This system of neumes was in some ways a retrogression from the Greek letter system, for the neumes indicated neither definite pitches nor definite tone-lengths. But it had this advantage over the Greek system, that the position of the signs on the page indicated graphically to the eye the general direction of the melody, as well as giving at least a hint concerning the relative highness or lowness of each individual tone (the so-called diastematic system), and this was a great aid to the eye in singing, just as the relative highness and lowness of notes on the modern staff is of great value in reading music at the present time. Thus although the neumae did not enable one to sing a new melody at sight as our modern staff notation does, yet they served very well to recall to the eye the general outline of a melody previously learned by ear and therefore enabled the singer (the system was used for vocal music only) to differentiate between that particular melody and the dozens of others which he probably knew. Neume notation was used mostly in connection with the "plain-song melodies" of the Church, and since the words of these chants were sung as they would be pronounced in reading, the deficiency of the neume system in not expressing definite duration values was not felt. But later on with the rise of so-called "measured music" (cf. invention of opera, development of independent instrumental music, etc.), this lack was seen to be one of the chief disadvantages of the system.

The elements of neume-writing as given by Riemann in his Dictionary of Music are:

"(1) The signs for a single note: Virga (Virgula) and Punctus (Punctum). (2) The sign for a rising interval: Pes (Podatus). (3) The sign for a falling interval: Clinis (Flexa). (4) Some signs for special manners of performance: Tremula (Bebung), Quilisma (shake), Plica (turn), etc. The others were either synonyms of the above-named or combinations of them...."

Since music in the middle ages was always copied by hand, it will readily be understood that these neumae were not uniform either in shape or size, and that each writer made use of certain peculiarities of writing, which, although perfectly intelligible to himself, could not readily be interpreted by others (cf. writing shorthand). Here then we observe the greatest weakness of the neume system—its lack of uniformity and its consequent inability accurately to express musical ideas for universal interpretation.

Examples of several neumes are given merely in order to give the beginner a general idea of their appearance.

Virga [virga symbol] or [virga symbol]. Punctus [punctus symbol] or [punctus symbol]. Pes [pes symbol] or [pes symbol]. Clinis [clinis symbol] or [clinis symbol].

As music grew more and more complex, and especially as writing in several parts came into use (cf. rise of organum, descant, and counterpoint), it became increasingly difficult to express musical ideas on the basis of the old notation, and numerous attempts were made to invent a more accurate and usable system. Among these one of the most interesting was that in which the words of the text were written in the spaces between long, parallel lines, placing the initial letters of the words tone and semi-tone at the beginning of the line to indicate the scale interval. An example will make this clear.



This indicated the precise melodic interval but did not give any idea of the rhythm, and the natural accents of the text were the only guide the singer had in this direction, as was the case in neume-notation and in early staff-notation also. Various other attempts to invent a more definite notation were made, but all were sporadic, and it was not until the idea of using the lines (later lines and spaces) to represent definite pitches, and writing notes of various shapes (derived from the neumae) to indicate relative duration-values—it was only when this combination of two elements was devised that any one system began to be universally used.

Just how the transition from neume to staff notation was made no one knows: it was not done in a day nor in a year but was the result of a gradual process of evolution and improvement. Nor is it probable that any one man deserves the entire credit for the invention of staff notation, although this feat is commonly attributed to an Italian monk named Guido d'Arezzo (approximate dates 995-1050). To this same monk we are indebted, however, for the invention of the syllables (UT, RE, MI, etc.) which (in a somewhat modified form) are so widely used for sight-singing purposes. (For a more detailed account of the transition to staff notation, see Grove, op. cit. article notation.) It will now be readily seen that our modern notation is the result of a combination of two preceding methods (the Greek letters, and the neumes) together with a new element—the staff, emphasizing the idea that higher tones are written higher on the staff than lower ones. The development of the neumes into notes of various shapes indicating relative time values and the division of the staff into measures with a definite measure signature at the beginning are natural developments of the earlier primitive idea. In the system of "musica mensurabilis" or measured music which was inaugurated a little later, the virga (which had meanwhile developed into a square-headed neume) was adopted as the longa or long note, and the punctus in two of its forms as breve and semi-breve (short and half-short). The longa is now extinct, but the modern form of the breve is still used as the double-whole-note, and the semi-breve is our modern whole-note.

Red-colored notes were sometimes used to indicate changes in value and before long outline notes (called empty notes) came into use, these being easier to make than the solid ones. The transition from square- and diamond-shaped notes to round and oval ones also came about because of the greater facility with which the latter could be written, and for the same reason notes of small denomination were later "tied together" or stroked. This latter usage began about 1700 A.D.

It is interesting to find that when "measured music" was finally inaugurated there were at first but two measure-signatures, viz.—the circle, standing for three-beat measure (the so-called perfect measure) and the semi-circle (or broken circle) which indicated two-beat measure. Occasionally three-beat measure was indicated by three vertical strokes at the beginning of the melody, while two-beat measure was shown by two such strokes. Upon the basis of these two varieties of measure, primitive in conception though they may have been, has been built nevertheless the whole system now employed, and in the last analysis all forms of measure now in use will be found to be of either the two-beat or the three-beat variety. The circle has disappeared entirely as a measure-sign, but the broken circle still survives, and from it are derived the familiar signs [common-time symbol] and [cut-time symbol], which are sometimes erroneously referred to as being the initial letter of our word common (as used in the expression "common time"). The transition from the older style of measure-signature to the present one seems to have occurred during the century following the invention of opera, i.e., from about 1600 to about 1700 A.D.

The rest came into use very soon after "measured music" began to be composed and we soon find rests corresponding with the various denominations of notes in use, viz.:



The terms applied to these rests vary in different authorities, but it will be noted that the pausa, semi-pausa, and suspirum correspond respectively to the double-whole-rest, whole-rest, and half-rest in use at present.

The bar and double bar may be developments of the maxima rest (as some writers suggest) but are probably also derived from the practice of drawing a line vertically through the various parts of a score to show which notes belonged together, thus facilitating score reading. The bar may occasionally be found as early as 1500, but was not employed universally until 1650 or later.

The number of lines used in the staff has varied greatly since the time of Guido, there having been all the way from four to fifteen at various times and in various places, (four being the standard number for a long time). These lines (when there were quite a number in the staff) were often divided into groups of four by red lines, which were not themselves used for notes. These red lines were gradually omitted and the staff divided into sections by a space, as in modern usage. The number of lines in each section was changed to five (in some cases six) for the sake of having a larger available range in each section.

The clefs at the beginning of the staffs are of course simply altered forms of the letters F, C, and G, which were written at first by Guido and others to make the old neume notation more definite.

The staccato sign seems not to have appeared until about the time of Bach, the legato sign being also invented at about the same time. The fermata was first used in imitative part-writing to show where each part was to stop, but with the development of harmonic writing the present practice was inaugurated. Leger lines came into use in the seventeenth century.

Sharps and flats were invented because composers found it necessary to use other tones than those that could be represented by the staff degrees in their natural condition. The history of their origin and development is somewhat complicated and cannot be given here, but it should be noted once more that it was the need of expressing more than could be expressed by the older symbols that called forth the newer and more comprehensive method. The use of sharps and flats in key signatures grew up early in the seventeenth century. In the earlier signatures it was customary to duplicate sharps or flats on staff degrees having the same pitch-name, thus: . (The use of the G clef as here shown did not of course exist at that time.)

The double-sharp and double-flat became necessary when "equal temperament" (making possible the use of the complete cycle of keys) was adopted. This was in the time of Bach (1685-1750).

Signs of expression (relating to tempo and dynamics) date back at least as far as the year 1000 A.D., but the modern terms used for this purpose did not appear until some years after the invention of opera, the date given by C.F.A. Williams in Grove's Dictionary being 1638. These words and signs of expression were at first used only in connection with instrumental music, but were gradually applied to vocal music also.

Other systems of notation have been invented from time to time in the course of the last two or three centuries, but in most cases they have died with their inventors, and in no case has any such system been accepted with anything even approaching unanimity. The tonic-sol-fa system[40] is used quite extensively in England for vocal music, but has gained little ground anywhere else and the chances are that the present system of notation, with possibly slight additions and modifications, will remain the standard notation for some time to come in spite of the attacks that are periodically made upon it on the ground of cumbersomeness, difficulty in teaching children, etc. The main characteristics of staff notation may be summed up as follows:

[Footnote 40: The tonic-sol-fa system represents an attempt to invent a simpler notation to be used by beginners, (especially in the lower grades of the public schools) and by singers in choral societies who have never learned to interpret staff notation and who therefore find some simpler scheme of notation necessary if they are to read music at all.

In this system the syllables do, re, mi, etc., (in phonetic spelling) are used, the tone being arrived at in each case, first by means of a firmly established sense of tonality, and second by associating each diatonic tone with some universally felt emotional feeling: thus do is referred to as the strong tone, mi as the calm one, and la as the sad tone, great emphasis being placed upon do as the center of the major tonality, and upon la as the center of the minor. The system is thus seen to have one advantage over staff notation, viz.: that in presenting it the teacher is compelled to begin with a presentation of actual tones, while in many cases the teacher of staff notation begins by presenting facts regarding the staff and other symbols before the pupil knows anything about tone and rhythm as such.

The symbol for each diatonic tone is the initial letter of the syllable (i.e., d for do, r for re, etc.), the key being indicated by a letter at the beginning of the composition. The duration-value of tones is indicated by a system of bars, dots, and spaces, the bar being used to indicate the strongest pulse of each measure (as in staff notation) the beats being shown by the mark: a dash indicating the continuation of the same tone through another beat. If a beat has two tones this is indicated by writing the two initial letters representing them with a . between them. A modulation is indicated by giving the new key letter and by printing the syllable-initials from the standpoint of both the old and the new do-position. The figure ' above and to the right of the letter indicates the tone in the octave above, while the same figure below and to the right indicates the octave below. A blank space indicates a rest. The tune of My Country, 'Tis of Thee, as printed in tonic sol-fa notation below will make these points clear.

Key F

d :d :r t1 :-.d :r m :m :f m :-.r :d r :d :t1 d : : s :s :s s :-.f :m f :f :f f :-.m :r m :f.m :r.d m :-.f :s l.f:m :r d : :

The advantages of the system are (1) the strong sense of key-feeling aroused and the ease with which modulations are felt; and (2) the fact that it is necessary to learn to sing in but one key, thus making sight-singing a much simpler matter, and transposition the easiest process imaginable. But these are advantages from the standpoint of the vocalist (producing but one tone at a time) only, and do not apply to instrumental music. The scheme will therefore probably be always restricted to vocal music and will hardly come into very extensive use even in this field, for the teacher of music is finding it perfectly possible to improve methods of presentation to such an extent that learning to sing from the staff becomes a very simple matter even to the young child. And even though this were not true, the tonic-sol-fa will always be hampered by the fact that since all letters are printed in a straight horizontal line the ear does not have the assistance of the eye in appreciating the rise and fall of melody, as is the case in staff notation.]

1. Pitches represented by lines and spaces of a staff, the higher the line, the higher the pitch represented, signs called clefs at the beginning of each staff making clear the pitch names of the lines and spaces.

2. Duration values shown by shapes of notes.

3. Accents shown by position of notes on the staff with regard to bars, i.e., the strongest accent always falls just after the bar, and the beat relatively least accented is found just before the bar.

4. Extent and description of beat-groups shown by measure-signs.

5. Key shown by key signature placed at the beginning of each staff.

6. Rate of speed, dynamic changes, etc., shown by certain Italian words (allegro, andante, etc.), whose meaning is as universally understood as staff notation itself.



APPENDIX B

MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS

1. Broadly speaking, musical instruments may be divided into two classes, viz.: (1) those that have a keyboard and are therefore capable of sounding several tones simultaneously; (2) those that (as a rule) sound only one tone at a time, as the violin and trumpet. The piano is of course the most familiar example of the first class, and a brief description is therefore given.

The piano was invented about two hundred years ago by Cristofori (1651-1731), an Italian. It was an enormous improvement over the types of keyboard instrument that were in use at that time (clavichord, harpsichord, spinet, virginal) and has resulted in an entirely different style of composition. See note on embellishments, p. 26.

2. The most characteristic things about the piano as contrasted with its immediate predecessors are: (1) that on it the loudness and softness of the tone can be regulated by the force with which the keys are struck (hence the name pianoforte meaning literally the soft-loud); (2) the fact that the piano is capable of sustaining tone to a much greater extent than its predecessors. In other words the tone continues sounding for some little time after the key is struck, while on the earlier instruments it stopped almost instantly after being sounded.

The essentials of the piano mechanism are:

1. Felt hammers controlled by keys, each hammer striking two or three strings (which are tuned in unison) and immediately rebounding from these strings, allowing them to vibrate as long as the key is held down. The mechanism that allows the hammers to rebound from the strings and fall into position for another blow is called the escapement.

2. A damper (made of softer felt) pressing against each string and preventing it from vibrating until it is wanted.

3. A keyboard action that controls both hammers and dampers, causing the damper to leave the string at the same instant that the hammer strikes it.

4. A pedal (damper pedal) controlling all of the dampers, so that at any moment all the strings may be released so as to be free to vibrate.

Other interesting details are:

1. The strings are stretched over a thin sheet of wood called the sound-board. This aids greatly in intensifying the tone.

2. The soft pedal (the one at the left) in an upright piano causes the hammers to move up nearer the strings, and the shorter swing thus afforded causes a less violent blow and consequently a softer tone. In the grand piano this same pedal shifts the mechanism to one side so that the hammers strike only one or two of the strings, this resulting in a softer tone of somewhat modified quality.

These details regarding the mechanism of the piano can easily be verified by removing the front of any ordinary upright piano and observing what takes place when the keys are struck or the pedals depressed.

3. There are two familiar types of organ in use at the present time, (1) the reed organ, (2) the pipe-organ.

The reed organ is very simple in construction, the tone being produced by the vibration of metal reeds (fixed in little cells), through which air is forced (or sucked) from the bellows, the latter being usually worked by the feet of the player. More power may be secured either by drawing additional stops, thus throwing on more sets of reeds, or by opening the knee swells which either throw on more reeds (sometimes octave couplers) or else open a swell box in which some of the reeds are enclosed, the tone being louder when the box is open than when closed. More tone may also be secured by pumping harder.

4. The essential characteristic of the pipe-organ is a number of sets or registers of pipes called stops, each set being capable (usually) of sounding the entire chromatic scale through a range of five or six octaves. Thus for example when the stop melodia is drawn (by pulling out a stop-knob or tilting a tablet), one set of pipes only, sounds when the keyboard is played on: but if the stop flute is drawn with melodia, two pipes speak every time a key is depressed. Thus if an organ has forty speaking stops, all running through the entire keyboard, then each time one key is depressed forty pipes will speak, and if a chord of five tones is played, two hundred pipes will speak. The object of having so many pipes is not merely to make possible a very powerful tone, but, rather, to give greater variety of tone-color.

The pipe-organ usually has a pedal keyboard on which the feet of the performer play a bass part, this part often sounding an octave (or more) lower than the notes indicate.

An eight-foot stop on the organ produces tones of the same pitches as the piano when corresponding keys are struck: A four-foot stop sounds tones an octave higher and a two-foot stop tones two octaves higher. A sixteen-foot stop sounds tones an octave lower than the piano, and a thirty-two foot stop, tones two octaves lower, while some organs have also a sixty-four foot stop which sounds three octaves lower. This gives the organ an exceedingly wide range, its compass being greater than that of any other single instrument, and comparable in both range of pitches and variety of color only with the modern orchestra.

Modern pipe-organs always have a number of combination pedals or pistons (usually both), by means of which the organist is enabled to throw on a number of stops with one movement. The selection and use of suitable stops, couplers, combinations, etc., is called registration.

5. The instruments mentioned at the beginning of this appendix as belonging to the second class are more familiar in connection with ensemble playing, being commonly associated with either band or orchestra.

6. A band is a company of musicians all of whom play upon either wind or percussion instruments, the main body of tone being produced by the brass and wood-wind divisions.

Sousa's band is usually made up in somewhat the following manner: 4 flutes and piccolos, 12 B[flat] clarinets, 1 E[flat] clarinet, 1 alto clarinet, 1 bass clarinet, 2 oboes, 2 bassoons, 2 sarrusophones, 4 saxophones, 4 cornets, 2 trumpets, 1 soprano saxhorn (fluegelhorn), 4 French horns, 4 trombones, 2 contra-bass tubas, 4 tubas, 1 snare drum, 1 bass drum, 2 kettle drums, cymbals, triangle, bells, castanets, xylophone, etc.

7. An orchestra is a company of musicians performing upon stringed instruments as well as upon wind and percussion. It is differentiated from the band by the fact that the main body of tone is produced by the strings.

There are four classes of instruments in the orchestra, viz., strings, wood-wind, brass (wind) and percussion. In addition to these four classes, there is the harp, which although a stringed instrument, does not belong in the same group as the other strings because the manner of producing the tone is altogether different.

8. In the first group (the strings) are found the first and second violins, viola, violoncello (usually spelled cello), and double-bass. The first and second violins are identical in every way (but play different parts), while the other members of the family merely represent larger examples of the same type of instrument.

9. In the second group (the wood-wind) are found the flute, piccolo, oboe, bassoon, English horn, double-bassoon, clarinet, and bass clarinet. The English horn, double-bassoon, bass clarinet, and piccolo are not called for in the older compositions, hence are not always present in the orchestra.

10. In the third group (the brass choir) are found the French horn, (usually referred to as the horn), trumpet (sometimes replaced by the cornet) trombone, and tuba.

11. The fourth group (percussion) consists of kettle drums, bass drum, cymbals, snare drum, triangle, bells, etc.

12. In an orchestra of about 100 players the proportion of instruments is as about as follows, although it varies somewhat according to the taste of the conductor, the style of composition to be performed, etc.:

18 first violins, 16 second violins, 14 violas, 12 cellos, 10 basses, 1 harp, 3 flutes, 1 piccolo, 3 oboes, 1 English horn, 3 clarinets, 1 bass clarinet, 3 bassoons, 1 contra (or double) bassoon, 4 horns, 2 trumpets, 3 trombones, 1 tuba, 3 kettle drums, 1 bass drum, 1 snare drum, 1 each of triangle, cymbals, bells, and other instruments of percussion, several of which are often manipulated by one performer.

13. The cuts and brief descriptions here added will give at least a rudimentary idea of the appearance and possibilities of the instruments most commonly used in bands and orchestras. For fuller descriptions and particulars regarding range, quality, etc., the student is referred to Mason's "The Orchestral Instruments and What They Do," Lavignac's "Music and Musicians," and to the various articles which describe each instrument under its own name in Grove's Dictionary or in any good encyclopaedia. For still fuller details some work on orchestration will have to be consulted.

14. The violin has four strings, tuned thus , these making available a range of about three and one-half octaves (g—c''''). This range[41] may be extended upward somewhat further by means of harmonics, these being produced by lightly touching the string at certain points (while the bow is moving across it) instead of holding it down against the finger-board. The highest string of the violin (viola and cello also) is often called the chanterelle because it is most often used for playing the melody. The violin ordinarily produces but one tone at a time, but by stopping two strings simultaneously and so drawing the bow as to set both in vibration, two tones may be produced at the same time, while three and four tones can be sounded almost simultaneously.

[Footnote 41: The ranges noted in connection with these descriptions of instruments are ordinarily the practical orchestral or band ranges rather than those which are possible in solo performance.]



The mute (or sordino) is a small clamp made of metal, wood, or ivory, which when clipped to the top of the bridge causes the vibrations to be transmitted less freely to the body of the violin, giving rise to a tone modified in quality, and decreased in power.

For certain special effects the player is directed to pluck the string (pizzicato), this method of playing giving rise to a dry, detached tone instead of the smooth, flowing one that is so characteristic of the violin as commonly played.

Violins in the orchestra are divided into firsts and seconds, the first violins being always seated at the left of the audience and the seconds at the right.



15. The viola has four strings, also tuned in fifths, thus . The viola looks exactly like the violin at a little distance, and is really only a larger sized violin, having a range a fifth lower. Its tone is not so incisive as that of the violin, being rather heavier—"more gloomy," as it is often described. The viola is not so useful as the violin as a solo instrument because it is not capable of producing so many varieties of color, nevertheless it is invaluable for certain effects. In orchestral music it is of course one of the most valuable instruments for filling in the harmony. The viola players are usually seated behind the second violin players in the orchestra.



16. The violoncello or cello (sometimes called bass viol) has four strings, tuned thus: . Its range is about three and one-half octaves (from C to e'' or f''), but in solo work this range is sometimes extended much higher. The cello is much more universally used as a solo instrument than the viola and its tone is capable of a much greater degree of variation. In the orchestra it plays the bass of the string quartet (reinforced by the double-bass), but is also often used for solo passages. Con sordino and pizzicato passages occur as often for the cello as for the violin.

17. The double bass differs from the other members of the string family in that it is tuned in fourths instead of in fifths. Its four strings are tuned as follows the entire range of the instrument being from EE to a. In music written for double-bass the notes are always printed an octave higher than the tones are to sound: that is, when the bass-player sees the note he plays this being done to avoid leger lines. The tone of the bass is much heavier and the instrument itself is much more clumsy to handle than the other members of the group, hence it is almost never used as a solo instrument but it is invaluable for reinforcing the bass part in orchestral music. The mute is rarely used on the double-bass, but the pizzicato effect is very common and the bass pizzicato tone is much fuller and richer than that of any other stringed instrument.



18. The flute has a range of three octaves. It is used in both solo and orchestral playing as well as in bands. The flute was formerly always made of wood, but is at present often made of metal.

19. The piccolo is a flute playing an octave higher than the one described above. The notes are printed as for the flute, but the player understands that the tone is to sound an octave higher. The piccolo is used widely in band music and quite often in orchestral music also, but since the tone is so brilliant and penetrating and is incapable of any great variation, it is not suitable for solo performance.



20. The next four instruments to be described (oboe, bassoon, English horn, and contra bassoon) are often referred to as the oboe family since the principle of tone production and general manipulation is the same in all four. The tone in these instruments is produced by the vibration of two very thin pieces of cane, which are called together a double-reed.

The oboe is especially valuable in the orchestra as a solo instrument, and its thin, nasal tones are suggestive of rustic, pastoral simplicity, both oboe and English horn being often used by orchestral composers in passages intended to express the idea of rural out-of-door life. The English horn is also often used in passages where the idea of melancholy and suffering is to be conveyed to the audience. In a military band the oboe corresponds to the first violin of the orchestra.

The bassoon and contra-bassoon are used mostly to provide a bass part for the harmony of the wood-wind group, but they are also sometimes employed (especially the bassoon) to depict comic or grotesque effects.



21. The next two types of instruments to be described (clarinet and saxophone) are alike in that the tone is produced by the vibration of a single strip of cane (called single reed) which is held against the lower lip of the player. The clarinet and bass clarinet are made of wood and are used in both bands and orchestras, but the saxophone is usually made of metal, and, the tone being more strident and penetrating, the instrument is ordinarily used only in combination with other wind instruments, i.e., in bands.

Since the fingering of the clarinet is excessively difficult the performer can play in only certain keys on the same instrument, hence to play in different keys clarinets in several keys must be provided, there being usually three in all. The music is written as though it were to be played in the key of C, but the tones produced are actually in other keys. For this reason the clarinet is called a transposing instrument. The range of the clarinet is the greatest possessed by any of the wind instruments, that of the clarinet in C being from to .



The sarrusophone is an instrument with a double-reed. It is made of brass and exists in several sizes, the only one ever used in the orchestra being the double-bass sarrusophone, which has approximately the same range as the double-bassoon and is sometimes (but rarely) made use of in the orchestra instead of the latter instrument. The tone of the sarrusophone is something like that of the bassoon.



22. The French horn (often called valve horn or simply horn) really consists of a long tube (about 16 feet) which is bent into circular form for convenience in handling. Its range is from to . In the orchestra French horns are used in pairs, two of the players taking the higher tones, and two the lower. The tone is intensely mellow but incapable of any extensive variation, but in spite of this lack of variety the tone itself is so wonderfully beautiful that the instrument is one of the most useful in the orchestra both in solo passages and to fill in the harmony. The horn (as well as the trumpet and trombone) differs from most of the wood-wind instruments in that its mouthpiece contains no reed, the lips of the player constituting the vibrating body as they are stretched across the mouthpiece and air is forced against them. The horn is used in bands as well as in orchestras.



23. The range of the trumpet is , the typical tone being brilliant and ringing. It is used in both band and orchestra, playing the highest parts assigned to the brass choir. The trumpet is often replaced in both band and orchestra by its less refined cousin the cornet because of the ease with which the latter can be played as compared with the trumpet, and the larger number of players that are available in consequence of this ease of execution.

24. The cornet looks something like the trumpet, but is not so slim and graceful in appearance. Its tube is only four and one-half feet long, as compared with a length of about eight feet in the trumpet, and sixteen feet in the French horn.

The range of the cornet in B[flat] is from to . The tone is somewhat commonplace as compared with the trumpet, but because of its great agility in the rendition of trills, repeated tones, etc., it is universally used in all sorts of combinations, even (as noted above) taking the place of the trumpet in many small orchestras.



25. The pitch sounded by the trombone is altered by lengthening or shortening the tube of which the instrument is constructed, this being possible because the lower part slides into the upper and can be pulled out to increase the total length of the tube through which the air passes. There are usually three trombones in the orchestra, each playing a separate part, and the combination of this trio (with the tuba reinforcing the bass part) is majestic and thrilling, being powerful enough to dominate the entire orchestra in Fortissimo passages. But the trombones are useful in soft passages also, and their tone when playing pianissimo is rich, serene, and sonorous.

26. The bass tuba is a member of the saxhorn family[42] and supplies the lowest part of the brass choir, as the double-bass does in the string choir. It is used in both orchestra and band, being often supported in the larger bands by a still lower-toned member of the same family—the contra-bass tuba. The range of the tuba is from to .

[Footnote 42: The saxhorn was invented about 1840 by Adolphe Sax, a Frenchman. The saxophone is the invention of the same man.]



27. The kettle-drum is the most important member of the percussion family and is always used either in pairs or in threes. The size of these instruments varies somewhat with the make, but when two drums are used the diameter is approximately that given under the illustration. The range of a pair of drums is one octave and when but two drums are used the larger one takes the tones from F to about C of this range, and the smaller takes those from about B[flat] to F. The most common usage is to tune one drum to the tonic, and the other to the dominant of the key in which the composition is written. The pitch of the kettle-drum can be varied by increasing or lessening the tension of the head by means of thumb-screws which act on a metal ring.



The other important members of the percussion family are shown on this and the following page, their use being so obvious as to require no detailed explanation.



28. The harp is one of the oldest of instruments (dating back over 6000 years), but it is only in comparatively recent years that it has been used in the symphony orchestra. Its range is from to .



The modern double-action harp has forty-six strings, which are tuned in half-steps and whole-steps so as to sound the scale of C[flat] major. It has a series of seven pedals around its base, each pedal having two notches below it, into either of which the pedal may be lowered and held fast. The first pedal shortens the F[flat] string so that it now sounds F, (giving the key of G[flat]); the second one shortens the C[flat] string so that it sounds C (giving the key of D[flat]); the third pedal shortens the G[flat] string so that it sounds G (giving the key of A[flat]); the fourth changes D[flat] to D (giving the key of E[flat]), and so on until, when all the pedals are fixed in their first notches, the scale of C is sounded instead of C[flat] as was the case before any of the pedals were depressed. But if the first pedal is now pushed down into the second notch the original F[flat] string is still further shortened and now sounds the pitch F[sharp] (giving us the key of G), and if all the other pedals are likewise successively lowered to the second notch we get in turn all the sharp keys—D, A, E, B, F[sharp] and C[sharp], the last-named key being obtained as the result of having all the pedals fixed in their second notches, thus making all the tones of the original C[flat] scale a whole-step higher so that they now sound the C[sharp] scale.

Chords of not more than four tones for each hand may be played simultaneously on the harp, but arpeggio and scale passages are the rule, and are more successful than simultaneous chords. The notation of harp music is essentially like that of piano music.



APPENDIX C

ACOUSTICS

NOTE:—It is usually taken for granted that the student of music is familiar with the significance of such terms as over-tone, equal temperament, etc., and with principles such as that relating to the relation between vibration rates and pitches: the writer has in his own experience found, however, that most students are not at all familiar with such data, and this appendix is therefore added in the hope that a few facts at least regarding the laws of sound may be brought to the attention of some who would otherwise remain in entire ignorance of the subject.

1. Acoustics is the science which deals with sound and the laws of its production and transmission. Since all sound is caused by vibration, acoustics may be defined as the science which treats of the phenomena of sound-producing vibration.

2. All sound (as stated above) is produced by vibration of some sort: strike a tuning-fork against the top of a table and see the vibrations which cause the tone, or, if the fork is a small one and the vibrations cannot be seen, hold it against the edge of a sheet of paper and hear the blows it strikes; or, watch one of the lowest strings of the piano after striking the key a sharp blow; or, look closely at the heavier strings of the violin (or better still, the cello) and watch them oscillate rapidly to and fro as the bow moves across them.

The vibrating body may be a string, a thin piece of wood, a piece of metal, a membrane (cf. drum), the lips (cf. playing the cornet), the vocal cords, etc. Often it is a column of air whose vibrations give rise to the tone, the reed or other medium merely serving to set the air in vibration.

3. Sound is transmitted through the air in somewhat this fashion: the vibrating body (a string for example) strikes the air-particles in its immediate vicinity, and they, being in contact with other such air-particles, strike these others, the latter in turn striking yet others, and so on, both a forward and backward movement being set up (oscillation). These particles lie so close together that no movement at all can be detected, and it is only when the disturbance finally reaches the air-particles that are in contact with the ear-drum that any effect is evident.

This phenomenon of sound-transmission may perhaps be made more clear by the old illustration of a series of eight billiard balls in a row on a table: if the first ball is tapped lightly, striking gently against ball number 2, the latter (as well as numbers 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7) will not apparently move at all, but ball number 8 at the other end will roll away. The air-particles act upon each other in much this same fashion, the difference being that when they are set in motion by a vibrating body a complete vibration backward and forward causes a similar backward and forward movement of the particles (oscillation) instead of simply a forward jerk as in the case of the billiard balls.

Another way of describing the same process is this: the vibration of some body produces waves in the air (cf. waves in the ocean, which carry water forward but do not themselves move on continuously), these waves spread out spherically (i.e. in all directions) and finally reach the ear, where they set the ear-drum in vibration, thus sending certain sound-stimuli to the nerves of hearing in the inner ear, and thus to the brain.

An important thing to be noted in connection with sound-transmission is that sound will not travel in a vacuum: some kind of a medium is essential for its transmission. This medium may be air, water, a bar of iron or steel, the earth, etc.

4. The rate at which sound travels through the air is about 1100 feet per second, the rapidity varying somewhat with fluctuations in temperature and humidity. In water the rate is much higher than in air (about four times as great) while the velocity of sound through other mediums (as e.g., steel) is sometimes as much as sixteen times as great as through air.

5. Sound, like light, may be intensified by a suitable reflecting surface directly back of the vibrating body (cf. sounding board); it may also be reflected by some surface at a distance from its source in such a way that at a certain point (the focus) the sound may be very clearly heard, but at other places, even those nearer the source of sound, it can scarcely be heard at all. If there is such a surface in an auditorium (as often occurs) there will be a certain point where everything can be heard very easily, but in the rest of the room it may be very difficult to understand what is being said or sung.

Echoes are caused by sound-reflection, the distance of the reflecting surface from the vibrating body determining the number of syllables that will be echoed.

The acoustics of an auditorium (i.e., its hearing properties) depend upon the position and nature of the reflecting surfaces and also upon the length of time a sound persists after the vibrating body has stopped. If it persists longer than 2-1/4 or 2-1/3 seconds the room will not be suitable for musical performances because of the mixture of persisting tones with following ones, this causing a blurred effect somewhat like that obtained by playing a series of unrelated chords on the piano while the damper-pedal is held down. The duration of the reverberation depends upon the size and height of the room, material of floor and walls, furniture, size of audience, etc.

6. Sound may be classified roughly into tones and noises although the line of cleavage is not always sharply drawn. If I throw stones at the side of a barn, sounds are produced, but they are caused by irregular vibrations of an irregularly constructed surface and are referred to as noise. But if I tap the head of a kettle-drum, a regular series of vibrations is set up and the resulting sound is referred to as tone. In general the material of music consists of tones, but for special effects certain noises are also utilized (cf. castanets, etc.).

7. Musical tones have three properties, viz.:

1. Pitch.

2. Intensity.

3. Quality (timbre).

By pitch is meant the highness or lowness of tone. It depends upon rate of vibration. If a body vibrates only 8 or 10 times per second no tone is heard at all: but if it vibrates regularly at the rate of 16 or 18 per second a tone of very low pitch is heard. If it vibrates at the rate of 24 the pitch is higher, at 30 higher still, at 200 yet higher, and when a rate of about 38,000 per second has been reached the pitch is so high that most ears cannot perceive it at all. The highest tone that can ordinarily be heard is the E[flat] four octaves higher than the highest E[flat] of the piano. The entire range of sound humanly audible is therefore about eleven octaves (rates 16-38,000), but only about eight of these octaves are utilized for musical purposes. The tones of the piano (with a range of 7-1/3 octaves) are produced by vibration rates approximately between 27 and 4224. In the orchestra the range is slightly more extended, the rates being from 33 to 4752.

Certain interesting facts regarding the relation between vibration-rates and pitches have been worked out: it has been discovered for instance that if the number of vibrations is doubled, the pitch of the resulting tone is an octave higher; i.e., if a string vibrating at the rate of 261 per second gives rise to the pitch c', then a string one-half as long and vibrating twice as rapidly (522) will give rise to the pitch c'', i.e., an octave higher than c'. In the same way it has been found that if the rate is multiplied by 5/4 the pitch of the tone will be a major third higher; if multiplied by 3/2, a perfect fifth higher, etc. These laws are often stated thus: the ratio of the octave to the fundamental is as two is to one; that of the major third as five is to four; that of the perfect fifth as three is to two, and so on through the entire series of pitches embraced within the octave, the ratio being of course the same for all octaves.

9. The intensity (loudness or softness) of tones depends upon the amplitude (width) of the vibrations, a louder tone being the result of vibrations of greater amplitude, and vice versa. This may be verified by plucking a long string (on cello or double-bass) and noting that when plucked gently vibrations of small amplitude are set up, while a vigorous pluck results in much wider vibrations, and, consequently, in a louder tone. It should be noted that the pitch of the tone is not affected by the change in amplitude of vibration.

The intensity of tones varies with the medium conveying them, being usually louder at night because the air is then more elastic. Tone intensity is also affected by sympathetic vibrations set up in other bodies. If two strings of the same length are stretched side by side and one set in vibration so as to produce tone the other will soon begin to vibrate also and the combined tone will be louder than if only one string produced it. This phenomenon is the basis of what is known as resonance (cf. body of violin, resonance cavities of nose and mouth, sounding board of piano, etc.).

10. Quality depends upon the shape (or form) of the vibrations which give rise to the tone. A series of simple vibrations will cause a simple (or colorless) tone, while complex vibrations (giving rise to overtones of various kinds and in a variety of proportions) cause more individualistic peculiarities of quality. Quality is affected also by the shape and size of the resonance body. (Cf. last part of sec. 9 above.)

11. Practically every musical tone really consists of a combination of several tones sounding simultaneously, the combined effect upon the ear giving the impression of a single tone. The most important tone of the series is the fundamental, which dominates the combination and gives the pitch, but this fundamental is practically always combined with a greater or less number of faint and elusive attending tones called overtones or harmonics. The first of these overtones is the octave above the fundamental; the second is the fifth above this octave; the third, two octaves above the fundamental, and so on through the series as shown in the figure below. The presence of these overtones is accounted for by the fact that the string (or other vibrating body) does not merely vibrate in its entirety but has in addition to the principal oscillation a number of sectional movements also. Thus it is easily proved that a string vibrates in halves, thirds, etc., in addition to the principal vibration of the entire string, and it is the vibration of these halves, thirds, etc., which gives rise to the harmonics, or upper partials as they are often called. The figure shows Great C and its first eight overtones. A similar series might be worked out from any other fundamental.

in this series is approximate only.)]

It will be recalled that in the section (10) dealing with quality the statement was made that quality depends upon the shape of the vibrations; it should now be noted that it is the form of these vibrations that determines the nature and proportion of the overtones and hence the quality. Thus e.g., a tone that has too large a proportion of the fourth upper partial (i.e., the third of the chord) will be reedy and somewhat unpleasant. This is the case with many voices that are referred to as nasal. Too great a proportion of overtones is what causes certain pianos to sound "tin-panny." The tone produced by a good tuning-fork is almost entirely free from overtones: it has therefore no distinctive quality and is said to be a simple tone. The characteristic tone of the oboe on the other hand has many overtones and is therefore highly individualistic: this enables us to recognize the tone of the instrument even though we cannot see the player. Such a tone is said to be complex.

12. The mathematical ratio referred to on page 134, if strictly carried out in tuning a keyboard instrument would cause the half-steps to vary slightly in size, and playing in certain keys (especially those having a number of sharps or flats in the signature) would therefore sound out of tune. There would be many other disadvantages in such a system, notably the inability to modulate freely to other keys, and since modulation is one of the predominant and most striking characteristics of modern music, this would constitute a serious barrier to advances in composition. To obviate these disadvantages a system of equal temperament was invented and has been in universal use since the time of Bach (1685-1750) who was the first prominent composer to use it extensively. Equal temperament means simply dividing the octave into twelve equal parts, thus causing all scales (as played on keyboard instruments at least) to sound exactly alike.

To show the practicability of equal temperament Bach wrote a series of 48 preludes and fugues, two in each major and two in each minor key. He called the collection "The Well-tempered Clavichord."

13. Various standards of pitch have existed at different times in the last two centuries, and even now there is no absolute uniformity although conditions are much better than they were even twenty-five years ago. Scientists use what is known as the "scientific standard" (sometimes called the "philosophic standard"), viz., 256 double vibrations for "middle C." This pitch is not in actual use for musical purposes, but is retained for theoretical purposes because of its convenience of computation (being a power of 2). In 1885 a conference of musicians at Vienna ratified the pitch giving Middle C 261 vibrations, this having been adopted by the French as their official pitch some 26 years before. In 1891 a convention of piano manufacturers at Philadelphia adopted this same pitch for the United States, and it has been in practically universal use ever since. This pitch (giving Middle C 261 vibrations) is known as "International Pitch."

Concert pitch is slightly higher than International, the difference between the two varying somewhat, but being almost always less than one-half step. This higher pitch is still often used by bands and sometimes by orchestras to give greater brilliancy to the wind instruments.

REFERENCES

Lavignac—Music and Musicians, pp. 1-66.

Broadhouse—The Student's Helmholz.

Helmholtz—Sensations of Tone.

Hamilton—Sound and its Relation to Music.

NOTE:—For a simple and illuminating treatment of the subject from the standpoint of the music student, the books by Lavignac and Hamilton are especially recommended.



APPENDIX D

TERMINOLOGY REFORM

A recent writer[43] on vocal terminology makes the following statement as an introduction to certain remarks advocating a more definite use of terms relating to tone production by the human voice:—"The correct use of words is the most potent factor in the development of the thinker." If this statement has any basis of fact whatsoever to support it then it must be evident to the merest novice in musical work that the popular use of many common terms by musicians is keeping a good many people from clear and logical thought in a field that needs accurate thinkers very badly! However this may be, it must be patent to all that our present terminology is in many respects neither correct nor logical, and the movement inaugurated by the Music Section of the National Education Association some years ago to secure greater uniformity in the use and definition of certain expressions should therefore not only command the respect and commendation, but the active support of all progressive teachers of music.

[Footnote 43: Floyd S. Muckey—"Vocal Terminology," The Musician, May, 1912, p. 337.]

Let it be noted at the outset that such reforms as are advocated by the committee will never come into general use while the rank and file of teachers throughout the country merely approve the reports so carefully compiled and submitted each year: these reforms will become effective only as individual teachers make up their minds that the end to be attained is worth the trouble of being careful to use only correct terminology every day for a month, or three months, or a year—whatever length of time may be necessary in order to get the new habits fixed in mind and muscle.

The Terminology Committee was appointed by the Department of Music of the N.E.A. in 1906 and made its first report at Los Angeles in 1907. Since then the indefatigable chairman of the committee (Mr. Chas. I. Rice, of Worcester, Mass.) has contributed generously of both time and strength, and has by his annual reports to the Department set many of us to thinking along certain new lines, and has caused some of us at any rate to adopt in our own teaching certain changes of terminology which have enabled us to make our work more effective.

In his first report Mr. Rice says:

"Any one who has observed the teaching of school music in any considerable number of places in this country cannot fail to have remarked the great diversity of statement employed by different teachers regarding the facts which we are engaged in teaching, and the equal diversity of terminology used in teaching the symbols by which musicians seek to record these facts. To the teacher of exact sciences our picturesque use of the same term to describe two or more entirely different things never ceases to be a marvel.... Thoughtful men and women will become impressed with the untruthfulness of certain statements and little by little change their practice. Others will follow, influenced by example. The revolutionists will deride us for not moving faster while the conservatives will be suspicious of any change."

At this meeting in Los Angeles a list of thirteen points was recommended by the committee and adopted by the Music Department. These points are given in the N.E.A. Volume of Proceedings for 1907, p. 875.

Since 1907 the committee (consisting of Chas. I. Rice, P.C. Hayden, W.B. Kinnear, Leo R. Lewis, and Constance Barlow-Smith) have each year selected a number of topics for discussion, and have submitted valuable reports recommending the adoption of certain reforms. Some of the points recommended have usually been rejected by the Department, but many of them have been adopted and the reports of the committee have set many teachers thinking and have made us all more careful in the use and definition of common terms. A complete list of all points adopted by the Department since 1907 has been made by Mr. Rice for School Music, and this list is here reprinted from the January, 1913, number of that magazine.

TERMINOLOGY ADOPTIONS, 1907-1910

1. Tone: Specific name for a musical sound of definite pitch. Use neither sound, a general term, nor note, a term of notation.

2. Interval: The pitch relation between two tones. Not properly applicable to a single tone or scale degree. Example: "Sing the fifth tone of the scale." Not "sing the fifth interval of the scale."

3. Key: Tones in relation to a tonic. Example: In the key of G. Not in the scale of G. Scales, major and minor are composed of a definite selection from the many tones of the key, and all scales extend through at least one octave of pitch. The chromatic scale utilizes all the tones of a key within the octave.

4. Natural: Not a suitable compound to use in naming pitches. Pitch names are either simple: B, or compound: B sharp, B double-sharp, B flat or B double-flat, and there is no pitch named "B natural." Example: Pitch B, not "B natural."

NOTE:—L.R.L. thinks that B natural should be the name when the notation suggests it.

5. Step, Half-step: Terms of interval measurement. Avoid tone, semi-tone or half-tone. Major second and minor second are interval names. Example: How large are the following intervals? (1) Major second, (2) minor second, (3) augmented prime. Answer: (1) a step, (2) a half-step, (3) a half-step.

6. Chromatic: A tone of the key which is not a member of its diatonic scale. (N.B.) An accidental (a notation sign) is not a chromatic sign unless it makes a staff-degree represent a chromatic tone.

7. Major; Minor: Major and Minor keys having the same signature should be called relative major and minor. Major and minor keys having the same tonic, but different signatures, should be called tonic major and minor. Not "parallel" major or minor in either case.

8. Staff: Five horizontal lines and their spaces. Staff lines are named (numbered) upward in order, first to fifth. Spaces: Space below, first-second-third-fourth-space, and space above[44]. (Six in all.) Additional short lines and their short spaces numbered outward both ways from the main staff, viz: line below, second space below. The boundary of the staff is always a space.

[Footnote 44: NOTE:—Not "space below the staff" or "space above the staff."]

9. G Clef, F Clef, C Clef: These clefs when placed upon the staff, give its degrees their first, or primary pitch meaning. Each makes the degree it occupies represent a pitch of its respective name. Example: The G clef makes the second line represent the pitch G. Avoid "fixes G on." The staff with clef in position represents only pitches having simple or one-word names, A, B, C, etc.

10. Sharps, Flats: Given a staff with clef in position as in example above, sharps and flats make staff degrees upon which they are placed represent pitches a half-step higher or lower. These pitches have compound or two-word names. Example: The second line stands for the pitch G (simple name). Sharp the second line and it will stand for the pitch G sharp. (Compound name.) The third line stands for the pitch B. (Simple name.) Flat it, and the line will stand for the pitch B flat. (Compound name.) N.B. These signs do not "raise" or "lower" notes, tones, pitches, letters or staff degrees.

11. Double-sharp, Double-flat: Given a staff with three or more degrees sharped in the signature, double-sharps are used (subject to the rules governing composition) to make certain of these degrees, already sharped, represent pitches one half-step higher yet. Similarly, when three or more degrees are flatted in the signature, double-flats are used to make certain degrees already flatted, represent pitches one half-step lower yet. Examples: To represent sharp 2 in the key of B major, double-sharp the C degree, or (equally good) double-sharp the third space (G clef). To represent flat 6 in the key of D flat major, double-flat the B degree, or (equally good) double flat the third line (G clef). Do not say: "Put a double-sharp on 6" or "put a double-sharp on C," or "indicate" a higher or lower pitch "on" a sharped or flatted degree.

12. Signature: Sharps or flats used as signatures affect the staff degrees they occupy and all octaves of the same. Example: With signature of four sharps, the first one affects the fifth line and the first space; the second, the third space; the third, the space above and the second line; the fourth, the fourth line and the space below. Do not say: "F and C are sharped," "ti is sharped," "B is flatted," "fa is flatted." "Sharpened" or "flattened" are undesirable.

13. Brace: The two or more staffs containing parts to be sounded together; also the vertical line or bracket connecting such staffs. Not "line" or "score." "Staff" is better than "line" for a single staff, and "score" is used meaning the book containing an entire work, as "vocal score," "orchestral score," "full score."

14. Notes: Notes are characters designed to represent relative duration. When placed on staff-degrees they indicate pitch. (Note the difference between "represent" and "indicate.") "Sing what the note calls for" means, sing a tone of the pitch represented by the staff degree occupied by the note-head. The answer to the question: "What is that note?" would be "half-note," "eighth-note" according to the denomination of the note in question, whether it was on or off the staff.

15. Measure-sign: 4-4, 2-4, 6-8, are measure-signs. Avoid "time signatures," "meter-signatures," "the fraction," "time-marks." Example: What is the measure-sign? (C) Ans. A broken circle. What is its meaning? Ans. Four-quarter measure. (Not four-four time, four-four rhythm, four-four meter.)

16. Note Placing: Place a quarter note on the fourth line. Not "put a quarter note on D."

17. Beat-Pulse: A tone or rest occurs on a certain beat or pulse of a measure. Not on a certain count.

18. Signature Terminology: The right hand sharp in the signature is on the staff degree that represents seven of the major scale. Not "always on 7 or ti."

19. Signature Terminology: The right hand flat in the signature is on the staff degree that represents four of the major scale. Not "always on fa."

20. Rote, Note, Syllable: Singing by rote means that the singer sings something learned by ear without regard to notes. Singing by note means that the singer is guided to the correct pitch by visible notes. Singing by syllable means that the singer sings the tones of a song or part to the sol-fa syllables instead of to words, neutral vowels or the hum. "Sing by note" is not correct if the direction means simply to sing the sol-fa syllables, whether in sight reading, rote singing, or memory work. "Sing by syllable" would be correct in each case.

ADOPTIONS OF THE 1911 MEETING AT SAN FRANCISCO

Arabic numerals, either 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, or 12, placed on the staff directly after the signature and above the third line, show the number of beats in a measure.

A note, either a quarter or a dotted quarter, placed in parenthesis under the numeral, represents the length of one beat and is called the beat-note.

The numeral and the beat-note thus grouped constitute the measure-sign.

Illustrative statements covering proper terminology: the tune "America" is written in three-quarter measure. The chorus: "How lovely are the Messengers" is written in two-dotted quarter measure.

The above forms of statement were adopted at Denver in 1909, and are recommended for general use when speaking of music written with the conventional measure-signs, etc.

In place of: "two-two time, three-eight time, four-four time," say as above: "This piece is written in two-half measure, three-eighth measure, four-quarter measure."

MINOR SCALES

Primitive Minor (ascending)

The minor scale form having minor sixth and minor seventh above tonic to be called Primitive Minor.

Illustrative examples. A minor: a, b, c, d, e, f, g, a; C minor: c, d, e flat, f, g, a flat, b flat, c. [Transcriber's Note: Supplied b flat missing from original.]

Primitive Minor (descending)

Same pitches in reverse order.

Harmonic Minor (ascending)

The minor scale form having minor sixth and major seventh above tonic to be called Harmonic Minor.

Illustrative examples. A minor: a, b, c, d, e, f, g sharp, a; C minor: c, d, e flat, f, g, a flat, b, c.

Harmonic Minor (descending)

Same pitches in reverse order.

Melodic Minor (ascending)

The minor scale form having major sixth and major seventh above tonic to be called Melodic Minor.

Illustrative examples. A minor: a, b, c, d, e, f sharp, g sharp, a; C minor: c, d, e flat, f, g, a, b, c.

Melodic Minor (descending)

Same as the Primitive.

ADOPTIONS OF THE 1912 MEETING AT CHICAGO

Pulse and Beat

The Committee finds that the words: Pulse and Beat are in general use as synonymous terms, meaning one of the succession of throbs or impulses of which we are conscious when listening to music. Each of these pulses or beats has an exact point of beginning, a duration, and an exact point of ending, the latter coincident with the beginning of the next pulse or beat. When thus used, both words are terms of ear.

Beat

One of these words, Beat, is also in universal use, meaning one of a series of physical motions by means of which a conductor holds his group of performers to a uniform movement.

When thus used it becomes a term of eye.

The conductor's baton, if it is to be authoritative, cannot wander about through the whole duration of the pulse but must move quickly to a point of comparative repose, remaining until just before the arrival of the next pulse when it again makes a rapid swing, finishing coincidently with the initial tone (or silence) of the new pulse.

Thus it is practically the end of the conductor's beat that marks the beginning of the pulse.

The Committee is of opinion that Beat might preferably be used as indicating the outward sign.

Beat-Note

This term "beat-note" is already in use in another important connection (see Terminology Report, 1911) and the Committee recommends that those using the above terms shall say: "This note is an on-the-beat note; this one is an after-the-beat note; this one a before-the-beat note."

DEFINITIONS

Matters of Ear

Pulse: The unit of movement in music, one of a series of regularly recurring throbs or impulses.

Measure: A group of pulses.

Pulse-Group: Two or more tones grouped within the pulse.

Matters of Eye

Beat: One of a series of conventional movements made by the conductor. This might include any unconventional motion which served to mark the movement of the music, whether made by conductor, performer or auditor.

Beat-Note: A note of the denomination indicated by the measure-sign as the unit of note-value in a given measure.

Example

Given the following measure-signs: 2-4, 2-2, 2-8, quarter, half, or eighth notes, respectively, are beat-notes.

Beat-Group: A group of notes or notes and rests, of smaller denomination than the beat-note which represents a full beat from beginning to end and is equal in value to the beat-note. (A beat-group may begin with a rest.)

On-the-Beat Note (or rest): Any note (or rest) ranging in value from a full beat down, which calls for musical action (or inaction) synchronously with the conductor's beat.

After-the-Beat Note: Any note in a beat-group which indicates that a tone is to be sounded after the beginning, and before or at the middle of the pulse.

Before-the-Beat Note: Any note in a beat-group which indicates that a tone is to be sounded after the middle of the pulse.

To illustrate terminology and to differentiate between Pulse and Beat as terms, respectively of ear and eye, the following is submitted:

Whenever a brief tone involves the musical idea of syncopation, it may be regarded as an after-the-pulse tone and the note that calls for it as an after-the-beat note; when it involves the idea of anticipation or preparation it may be regarded as a before-the-pulse tone, and the note that calls for it, as a before-the-beat note.

Measure and Meter

"What is the measure-sign?"

"What is the meter-signature?"

These two words are used synonymously, and one of them is unnecessary. The Committee recommends that Measure be retained and used. Meter has its use in connection with hymns.

* * * * *

The author does not find it possible at present to agree with all the recommendations made in the above report, but the summary is printed in full for the sake of completeness.

The Music Teacher's National Association has also interested itself mildly in the subject of terminology reform, and at its meeting in Washington, D.C., in 1908, Professor Waldo S. Pratt gave his address as president of the Association on the subject "System and Precision in Musical Speech." This address interested the members of the Association to such an extent that Professor Pratt was asked to act as a committee whose purpose it should be to look into the matter of reforms necessary in music terminology and report at a later session. In 1910 Professor Pratt read a report in which he advocated the idea of making some changes in music nomenclature, but took the ground that the subject is too comprehensive to be mastered in the short time that can be given to it by a committee, and that it is therefore impossible to recommend specific changes. He also took occasion to remark that one difficulty in the whole matter of terminology is that many terms and expressions are used colloquially and that such use although usually not scientific, is often not distinctly harmful and is not of sufficient importance to cause undue excitement on the part of reformers. Quoting from the report at this point:—"A great deal of confusion is more apparent than real between note and tone, between step and degree, between key and tonality. No practical harm is done by speaking of the first note of a piece when really first tone would be more accurate. To say that a piece is written in the key of B[flat] is more convenient than to say that it is written in the tonality of which B[flat] is the tonic. The truth is that some of the niceties of expression upon which insistence is occasionally laid are merely fussy, not because they have not some sort of reason, but because they fail to take into account the practical difference between colloquial or off-hand speech and the diction of a scientific treatise. This is said without forgetting that colloquialism always needs watching and that some people form the habit of being careless or positively uncouth as if it were a mark of high artistic genius."

Professor Pratt's report is thus seen to be philosophic rather than constructive, and terminology reform will undoubtedly make more immediate progress through the efforts of the N.E.A. Committee with its specific recommendations (even though these are sometimes admittedly fussy) than through the policy of the M.T.N.A. of waiting for some one to get time to take up the subject in a scholarly way. Nevertheless the philosophic view is sometimes badly needed, especially when the spirit of reform becomes too rabid and attaches too great importance to trifles. A judicious intermingling of the two committees in a series of joint meetings would undoubtedly result in mutual helpfulness, and possibly also in a more tangible and convincing statement of principles than has yet been formulated by either.



APPENDIX E

Sonata Op. 31, No. 3 by Beethoven

Analysis by ARTHUR E. HEACOX, Oberlin Conservatory of Music

First Subject 17 measures, E[flat] major, as follows: 8 meas. presentation, one meas. link, 8 meas. repetition oct. higher. Rhythmic elements are A, B, C, all presented in first 8 meas.

[Transcriber's Note: The analysis is presented as notations on the musical score of the sonata. Please see the HTML version of this e-text to view the score with the notations and to listen to a MIDI version.]



INDEX

eh = a as in face; ah = a as in far; ch = ch as in chair; final eh = e as in met.

A (ah), 95

A battuta (ah-baht-too'-tah), 95

A capella (cah-pel'-lah), 76

A capriccio (cah-pritch'-eo), 54

Accelerando (aht-cheh-leh-rahn'-do), 54

Accented tones, 20

Accent marks, 20

Accent in measures, 44

Acciaccatura (aht-cheea-cah-too'-ra), 25, 26

Accidentals, 9

Accompagnamento (ahc-com-pahn-yah-men'-to), 95

Acoustics (ah-kow'-stics), def., 131 of auditoriums, 133

Adagietto (ah-dah-jee-et'-to), 50

Adagio (ah-dah'-jee-o), 50

A deux mains (doo-mahng), 42

Ad libitum, 54

Affrettando (ahf-fret-tahn'-do), 54

Agitato (ah-jee-tah'-to), 55

Agrements (ah-greh-mahng), 22

A la or alla (ahl'-lah), 42

Alla breve (breh'-veh), 95

Alla marcia (mar'-chee-ah), 95

Allargando (ahl-lahr-gahn'-do), 53

Alla zingara (tseen-gah'-rah), 95

Allegretto (ahl-leh-gret'-to), 51

Allegrissimo, 52

Allegro (ahl-leh'-gro), 50

Allegro agitato (ah-jee-tah'-to), 52

Allegro appassionata (-ah'-tah), 52

Allegro assai (ahs-sah'-ee), 52

Allegro commodo (kom-mo'-do), 52

Allegro con brio (bree'-o), 52

Allegro con fuoco (foo-o'-ko), 53

Allegro con moto (mo'-to), 53

Allegro con spirito (spee'-ree-to), 53

Allegro di bravura (dee brah-voo'-rah), 53

Allegro di molto (mohl'-to), 53

Allegro furioso (foo-ree-o'-so), 53

Allegro giusto (jew-sto), 53

Allegro ma grazioso (mah grah-tsi-o'-so), 53

Allegro (ma) non tanto (tahn'-to), 53

Allegro (ma) non troppo (trop'-po), 53

Allegro moderato (mod-e-rah'-to), 53

Allegro quasi andante (quah-see ahn-dahn'-teh), 53

Allegro vivace (vee-vah'-cheh), 53

Allemande (al-mahnd), 71

All'unisono (oo-nee-so'-no), 95

All'ottava (ot-tah'-vah), 15

Alt (ahlt), 95

Alto (ahl-to), 95

A mezza voce (met'-zah-vo'-cheh), 42

Amore (ah-mo'-reh), 42, 59

Andante (ahn-dahn'-teh), 50

Andante affettuoso (ahf-fet-too-o'-so), 52

Andante amabile (ah-mah'-bee-leh), 52

Andante cantabile (cahn-tah'-bee-leh), 52

Andante con moto (mo'-to), 52

Andante grazioso (grah-tsi-o'-so), 52

Andante maestoso (mah-es-to'-so), 52

Andante (ma) non troppo (mah non trop'-po), 52

Andante pastorale (pahs-to-rah'-leh), 52

Andante quasi allegro (quah-see ahl-leh'-gro), 52

Andante sostenuto (sos-teh-noo'-to), 52

Animando (ah-nee-mahn'-do), 55

Animato (ah-nee-mah'-to), 55

Animato come sopra (co-meh so'-prah), 55

Andantino (ahn-dahn-tee'-no), 50

Antecedent, 67

Anthem, 76

Anticipation, 93

Antiphony (an-tif'-o-ny), 95

Antithesis (an-tith'-), 67

A piacere (pee-ah-cheh'-reh), 54

Appoggiatura (ap-pod-jea-too'-rah), def., 25

A quatre mains (kahtr-mahng), 95

Arabesque, 95

Aria (ah'-ree-ah), 79

Arioso (ah-ree-o'-so), 95

Arpeggiando (ar-ped-jee-ahn'-do), 21

Arpeggiato (-ah'-to), 21

Arpeggiento (-en'-to), 21

Arpeggio (ar-ped'-jee-o), 21

Art-ballad, 80

Assai (ahs-sah'-ee), 42

A tempo, 54

A tempo primo (pree'-mo), 54

A tempo rubato (roo-bah'-to), 54

Attacca (aht-tah'-kah), 95

Attacca subito (soo'-bee-to), 95

Attacca subito il seguente (eel seg-wen'-teh), 95

Attack, 95

Bagpipe, 95

Ballad, 80

Band, 115

Bar, def. and use, 12 double, 12

Barcarole (bar'-cah-rohl), 95

Baritone, 95

Bass, 95

Bass clarinet, 121

Basso (bahs'-so), 95

Bassoon, 121

Bass staff, 6

Bass tuba, 125

Bass viol, 118

Ben (behn), 42

Ben marcato (mahr-kah'-to), 42

Berceuse (behr-soos'), 95

Binary form, 95

Binary measure, 95

Bis (bees), 96

Bolero (bo-leh'-ro), 71

Bourree (boo-reh'), 71

Brace, 96

Brass instruments, 116

Brillante (breel-ahn'-teh), 55

Broken chord, 96

Broken octave, 96

Cacophony (kak-of'-o-ny), 96

Cadence, 89

Cadenza, 96

Calando (kah-lahn'-do), 59

Cancel, 3, 8

Cantabile (kahn-tah'-bee-leh), 96

Cantando (kakn-tahn'-do), 96

Canto (kahn'-to), 96

Cantus firmus, 64

Canon, 64

Cantata (kahn-tah'-tah), 77

Carol, 96

Catch, 96

C clef 3, 6

Cello (chel'-lo), 118

Chaconne (shah-con'), 71

Chamber music, 72

Chanterelle (shong-tah-rel'), 117

Chinese scale, 27

Choral, 76

Chords def. and lands, 87 inversions of, 88 common, 87 seventh, 89 dominant seventh, 92

Chromatic, 96

Chromatic scale, 38

Clarinet, 121

Classes of instruments in orchestra, 115

Clavichord, 96

Clefs, 3, 5

Close position, 94

Coda, 70

Coi (co'-ee), 42

Col, 42

Colla, 42

Colla parte (par'-teh), 96

Colla voce (vo'-cheh), 96

Colle, 42

Collo, 42

Coloratura singing, 79, 96

Coll'ottava (ot-tah'-vah), 15

Combination pedals, 115

Come (koh'-meh), 42

Come primo (pree'-mo), 42

Common chords, 87

Compound measure, 45

Compound duple measure, 45

Con, 42

Con alcuna licenza (ahl-koo'-nah lee-chen'-tsah), 59

Con amore (ah-mo'-reh), 42, 59

Con anima (ah'-nee-mah), 55

Con bravura (brah-voo'-rah), 59

Con celerita (che-leh'-ree-tah), 59

Concerto (con-cher'-to), 72

Concert pitch, 138

Con delicato (deh-lee-cah'-to), 59

Con energico (en-er-jee'-ko), 59

Con espressione (es-pres-see-o'-neh), 59

Con forza (fort'-za), 60

Con fuoco (foo-o'-ko), 60

Con grand' espressione (grahnd' es-pres-see-o'-neh), 60

Con grazia (grahts-yah), 60

Con melinconia (or malinconia) (-leen-ko'-ne-eh), 60

Con moto, 55

Con passione (pas-se-o'-neh), 60

Consequent, 67

Consonance, 96

Con spirito (spe'-ree-to), 60

Con tenerezza (teh-neh-ret'-za), 60

Continuous form, 80

Contra, 42

Contra bass tuba, 126

Contra octave, 16

Contralto, 96

Con variazione (vah-ri-ah-tsi-o'-neh), 96

Cornet, 124

Counterpoint, def., 64, 62, 82

Courante (koo-rahnt'), 71

Crescendo (kre-shen'-do), 57

Crescendo al fortissimo, 58

Crescendo ed affrettando (ahf-fret-tahn'-do), 58

Crescendo ed animando poco a poco (ah-ni-mahn'-do), 58

Crescendo e diminuendo (eh de-me-noo-en'-do), 58

Crescendo molto (mohl'-to), 58

Crescendo poco a poco, 58

Crescendo poco a poco sin al fine (seen ahl fee'-neh), 58

Crescendo poi diminuendo (po'-ee dee-mee-noo-en'-do), 58

Crescendo subito (soo'-bee-to), 58

Cross-stroke, 1, 2

Csardas (tsar'-dahs), 71

Da (dah), 42

Da capo (kah'-po), 13

Dal segno (sehn'-yo), 13

Dances, 71

Dash over note, 17, 20

Decrescendo (deh-kreh-shen'-do), 58

Decrescendo al pianissimo (ahl pee-ahn-is'-si-mo), 58

Degrees of staff, 5

Delicato (deh-lee-kah'-to), 60

Descriptive music, 74

Di (dee), 42

Diatonic condition, 7

Diatonic scale, 28

Di bravura (brah-voo'-rah), 42

Diminuendo (dee-mee-noo-en'-do), 58

Di molto (mohl'-to), 42

Direct, 96

Dirge, 97

Discord, 97

Dissonance (dis'), 97

Divisi (di-ve'-ze), 97

Dolce (dohl'-cheh), 60

Dolce e cantabile (eh kahn-tah'-bee-leh), 60

Dolcissimo (dohl-chis'-see-mo), 60

Dolente (do-len'-teh), 60

Dominant, 36

Dominant Seventh, 92

Doloroso (do-lo-ro'-so), 60

Doppio (dop'-pee-o), 42

Doppio movimento (mo-vi-men'-to), 55

Dot—where placed, 3 uses of, 17 with slur or tie, 20 with dash, 20

Double bar, 12

Double bass, 118

Double bassoon, 121

Double flat, 3, 7

Double mordent, 23

Double sharp, 3, 7

Doublet, 20

Duet, 97

Duple measure, 46

Dynamics, 56

E (eh), 42

Ecole (eh'-kole), 97

Ed, 42

Eight-foot stop, 114

Elements of music, 82

Embellishments, 22

English names for notes, 11

English horn, 121

Enharmonic, def., 10

Enharmonic scale, 32

Enharmonic tie, 18

Ensemble (ong-sombl), 42

Equal temperament, 137

E poi la coda (eh-po'-ee), 14

Espressivo (ehs-pres-see'-vo), 60

Et, 42

Etto, 42

Etude, 97

Euphony (yu'-fo-ny), 97

Even measure, 46

Facile (fah-chee'-leh), 97

Fanfare (fahn'-fehr), 97

Fantasia (fahn-tah-ze'-ah), 97

F Clef, 3, 5, 6

Fermata (fehr-mah'-ta), 14, 15

Fiasco (fe-ahs'-ko), 97

Figured bass, 89

Fine (fee'-neh), 13

Five-lined octave, 16

Flat, 3, 7

Flute, 119

Folk-song, 81

Form, def., 62 binary, 95

Forte (for'-teh), 56

Forte piano (pee-ah'-no), 56

Forte possibile (pos-see'-bee-leh), 43

Fortissimo, 56

Fortissimo possibile (pos-see-bee-leh), 56

Fortisissimo, 56

Forzando (for-tsahn'-do), 57

Forzato (for-tsah'-to), 57

Four-foot stop, 114

Four-lined octave, 16

Free imitation, 64

French horn, 123

French pitch designations, 6

Fugue, 66

Fundamental, 135

Gamut (gam'-ut), 97

Gavotte (gah-vot'), 71

G Clef, 3, 5, 6

General pause, 15

German pitch designation, 6

Gigue (zheeg), 71

Giocoso (jee-o-ko'-so), 60

Giojoso (jee-o-yo'-so), 60

Glee, 81

Glissando (glis-sahn'-do), 97

Graces, 22

Grandioso (grahn-dee-o'-so), 60

Grand sonata, 74

Grave (grah'-veh), 50

Grazioso (grah-tsi-o'-so), 60

Great octave, 16

Great staff, 5

Grosse pause (gros-seh pah-oo'-za) or (gros-seh pow-zeh), 15

Gruppetto (groo-pet'-to), 22

Habanera (hah-bah-neh'-rah), 71

Half-step, 83

Harmonic minor scale, 33

Harmonics, 136

Harmonics on violin, 117

Harmony, 82

Harp, 129

Harpsichord, 97

Head of note, 1

Hold, 15

Homophonic style, 63

Hook, 1

Humoresque (hoo-mo-resk'), 97

Hymn to St. John, 37

Idyl, 97

Il (eel), 42

Il basso (bahs'-so), 42

Il piu (pee'-oo), 42

Il piu forte possibile (pos-see'-bee-leh), 42

Imitation, 64

Imperfect trill, 23

In alt (in ahlt), 97

In altissimo (ahl-tis'-si-mo), 97

Ino (ee'-no), 42

Instrumentation, 97

Instruments, classification of, 112

Intensity of tones, 135

Interlude, 97

Intermediate tones, 38 see "Chromatic," p. 96

International pitch, 138

Interval, def., 83 enharmonic, 10 harmonic, 83 melodic, 83 names of, 83

Inversion, in thematic development, 69

Inversions of chords, 88

Inverted mordent, 23

Inverted turn, 25

Issimo, 42

Kettle-drum, 126

Key, def., 28 signature, 8 enharmonic keys, 10 key-tone, 27, 28 how different from scale, 28

L, 42

La (lah), 42

Lacrimando (lah-kri-mahn'-do), 60

Lacrimoso (lah-kri-mo'-so), 60

Largamente (lar-gah-men'-teh), 42

Largando (lar-gahn'-do), 53

Larghetto (lar-get'-to), 50

Largo, 50

Largo assai (ahs-sah'-ee), 52

Largo di molto (de mohl'-to), 52

Largo ma non troppo (mah non trop'-po), 52

Largo un poco (oon po'-co), 52

Le (leh), 42

Leading tone, 33, 36

Legato (leh-gah'-to), 18, 60

Leger lines, 5

Leggierissimo (led-jah-ris'-si-mo), 60

Leggiero (led-jee'-ro), 60

Lentando (len-tahn'-do), 52

Lentemente (len-tah-men'-teh), 52

Lentissimamente (-men'-teh), 52

Lentissamente (-men'-teh), 52

Lento, 50

Lento a capriccio (ah-cah-preet'-chee-o), 52

Lento assai (ahs-sah'-ee), 52

Lento di molto (de mohl'-to), 52

Libretto (lee-bret'-to), 78

Lied (leed), 80

L'istesso tempo (lis-tes'-so), 42, 55

Loco, 15, 97

Long appoggiatura (ap-pod-jea-too'-rah), 25

Lower tetrachord, 29

Lunga pausa (loong-ah pow'-zeh) or (loon-gah pah-oo'-za), 15

Lunga trillo, 97

Lusingando (loos-in-gahn'-do), 60

Lyric, 98

Madrigal (mad'-ri-gal), 81

Maesta (mah'-es-tah), 60

Maestoso (mah-es-to'-so), 60

Maggiore (mahd-jo'-reh), 98

Main droite (mahng droa), 20

Main gauche (mahng gowsh), 20

Major key, 8

Major scale, def., 29 positions, 30 origin of name, 33

Mancando (mahn-kahn'-do), 59

Mano destra (mah'-no dehs'-trah), 20

Mano sinistra (si-nees'-trah), 20

Marcato il canto (mar-kah'-to eel kahn'-to), 98

Martellando (mar-tel-lahn'-do), 59

Martellato (mar-tel-lah'-to), 59

Marziale (mart-se-ah'-leh), 59

Mass, 77

Mazurka (mah-zoor'-ka), 71

Measure, def., 44 how differs from "bar," 12 how differs from "rhythm," 44 syncopation in, 44 simple and compound, 45 duple or even, 46 triple or perfect, 46 quadruple, 46 sextuple, 46 compound duple, 46 signature, 48 binary, 95

Mediant, 36

Mellifluous (mel-lif'-loo-us), 98

Melodic minor scales, 34

Melody, 82

Melos (meh'-los), 98

Meno (meh'-no), 42

Meno mosso (mos'-so), 53

Mente (men'-teh), 42

Menuet (meh-noo-eh'), 98

Menuetto (meh-noo-et'-to), 98

Messa di voce (mes'-sa dee vo'-cheh), 21

Mesto (mehs'-to), 60

Metronome, 49

Mezza (med'-zah), 42

Mezzo (med'-zo), 42

Mezzo forte (for'-teh), 42, 56

Mezzo piano (pe-ah'-no), 56

Mezzo soprano (so-prah'-no), 98

Mezzo voce (vo'-cheh), 60

Minor key, 8

Minore (me-no'-reh), 98

Minor scale, def., 33 positions, 34

Minuet, 71

Misterioso (mis-teh-ri-o'-so), 60

Moderato (mod-e-rah'-to), 51

Modulation, def., 92 enharmonic, 10

Molto (mohl'-to), 42

Molto crescendo (kre-shen'-do), 42

Monophonic style, 63, 67

Mordent, 22, 23

Morendo (mo-ren'-do), 59

Moriente (mo-ri-en'-teh), 59

Motet (mo-tet'), 76

Movable C Clef, 6

Mute, 117

Natural, 3, 8

Natural condition of staff-degrees, 8

Nel, 42

Nel battere (baht-teh'-reh), 42

Nella, 42

Neumae (neoo'-mee), 104

Nocturne, 98

Non (non), 42

Non tanto (tahn'-to), 42

Non tanto allegro (ahl-leh'-gro), 53

Non troppo allegro (trop'-po), 53

Notation, history of music, 101

Notes, def., 10 kinds of, 11 English names for, 11 dotted, 17 staccato, 17 irregular note-groups, 19 parts of, 1 how made, 1

Nuance (noo-angs), 98

Obbligato (ob-blee-gah'-to), 98

Oboe (o'-bo), 121

Octave, def., 36

Octaves, names of, 16

Offertory, 98

One-lined octave, 16

Open position, 94

Opera, 78

Opus, 98

Oratorio, 77

Orchestra, 115

Orchestration, 98

Organ, reed, 113 pipe, 114 point, 98

Original minor scale, 33

Origin of scale, 28

Ossia (os'-see-ah), 42, 98

Ossia piu facile (pe-oo' fah-chee'-leh), 42

Overtones, 136

Overture, 98

Parlando (par-lahn'-do), 60

Part song, 81

Pastorale (pas-to-rah'-leh), 60

Pedal point, 93

Pentatonic scale, 27

Per (pehr), 42

Percussion instruments, 116

Perdendo (pehr-den'-do), 59

Perdendosi (pehr-den-do'-see), 59

Perfect measure, 46

Perfect trill, 23

Per il violino (eel ve-o-le'-no), 42

Period, 67

Pesante (peh-sahn'-teh), 55

Peu (peuh), 42

Phrase, 67

Phrase mark, 18

Pianissimo (pee-ahn-is'-si-mo), 56

Pianissimo possibile (pos-see'-bee'-leh), 56

Pianisissimo (pee-ahn-is-is'-si-mo), 56

Piano (pee-ah'-no), 56

Piano assai (ahs-sah'-ee), 56

Piano, description of, 112

Piccolo (pik'-ko-lo), 119

Pipe organ, 114

Pitch, def., 134 pitch names, 6 standards of, 137 concert pitch, 138 international pitch, 138

Piu (pe-oo'), 42

Piu allegro (ahl-leh'-gro), 54

Piu forte (for'-teh), 42

Piu lento, 53

Piu mosso (mos'-so), 54

Piu tosto (tos'-to), 54

Pizzicato (pits-e-kah'-to), 99, 117

Pochetto (po-ket'-to), see ino, 42

Poco, 43

Poco a poco animando (ah-nee-mahn'-do), 54

Poi (po' ee), 42

Polacca (po-lahk'-kah), 99

Polka, 69

Polonaise (pol-o-nez'), 71, 99

Polyphonic style, 64

Pomposo (pom-po'-so), 60

Portamento (por'-tah-men'-to), 20

Position, open and close, 94

Possibile (pos-see'-bee-leh), 43

Postlude, 99

Prall trill, 22

Precipitoso (preh-che-pi-to'-so), 60

Prelude, 99

Prestissimo (pres-tis'-see-mo), 51

Prestissimo possibile (pos-see'-bee-leh), 51

Presto, 51

Presto assai (ahs-sah'-ee), 53

Presto (ma) non troppo (mah non trop'-po), 53

Priere (pre-ehr'), 99

Primary forms, 68

Primitive minor scale, 33

Program music, 74

Pure music, 74

Pure scale, 40

Quadruple measure, 46

Quality, 136

Quartet, 72

Quasi (quah'-see), 43

Quintole (kwin'-to-leh), 99

Quintolet, 20

Quintuplet, 20, 99

Raised sixth, 34

Rallentando (rahl-len-tahn'-do), 53

Rapidamente (rah-pid-a-men'-teh), 55

Rate of speed, of sound, 132

Recitative (res-i-tah-teev'), 78

Recitativo (reh-chee-ta-tee'-vo), 60

Reed organ, 113

Relative minor, 8, 35

Religioso (reh-lee-jo'-so), 99

Repetition and contrast, 62, 70

Requiem (re'-kwi-em), 99

Rests, def., 10 rules for making, 2 kinds of, 11 peculiar use of, 11 several measures of, 14

Retardation, 93

Rhapsody, 99

Rhythm, def., 82 element of music, 82 how differs from "measure," 44 correct use of word, 48

Rhythmic augmentation, 69

Rhythmic diminution, 69

Rhythmic figures, 44

Ribattuta (re-baht-too'-tah), 99

Rigaudon (rig'-o-don), 71

Rinforzando (rin-for-tsahn'-do), 57

Rinforzato (rin-for-tsah'-to), 57

Risoluto (ree-so-loo'-to), 60

Ritardando (ree-tar-dahn'-do), 53

Ritenente (ree-ten-en'-teh), 53

Ritenuto (ree-ten-oo'-to), 53

Ritornelle (ree-tor-nell'), 99

Ritornello (ree-tor-nel'-lo), 99

Rondo, 70, 71

Rules: For writing music, 1, 2 For turning stems, 1, 2 For altered staff degrees, 10 For embellishments, 22-26 For repeats, 13, 14 For writing chromatic scale, 38

Sans (sahng), 43

Sans pedales (peh-da-leh), 43

Sarabande (sar-ah-bahn'-deh), 71

Sarrusophone (sar-reoos-o-fohn'), 123

Saxhorn, p. 125 (footnote)

Saxophone, 121

Scales, def., 27 origin, 28 how different from keys, 28 positions of: major, 30 minor, 34 chromatic, 38 tones of, called, 5, 36, 37 Chinese, 27 Scotch, 27

Scherzando (skehr-tsahn'-do), 60

Scherzo (skehr'-tso), 71, 72

Scherzoso (skehr-tzo'-so), 60

School-round, 66

Schottische (shot'-tish), 99

Score, 99

Scotch scale, 27

Sec (sek), 99

Secco (sek'-ko), 99

Section, 67

Segue (sehg'-weh), 14

Semplice (sem-plee'-cheh), 60

Sempre (sem'-preh), 43

Sempre forte (for'-teh), 43

Sempre lento malinconico assai (mah-leen-ko'-ni-ko ahs-sah'-ee), 55

Sempre marcatissimo (mar-kah-tis'-si-mo), 60

Sentimento (sen-tee-men'-to), 60

Senza (sen-tza), 42

Senza accompagnamento (ahc-com-pahn-yah-men'-toh), 42

Senza repetizione (reh-peh-titz-e-o'-neh), 14, 99

Senza replica (reh'-ple-kah), 99

Septimole, 20

Septolet, 20

Sequence, 91

Serenade, 99

Serenata (seh-re-nah'-tah), 99

Seventh chord, 89

Sextet, 99

Sextolet, 20

Sextuple measure, 46

Sextuplet, 20, 100

Sforzando (sfortz-ahn'-do), 57

Sforzato (sfortz-ah'-to), 57

Shake, 22

Sharp, 3, 7

Short appoggiatura (ap-pod-jea-too-rah), 25

Simile (see'-mee-leh), 14, 100

Similiter (see-mil'-i-ter), 100

Simple measure, 45

Simple tone, 137

Sin (seen), 43

Sin al fine (ahl-fee'-neh), 14

Sino (see'-no), 43

Sixteen-foot stop, 114

Sixty-four-foot stop, 114

Slentando (slen-tahn'-do), 53

Slur, 18

Small octave, 16

Smorzando (smor-tzahn'-do), 59

Solenne (so-len'-neh), 59

Solfege (sul-fezh'), 100

Solfeggio (sol-fed'-jo), 100

Solmization, 100

Solo, 43

Sonata (so-nah'-tah), 71

Sonata allegro (ahl-leh'-gro), 73

Sonata form, 73

Sonatina (so-na-tee'-nah), 74

Song form, 68

Sopra (so'-prah), 100

Soprano (so-prah'-no), 100

Sordino (sor-dee'-no), 117

Sostenuto (sos-teh-noo'-to), 100

Sotto (sot'-to), 100

Sotto voce (vo'-cheh), 59

Sound, App. C, 131 Production of, 131 Transmission of, 131 Rate of travel of, 131 Intensification of, 133 Reflection of, 133 Classification of, 133

Spiritoso (spee-ree-to'-so), 60

Staccatissimo (stahk-kah-tis'-si-mo), 17

Staccato (stahk-kah'-to), 17, 20, 100

Staff, 5

Staff degrees, 5

Standards of pitch, 137

Stems, 1

Step, half and whole, 83

Strepitoso (streh-pee-to'-so), 61

Stretto (stret'-to), 54

Strict imitation, 64

Stringed instruments, 115

Stringendo (strin-jen'-do), 54

Stroking notes, 2

Strophe form (stro'-feh), 80

Styles, kinds of, 63 how differ from forms, 62

Sub, 43

Sub-dominant, 36

Subject, 64

Subito (soo-bee'-to), 100

Sub-mediant, 36

Sub-octave, 16

Suite (sweet), 70

Super-dominant, 36

Super-tonic, 36

Suspension, 92

Swell-box, 114

Syllables for sight-singing, 37

Symphonic poem, 75

Symphony, def., 73

Syncopation, 44

Tail of note, 1

Takt pausa (tahkt pow'-zeh or pah-oo'-za), 11

Tanto (tahn'-to), 43

Tarantella (tah-rahn-tel'-lah), 71

Tempered scales, 137

Tempo, 48-50

Tempo commodo (ko-mo'-do), 55

Tempo di marcia (de mar'-chee-ah), 55

Tempo di menuetto (meh-noo-et'-to), 55

Tempo di valso (vahl'-so), 55

Tempo giusto (jew-sto), 54

Tempo ordinario (or-dee-nah'-ree-o), 55

Tempo primo (pree'-mo), 54

Tempo rubato (roo-bah'-to), 54

Tenor, 100

Tenuto (teh-noo'-to), 55, 100

Terminology Reforms, App. D., p. 139

Tetrachords in scales, 29

Thematic development, 69

Theme, 69

Theme and variations, 69

Thesis, 67

Thirty-two-foot stop, 114

Thorough-bass, 89

Three-lined octave, 16

Through-composed form, 80

Tie, 18

Timbre (tambr), 82

Time, wrong uses of word, 48

Toccata (tok-kah'-tah), 100

Tonality scale, 27, 28, 38

Tone, how represented, 10 ornamental tone, 22 key-tone, 27 of resolution, 93

Tone-poem, 75

Tonic, 36

Tonic minor, 36

Tranquillo (trahn-quil'-lo), 61

Transposition, 94

Tre (treh), 43

Treble staff, 6

Tre corde (kor'-deh), 43, 59

Tres (treh), 43

Tres lentement (lahng-te-mahng), 52

Tres vivement (ve'-veh-mahng), 42

Triad, def., 87, 88

Trill, 22

Trio, 72

Triple measure, 46

Triplet, 19, 100

Tristamente (tris-tah-men'-teh), 61

Trombone, 125

Troppo (trop'-po), 43

Trumpet, 124

Tuba, 125

Turn, 24, 25

Tutte le corde (toot'-teh leh kor'-deh), 59

Tutti (toot'-tee), 100

Two-foot stop, 114

Two-lined octave, 16

Un (oon), 43

Una (oo'-nah), 43

Una corda, 43, 59

Uno (oo'-no), 43

Un peu (oon peuh), 43

Un peu crescendo (kre-shen'-do), 43

Un poco animate (ah-ni-mah-'to), 54

Untempered scale, 40

Upper partials, 136

Upper tetrachord, 29

Veloce (veh-lo'-cheh), 55

Viola (vee-o'-lah), 117

Violin, 117

Violoncello (vee-o-lohn-chel'-lo), 118

Vivo (vee'-vo), 51

Vivace (vee-vah'-cheh), 51

Vivacissimo (vee-vah-chis'-see-mo), 51

Vocal music, 76

Volante (vo-lahn'-teh), 55

Waltz, 68

Whole-step, 83

Whole-step scale, 28, 40

Wood-wind instruments, 115

THE END