily demanding grain of the Haedui.

PARTICIPLES.

Tenses of the Participle.

336. 1. The tenses of the Participle, like those of the infinitive (see Sec. 270), express time not absolutely, but with reference to the verb upon which the Participle depends.

2. The Present Participle denotes action contemporary with that of the verb. Thus:—

audio te loquentem = you ARE speaking and I hear you;

audiebam te loquentem = you WERE speaking and I heard you;

audiam te loquentem = you WILL BE speaking and I shall hear you.

a. The Present Participle is sometimes employed with Conative force; as,—

assurgentem regem resupinat, as the king was trying to rise, he threw him down.

3. The Perfect Passive Participle denotes action prior to that of the verb. Thus:—

locutus taceo = I HAVE spoken and am silent;

locutus tacui = I HAD spoken and then was silent;

locutus tacebo = I SHALL speak and then shall be silent.

4. The absolute time of the action of a participle, therefore, is determined entirely by the finite verb with which it is connected.

5. Certain Perfect Passive Participles of Deponent and Semi-Deponent Verbs are used as Presents; viz. arbitratus, ausus, ratus, gavisus, solitus, usus, confisus, diffisus, secutus, veritus.

Use of Participles.

337. As an Adjective the Participle may be used either as an attributive or predicate modifier of a Substantive.

1. Attributive Use. This presents no special peculiarities. Examples are:—

gloria est consentiens laus bonorum, glory is the unanimous praise of the good;

Conon muros a Lysandro dirutos reficit, Conon restored the walls destroyed by Lysander.

2. Predicate Use. Here the Participle is often equivalent to a subordinate clause. Thus the Participle may denote:—

a) Time; as,—

omne malum nascens facile opprimitur, every evil is easily crushed at birth.

b) A Condition; as,—

mente uti non possumus cibo et potione completi, if gorged with food and drink, we cannot use our intellects.

c) Manner; as,—

Solon senescere se dicebat multa in dies addiscentem, Solon said he grew old learning many new things daily.

d) Means; as,—

sol oriens diem conficit, the sun, by its rising, makes the day.

e) Opposition ('though'); as,—

mendaci homini ne verum quidem dicenti credimus, we do not believe a liar, though he speaks the truth.

f) Cause; as,—

perfidiam veritus ad suos recessit, since he feared treachery, he returned to his own troops.

3. Video and audio, besides the Infinitive, take the Present Participle in the Predicate use; as,—

video te fugientem, I see you fleeing.

a. So frequently facio, fingo, induco, etc.; as,—

eis Catonem respondentem facimus, we represent Cato replying to them;

Homerus Laertem colentem agrum facit, Homer represents Laertes tilling the field.

4. The Future Active Participle (except futurus) is regularly confined to its use in the Periphrastic Conjugation, but in poets and later writers it is used independently, especially to denote purpose; as,—

venerunt castra oppugnaturi, they came to assault the camp.

5. The Perfect Passive Participle is often equivalent to a cooerdinate clause; as,—

urbem captam diruit, he captured and destroyed the city (lit. he destroyed the city captured).

6. The Perfect Passive Participle in combination with a noun is sometimes equivalent to an abstract noun with a dependent Genitive; as,—

post urbem conditam, after the founding of the city;

Quinctius defensus, the defense of Quinctius;

quibus animus occupatus, the preoccupation of the mind with which.

7. Habeo sometimes takes a Perfect Passive Participle in the Predicate construction with a force not far removed from that of the Perfect or Pluperfect Indicative; as,—

equitatus quem coactum habebat, the cavalry which he had collected.

8. The Gerundive denotes obligation, necessity, etc. Like other Participles it may be used either as Attributive or Predicate.

a) Less frequently as Attributive. Thus:—

liber legendus, a book worth reading;

leges observandae, laws deserving of observance.

b) More frequently as Predicate.

1) In the Passive Periphrastic Conjugation (amandus est, etc.). In this use Intransitive Verbs can be used only impersonally, but admit their ordinary case-construction (Gen., Dat., Abl.); as,—

veniendum est, it is necessary to come;

obliviscendum est offensarum, one must forget injuries;

numquam proditori credendum est, you must never trust a traitor;

suo cuique utendum est judicio, every man must use his own judgment.

2) After curo, provide for; do, trado, give over; relinquo, leave; concedo, hand over, and some other verbs, instead of an object clause, or to denote purpose; as,—

Caesar pontem in Arari faciendum curavit, Caesar provided for the construction of a bridge over the Arar;

imperator urbem militibus diripiendam concessit, the general handed over the city to the soldiers to plunder.

9. For the Gerundive as the equivalent of the Gerund, see Sec. 339, 1.

THE GERUND.

338. As a verbal noun the Gerund admits noun constructions as follows:—

1. Genitive. The Genitive of the Gerund is used—

a) With Nouns, as objective or Appositional Genitive (see Sec. 200, 202); as,—

cupiditas dominandi, desire of ruling;

ars scribendi, the art of writing.

b) With Adjectives; as,—

cupidus audiendi, desirous of hearing.

c) With causa, gratia; as,—

discendi causa, for the sake of learning.

2. Dative. The Dative of the Gerund is used—

a) With Adjectives; as,—

aqua utilis est bibendo, water is useful for drinking.

b) With Verbs (rarely); as,—

adfui scribendo, I was present at the writing.

3. Accusative. The Accusative of the Gerund is used only with Prepositions, chiefly ad and in to denote purpose; as,—

homo ad agendum natus est, man is born for action.

4. Ablative. The Ablative of the Gerund is used—

a) Without a Preposition, as an Ablative of Means, Cause, etc. (see Sec. 218, 219); as,—

mens discendo alitur et cogitando, the mind is nourished by learning and reflection.

Themistocles maritimos praedones consectando mare tutum reddidit, Themistocles made the sea safe by following up the pirates.

b) After the prepositions a, de, ex, in; as,—

summa voluptas ex discendo capitur, the keenest pleasure is derived from learning;

multa de bene beateque vivendo a Platone disputata sunt, there was much discussion by Plato on the subject of living well and happily.

5. As a rule, only the Genitive of the Gerund and the Ablative (without a preposition) admit a Direct Object.

Gerundive Construction instead of the Gerund.

339. 1. Instead of the Genitive or Ablative of the Gerund with a Direct Object, another construction may be, and very often is, used. This consists in putting the Direct Object in the case of the Gerund (Gen. or Abl.) and using the Gerundive in agreement with it. This is called the Gerundive Construction. Thus:—

GERUND CONSTRUCTION. GERUNDIVE CONSTRUCTION. cupidus urbem videndi, desirous of cupidus urbis videndae; seeing the city. delector oratores legendo, I am delector oratoribus legendis charmed with reading the orators.

2. The Gerundive Construction must be used to avoid a Direct Object with the Dative of the Gerund, or with a case dependent upon a Preposition; as,—

locus castris muniendis aptus, a place adapted to fortifying a camp;

ad pacem petendam venerunt, they came to ask peace;

multum temporis consumo in legendis poetis, I spend much time in reading the poets.

3. In order to avoid ambiguity (see Sec. 236, 2), the Gerundive Construction must not be employed in case of Neuter Adjectives used substantively. Thus regularly—

philosophi cupidi sunt verum investigandi, philosophers are eager for discovering truth (rarely veri investigandi);

studium plura cognoscendi, a desire of knowing more (not plurium cognoscendorum).

4. From the nature of the case only Transitive Verbs can be used in the Gerundive construction; but utor, fruor, fungor, potior (originally transitive) regularly admit it; as,—

hostes in spem potiundorum castrorum venerant, the enemy had conceived the hope of gaining possession of the camp.

5. The Genitives mei, tui, sui, nostri, vestri, when used in the Gerundive Construction, are regularly employed without reference to Gender or Number, since they were originally Neuter Singular Adjectives used substantively. Thus:—

mulier sui servandi causa aufugit, the woman fled for the sake of saving herself;

legati in castra venerunt sui purgandi causa, the envoys came into camp for the purpose of clearing themselves.

So nostri servandi causa, for the sake of saving ourselves.

6. Occasionally the Genitive of the Gerundive Construction is used to denote purpose; as,—

quae ille cepit legum ac libertatis subvertundae, which he undertook for the purpose of overthrowing the laws and liberty.