2. Another means of determining the tempo of a composition is to play it at different tempi and then to choose the one that "feels right" for that particular piece of music. This is perhaps the best means of getting at the correct tempo but is open only to the musician of long experience, sure judgment, and sound scholarship.

3. A third method of finding tempi is through the interpretation of certain words used quite universally by composers to indicate the approximate rate of speed and the general mood of compositions. The difficulty with this method is that one can hardly find two composers who employ the same word to indicate the same tempo, so that no absolute rate of speed can be indicated, and in the last analysis the conductor or performer must fall back on the second method cited above—i.e., individual judgment.

109. In spite of the inexactness of use in the case of expressions relating to tempo, these expressions are nevertheless extremely useful in giving at least a hint of what was in the composer's mind as he conceived the music that we are trying to interpret. Since a number of the terms overlap in meaning, and since the meaning of no single term is absolute, these expressions relating to tempo are best studied in groups. Perhaps the most convenient grouping is as follows:

1. Grave (lit. weighty, serious), larghissimo, adagissimo, and lentissimo—indicating the very slowest tempo used in rendering music.

2. Largo,[26] adagio,[27] and lento—indicating quite a slow tempo.

[Footnote 26: Largo, larghetto, etc., are derivatives of the Latin word largus, meaning large, broad.]

[Footnote 27: Adagio means literally at ease.]

3. Larghetto (i.e., a little largo) and adagietto (a little adagio)—a slow tempo, but not quite so slow as largo, etc.

4. Andante (going, or walking, as contrasted with running) and andantino—indicating a moderately slow tempo.

Andantino is now quite universally taken slightly faster than andante, in spite of the fact that if andante means "going," and if "ino" is the diminutive ending, then andantino means "going less," i.e., more slowly!

5. Moderato—a moderate tempo.

6. Allegro and allegretto[28]—a moderately quick tempo, allegretto being usually interpreted as meaning a tempo somewhat slower than allegro.

[Footnote 28: There has been some difference of opinion as to which of these two terms indicates the more rapid tempo: an analysis tells us that if allegro means quick, and if etto is the diminutive ending, then allegretto means a little quick—i.e., slower than allegro. These two terms are, however, so closely allied in meaning that a dispute over the matter is a mere waste of breath.]

The word allegro means literally happy, joyous, and this literal meaning is still sometimes applicable, but in the majority of instances the term refers only to rate of speed.

7. Vivo, vivace, (lit. lively)—a tempo between allegro and presto.

8. Presto, prestissimo, vivacissimo, and prestissimo possibile—the most rapid tempo possible.



CHAPTER XII

TEMPO (Continued)

110. Innumerable combinations of the words defined in Sec. 109 with one another and with other words occur. Some of these combinations with their approximate meanings follow. The meaning of any such expression not found in the list may usually be arrived at by consulting the terms defined in paragraph 109 and recalling the use of certain auxiliary terms quoted in Chapter IX.

Largo assai—very slow.

Largo di molto—very slow.

Largo ma non troppo—slow, but not too slow.

Largo un poco—slow, but not so slow as largo. (Cf. larghetto.)

Lentemente—slowly.

Lentando—with increasing slowness.

Tres lentement—very slowly.

Lentissamente—very slowly.

Lentissamamente—very slowly.

Lento assai—very slowly.

Lento a capriccio—slowly but capriciously.

Lento di molto—very slowly.

Andante affettuoso—moderately slow, and with tenderness and pathos. [Transcriber's Note: Corrected error "affetuoso" in original.]

Andante amabile—moderately slow, and lovingly.

Andante cantabile—moderately slow, and in singing style.

Andante grazioso—moderately slow, and gracefully.

Andante maestoso—moderately slow, and majestically.

Andante con moto—slightly faster than andante.

Andante (ma) non troppo—not too slowly.

Andante pastorale—moderately slow, and in simple and unaffected style; (lit. rural, pastoral).

Andante quasi allegro—almost as rapid in tempo as allegro; (lit. an andante in the style of allegro).

Andante sostenuto—moderately slow and sustained.

Allegrissimo—much faster than allegro. (The superlative degree of allegro.)

Allegro agitato—a moderately rapid tempo, and in agitated style.

Allegro appassionata—a moderately rapid tempo, and in passionate style.

Allegro assai (very allegro)—faster than allegro.

Allegro commodo—a conveniently rapid tempo.

Allegro con brio—an allegro played in brilliant style. Faster than allegro.

Allegro con fuoco—an allegro played with fire, i.e., with extreme animation. Faster than allegro.

Allegro con spirito—an allegro performed with spirit.

Allegro con moto—faster than allegro.

Allegro di bravura—an allegro performed in brilliant style, i.e., demanding great skill in execution.

Allegro furioso (furiously)—quicker than allegro; very brilliant.

Allegro giusto—an allegro movement, but in exact rhythm.

Allegro ma grazioso—an allegro played in graceful style.

Allegro (ma) non tanto—an allegro movement, but not too rapid.

Allegro (ma) non troppo—an allegro movement, but not too rapid.

Allegro (ma) non presto—an allegro movement, but not too rapid.

Allegro moderato—slower than allegro.

Allegro vivace—faster than allegro.

Presto assai—as rapidly as possible.

Presto (ma) non troppo—a presto movement, but not too rapid.

111. There are certain terms which indicate a modification of the normal tempo of a movement, these being divided into two classes, (a) those terms which indicate in general a slower tempo, and (b) those which indicate in general a more rapid tempo. The further subdivisions of these two classes are shown below.

(a) Terms indicating a slower tempo.

1. Terms indicating a gradual retard.

Ritenente, (rit.), ritenuto (rit.), ritardando (rit.), rallentando (rall.), slentando.

2. Terms indicating a tempo which is to become definitely slower at once.

Piu lento (lit. more slowly), meno mosso (lit. less movement).

3. Terms indicating a slower tempo combined with an increase in power.

Largando, allargando. These words are both derived from largo, meaning large, broad.

(For terms indicating both slower tempo and softer tone, see page 59, Sec. 127.)

The student should note the difference between groups 1 and 2 as given above: the terms in group 1 indicate that each measure, and even each pulse in the measure, is a little slower than the preceding one, while such terms as piu lento and meno mosso indicate a rate of speed becoming instantly slower and extending over an entire phrase or passage. Some composers (e.g., Beethoven and Couperin) have evidently had this same distinction in mind between rallentando and ritardando on the one hand, and ritenuto and ritenente on the other, considering the former (rall. and rit.) to indicate a gradually slackening speed, and the latter (ritenuto and ritenente) to indicate a definitely slower rate. The majority of composers do not however differentiate between them in this way, and it will therefore hardly be worth while for the student to try to remember the distinction.

(b) Terms indicating a more rapid tempo.

1. Terms indicating a gradual acceleration.

Accelerando, affrettando [Transcriber's Note: Corrected misspelling "affretando" in original] (this term implies some degree of excitement also), stringendo, poco a poco animato.

2. Terms indicating a tempo which is to become definitely faster at once.

Piu allegro, piu tosto, piu mosso, stretto, un poco animato.

112. After any modification in tempo (either faster or slower) has been suggested it is usual to indicate a return to the normal rate by some such expression as a tempo (lit. in time), a tempo primo (lit. in the first time), tempo primo, or tempo.

113. Tempo rubato (or a tempo rubato) means literally in robbed time, i.e., duration taken from one measure or beat and given to another, but in modern practice the term is quite generally applied to any irregularity of rhythm or tempo not definitely indicated in the score.

The terms ad libitum, (ad lib.), a piacere, and a capriccio, also indicate a modification of the tempo at the will of the performer. Ad libitum means at liberty; a piacere, at pleasure; and a capriccio, at the caprice (of the performer).

114. The term tempo giusto is the opposite of tempo rubato (and of the other terms defined in paragraph 113). It means literally in exact time. (Tempo giusto is sometimes translated quite rapidly,[29] but this is very unusual.)

[Footnote 29: Bussler—Elements of Notation and Harmony, p. 76.]

115. L'istesso tempo means—at the same rate of speed. E.g., when a measure signature changes from 2/4 to 6/8 with a change in beat-note from a quarter to a dotted-quarter, but with the same tempo carried through the entire movement.

116. Tenuto (ten.) indicates that a tone or chord is to be held to its full value. This word is sometimes used after a staccato passage to show that the staccato effect is to be discontinued, but is often used merely as a warning not to slight a melody-tone—i.e., to give it its full value.

117. Veloce means—swiftly, and is applied to brilliant passages (e.g., cadenzas) which are to be played as rapidly as possible without much regard for measure rhythm. The words rapidamente, brillante and volante (flying) have the same meaning as veloce.

118. The following expressions referring to tempo are also in common use but cannot easily be classified with any of the groups already defined.

Con moto—with motion; i.e., not too slow.

Pesante—slowly, heavily.

Doppio movimento—twice as rapid as before.

Tempo ordinario—in ordinary tempo.

Tempo commodo—in convenient tempo.

Sempre lento malinconico assai—always slowly and in a very melancholy style.

Animando, animato, con anima—with animation.

Agitato—agitated.

119. Tempo di marcia is given by Riemann (Dictionary of Music, p. 783) as equivalent to andante, M.M. 72-84. The same writer gives tempo di menuetto as equivalent to allegretto, and tempo di valso as equivalent to allegro moderato (which he regards as indicating a more rapid tempo than allegretto).



CHAPTER XIII

DYNAMICS

120. The word dynamics (cf. dynamic—the opposite of static) as used in the nomenclature of music has to do with the various degrees of power (i.e., the comparative loudness and softness) of tones.

As in the case of words referring to tempo, the expressions referring to dynamics are always relative, never absolute; it is possible to indicate that one measure is to be louder than another, but it is not possible (nor desirable) to indicate exactly how loud either is to be. Thus dynamics, perhaps even more than tempo, will be seen to depend on the taste of the performer or conductor.

The following words referring to dynamics are in common use:

Pianisissimo (ppp)—as softly as possible. (It will be noted that this is a sort of hyper-superlative of piano.)

Pianissimo (pp)—very softly. (The superlative of piano.)

Piano (p)—softly.

Mezzo piano (mp)—medium softly.

Mezzo forte (mf)—medium loudly.

Forte (f)—loudly (lit. strong).

Fortissimo (ff)—very loudly. (The superlative of forte.)

Fortisissimo (fff)—as loudly as possible.

The lack of a one-word comparative degree in the case of both piano and forte seems to necessitate the hyper-superlative degree as given above, but the practice of using four, or even five p's or f's is not desirable.

121. The terms defined in Sec. 120 are often combined with others, as e.g.,

Pianissimo possibile—as softly as possible.

Piano assai—very softly.

Fortissimo possibile—as loudly as possible.

Forte piano (fp)—loud, followed at once by soft.

As in the case of terms relating to tempo, the meaning of many other expressions relating to dynamics may easily be arrived at by recalling the list of auxiliary terms quoted under Sec. 96.

122. The terms sforzando, forzando, sforzato and forzato all indicate a strong accent on a single tone or chord. These words are abbreviated as follows:—sf,fz, and sfz, the abbreviation being placed directly above (sometimes below) the note or chord affected. The signs [vertical accent symbol] and [horizontal accent symbol] are also commonly used to indicate such an accent.

In interpreting these accent marks the student must bear in mind again the fact that they have a relative rather than an absolute meaning: the mark sf occurring in the midst of a piano passage will indicate a much milder form of accent than would the same mark occurring in the midst of a forte passage.

123. The words rinforzando and rinforzato (abb.—rinf. and rfz.) mean literally reinforced, and are used to indicate a sudden increase in power usually extending over an entire phrase or passage instead of applying only to a single tone or chord as in the case of sforzando, etc.

124. Crescendo (abb.—cresc. or [crescendo symbol]) means a gradual increase in power. It will be noted that this word does not mean loud, nor does it mean a sudden increase in power unless accompanied by some auxiliary term such as subito, or molto.

Broadly speaking there are two varieties of crescendo: (1) that in which the same tone increases in power while being prolonged; (2) that in which succeeding tones are each sounded more strongly than the preceding one. The first variety is possible only on instruments giving forth a tone which can be varied after it begins. Thus e.g., the human voice, the violin, the organ enclosed in a swell box, and certain wind instruments, are all capable of sounding a tone softly at first and gradually increasing the volume until the maximal point of power has been reached. But on the piano, organ not enclosed in a swell-box, kettle drum, etc., the power of the tone cannot be varied after the tone has once been sounded, and a crescendo effect is therefore possible only in a passage, in rendering which each succeeding tone is struck more forcibly than its immediate predecessor. This second variety of crescendo offers a means of dramatic effect which may be employed most strikingly, as e.g., when a long passage begins very softly and increases in power little by little until the utmost resources of the instrument or orchestra have been reached. A notable example of such an effect is found in the transition from the third to the fourth movements of the Beethoven Fifth Symphony.

The difference between sforzando, rinforzando, and crescendo should now be noted: sforzando indicates that a single tone or chord is to be louder; rinforzando, that an entire passage is to be louder, beginning with its first tone; but crescendo indicates that there is to be a gradual increase in power, this increase sometimes occurring during the sounding of a single tone, but more often in a passage.

125. Certain combinations of the word crescendo with other words are so common that they should be especially noted. Among these are:

Crescendo al fortissimo—keep on gradually increasing in power until the fortissimo (or very loud) point has been reached.

Crescendo subito—increase in power suddenly (or rapidly).

Crescendo poco a poco—increase in power very, very gradually.

Crescendo poi diminuendo—first increase, then diminish the tone.

Crescendo e diminuendo—same as cresc. poi dim.

Crescendo molto—increase in power very greatly.

Crescendo ed animando poco a poco—growing gradually louder in tone and quicker in tempo.

Crescendo ed affrettando—gradually louder and faster. [Transcriber's Note: Corrected misspelling "affretando" in original.]

Crescendo poco a poco sin al fine—crescendo gradually even up to the very end.

126. Decrescendo (decresc. or [decrescendo symbol]) means a gradual diminishing of the tone. It is the opposite of crescendo. The word diminuendo is synonymous with decrescendo.

Decrescendo (or diminuendo) al pianissimo means—decrease gradually in power until the pianissimo (or very soft) point is reached.

127. A number of terms referring to both softer tone and slower tempo are in use. The most common of these are:—mancando, moriente,[30] morendo, perdendo (from perdere—to lose), perdendosi, calando, and smorzando.[31] Such expressions are usually translated—"gradually dying away."

[Footnote 30: Both moriente and morendo mean literally—dying.]

[Footnote 31: From smorzare (It.)—to extinguish.]

128. In piano music the abbreviation Ped. indicates that the damper pedal (the one at the right) is to be depressed, while the sign [damper release symbol] shows that it is to be released. In many modern editions this depression and release of the damper pedal are more accurately indicated by the sign [damper symbol].

The term senza sordini is also occasionally found in old editions, indicating that the damper pedal is to be depressed, while con sordini shows that it is to be released. These expressions are taken from a usage in music for stringed instruments, in which the term con sordini means that the mute (a small clamp of metal, ivory or hardwood) is to be affixed to the bridge, this causing a modification in both power and quality of the tone. The damper on the piano does not in any way correspond to the mute thus used on stringed instruments, and the terms above explained as sometimes occurring in piano music are not to be recommended, even though Beethoven used them in this sense in all his earlier sonatas.

129. The words una corda (lit.—one string) indicate that the "soft pedal" (the one at the left) is to be depressed, while the words tre corde (lit. three strings) or tutte le corde (all the strings) show that the same pedal is to be released. These expressions refer to the fact that on grand pianos the "soft pedal" when depressed moves the hammers to one side so that instead of striking three strings they strike only two (in the older pianos only one, hence una corda), all three strings (tre corde) being struck again after the release of the pedal.

130. Other terms relating either directly or indirectly to the subject of dynamics are:

Con alcuna licenza—with some degree of license.

Con amore—with tenderness.

Con bravura—with boldness.

Con celerita—with rapidity.

Con delicato—with delicacy.

Con energico—with energy.

Con espressione—with expression.

Con forza—with force.

Con fuoco—with fire and passion.

Con grand' espressione—with great expression.

Con grazia—with grace.

Con melinconia—with melancholy. [Transcriber's Note: archaic form of "malinconia".]

Con passione—with passion.

Con spirito—with spirit.

Con tenerezza—with tenderness.

Delicato—delicately.

Dolce—sweetly, gently.

Dolcissimo—most sweetly.

Dolce e cantabile—gently and with singing tone.

Dolente } Doloroso } plaintively or sorrowfully.

Espressivo—expressively.

Grandioso—grandly, pompously.

Grazioso—gracefully.

Giocoso—humorously, (cf. jocose).

Giojoso—joyfully, (cf. joyous).

Lacrimando, lacrimoso—sorrowfully.

Legato—smoothly.

Leggiero—lightly.

Leggierissimo—most lightly; almost a staccato.

Lusingando—caressingly, coaxingly, tenderly.

Maesta, maestoso—majestically.

Martellando, martellato—strongly accented, (lit.—hammered).

Marziale—martial—war-like.

Mesto—pensively.

Mezzo voce—with half voice.

Misterioso—mysteriously.

Parlando—well accented or enunciated; applied to melody playing. (The word parlando means literally-speaking.)

Pastorale—in simple and unaffected style, (lit.—pastoral, rural).

Pomposo—pompously.

Precipitoso—precipitously.

Recitativo—well enunciated. (This meaning applies only in instrumental music in which a melody is to stand out above the accompaniment. For def. of recitative in vocal music, see p. 78.)

Risoluto—firmly, resolutely.

Scherzando, scherzoso, etc.—jokingly. These terms are derived from the word scherzo meaning a musical joke.

Semplice—simply.

Sempre marcatissimo—always well marked, i.e., strongly accented.

Sentimento—with sentiment.

Solenne—solemn.

Sotto voce—in subdued voice.

Spiritoso—with spirit.

Strepitoso—precipitously.

Tranquillo—tranquilly.

Tristamente—sadly.

131. Many other terms are encountered which on their face sometimes seem to be quite formidable, but which yield readily to analysis. Thus e.g., crescendo poco a poco al forte ed un pochettino accelerando, is seen to mean merely—"increase gradually to forte and accelerate a very little bit." A liberal application of common sense will aid greatly in the interpretation of such expressions.



CHAPTER XIV

TERMS RELATING TO FORMS AND STYLES

132. A form in music is a specific arrangement of the various parts of a composition resulting in a structure so characteristic that it is easily recognized by the ear. Thus e.g., although every fugue is different from all other fugues in actual material, yet the arrangement of the various parts is so characteristic that no one who knows the fugue form has any doubt as to what kind of a composition he is hearing whenever a fugue is played. The word form is therefore seen to be somewhat synonymous with the word plan as used in architecture; it is the structure or design underlying music. Examples of form are the canon, the fugue, the sonata, etc.

Speaking broadly we may say that form in any art consists in the placing together of certain parts in such relations of proportion and symmetry as to make a unified whole. In music this implies unity of tonality and of general rhythmic effect, as well as unity in the grouping of the various parts of the work (phrases, periods, movements) so as to weld them into one whole, giving the impression of completeness to the hearer.

133. The primal basis of form is the repetition of some characteristic effect, and the problem of the composer is to bring about these repetitions in such a way that the ear will recognize them as being the same material and will nevertheless not grow weary of them. This is accomplished by varying the material (cf. thematic development), by introducing contrasting material, and by choice of key.

134. The student should note at the outset of this topic the difference in meaning between the terms form and style: A form is a plan for building a certain definite kind of composition, but a style is merely a manner of writing. Thus e.g., the fugue is a form—i.e., it is a plan, which although capable of variation in details, is yet carried out fairly definitely in every case; but counterpoint is merely a style or manner of writing (just as Gothic architecture is a style of building), which may be cast into any one of several forms.

135. The material found in the following sections is an attempt to explain in simple language certain terms relating to forms and styles which are in common use; in many cases the definition is too meagre to give anything but a very general idea, but it is hoped that the student will at least be set to thinking and that he will eventually be led to a more detailed and scholarly study of the subject. (The article "Form" and the separate articles under each term here defined, as found in Grove's Dictionary, are especially recommended. For examples of the various forms described, see also Mason and Surette—"The Appreciation of Music," Supplementary Volume.)

136. In a very general way there may be said to be two styles of musical composition, the monophonic (or homophonic)—the one-voiced—and the polyphonic—the many voiced. The polyphonic[32] style antedates the monophonic historically.

[Footnote 32: Polyphonic music flourished from 1000 A.D. to about 1750 A.D., the culmination of the polyphonic period being reached in the music of Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750). Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, and the later writers have used the monophonic style more than the polyphonic, although a combination of the two is often found, as e.g., in the later works of Beethoven.]

137. In monophonic music there is one voice which has a pronounced melody, the other voices (if present) supporting this melody as a harmonic (and often rhythmic) background. An example of this is the ordinary hymn-tune with its melody in the highest part, and with three other voices forming a "four-part harmony." The sonata, symphony, opera, modern piano piece, etc., are also largely monophonic, though polyphonic passages by way of contrast are often to be found.

138. In polyphonic music each voice is to a certain extent melodically interesting, and the "harmony" is the result of combining several melodies in such a way as to give a pleasing effect, instead of treating a melody by adding chords as an accompaniment or support. Counterpoint, canon, round, fugue, etc., are all polyphonic in style. The word contrapuntal is often used synonymously with polyphonic.

(Sections 139 to 143 relate especially to terms describing polyphonic music.)

139. Counterpoint is the art of adding one or more parts or melodies to a given melody, the latter being known as the "cantus firmus," or subject. It may therefore be broadly defined as "the art of combining melodies."

The word counterpoint comes from the three words "punctus contra punctum," meaning "point against point." The word point as here used refers to the punctus—one of the neumae of the mediaeval system, these neumae being the immediate predecessors of modern notes.

Both vocal and instrumental music have been written in contrapuntal style. The familiar two- and three-part "inventions" by Bach are excellent examples of instrumental counterpoint, while such choruses as those in "The Messiah" by Handel illustrate the highest type of vocal counterpoint.

140. Imitation is the repetition by one part, of a subject or theme previously introduced by another part. If the imitation is exact, the term strict imitation is applied, but if only approximate, then the term free imitation is used in referring to it. The repetition need not have the exact pitches of the subject in order to be strict; on the contrary the imitation is usually at the interval of an octave, or a fifth, or a second, etc. Fig. 57 shows an example of strict imitation in which the third part comes in an octave lower than the first part.

141. A canon is a contrapuntal composition in the style of strict imitation, one part repeating exactly (but at any interval) what another part has played or sung. The term "canonic style" is sometimes applied to music in which the imitation is not exact. An example of three-part canon is given in Fig. 57.



The word canon means law, and was applied to this particular form of composition because the rules relating to its composition were invariable. It is because of this non-flexibility that the canon is so little used as a form at the present time: the modern composer demands a plan of writing that is capable of being varied to such an extent as to give him room for the exercise of his own particular individuality of conception, and this the canon does not do. For this same reason too the fugue and the sonata have successively gone out of fashion and from Schumann down to the present time composers have as it were created their own forms, the difficulty in listening arising from the fact that no one but the composer himself could recognize the form as a form because it had not been adopted to a great enough extent by other composers to make it in any sense universal. The result is that in much present-day music it is very difficult for the hearer to discover any trace of familiar design, and the impression made by such music is in consequence much less definite than that made by music of the classic school. It is probable that a reaction from this state of affairs will come in the near future, for in any art it is necessary that there should be at least enough semblance of structure to make the art work capable of standing as a universal thing rather than as the mere temporary expression of some particular composer or of some period of composition.

142. The common school round is an example of canon, each voice repeating exactly what the first voice has sung, while this first voice is going on with its melody. The round is therefore defined as a variety of canon in which the imitation is always in unison with the subject.

143. The fugue (Latin, fuga = flight) is a form of contrapuntal composition in which the imitation is always in the dominant key, i.e., a fifth above or a fourth below. The imitation (called "the answer") may be an exact repetition of the subject (sometimes called "the question"), but is usually not so.

The fugue differs from the canon also in that the subject is given in complete form before the answer begins, while in the canon the imitation begins while the subject is still going on. The fugue is not nearly so strict in form as the canon and gives the composer much greater opportunity for expressing musical ideas. A canon may be perfect in form and yet be very poor music; this same statement might of course be made about any form, but is especially true in the stricter ones.



CHAPTER XV

TERMS RELATING TO FORMS AND STYLES (Continued)

(Sections 144 to 160 relate particularly to terms used in descriptions of monophonic music[33].)

[Footnote 33: There is a very pronounced disagreement among theorists as to what terms are to be used in referring to certain forms and parts of forms and it seems impossible to make a compromise that will satisfy even a reasonable number. In order to make the material in this chapter consistent with itself therefore it has been thought best by the author to follow the terminology of some single recognized work on form, and the general plan of monophonic form here given is therefore that of the volume called Musical Form, by Bussler-Cornell.]

144. A phrase is a short musical thought (at least two measures in length) closing with either a complete or an incomplete cadence. The typical phrase is four measures long. The two-measure phrase is often called section. The word phrase as used in music terminology corresponds with the same word as used in language study.

145. A period is a little piece of music typically eight measures long, either complete in itself or forming one of the clearly defined divisions of a larger form. The period (when complete in itself) is the smallest monophonic form.

The essential characteristic of the regular period is the fact that it usually consists of two balanced phrases (often called antecedent and consequent or thesis and antithesis), the first phrase giving rise to the feeling of incompleteness (by means of a cadence in another key, deceptive cadence, etc.,) the second phrase giving the effect of completeness by means of a definite cadence at the close.

The second half of the period is sometimes a literal repetition of the first half, in all respects except the cadence, but in many cases too it is a repetition of only one of the elements—rhythm, intervals, or general outline. Figs. 58 and 59 show examples of both types. The principle almost invariably holds that the simpler the music (cf. folk-tunes) the more obvious the form of the period, while the more complex the music, the less regular the period.



146. The primary forms are built up by combining two or more periods.

The small two-part primary form (often called song-form or Lied-form) consists of two periods so placed that the second constitutes a consequent or antithesis to the first. The second half of this second period is often exactly the same as the second half of the first period, thus binding the two periods together into absolute unity. The theme of the choral movement of the Ninth Symphony (Beethoven) quoted below is a perfect example of this form. Other examples are "Drink to Me Only With Thine Eyes," and "The Last Rose of Summer."



The small three-part primary form is like the two-part primary form except that it has a section of contrasting material interpolated between the two periods. This middle part is usually an eight-measure phrase.

The large two- and three-part primary forms usually have sixteen-measure periods instead of eight-measure ones, but are otherwise similar in construction.

These various primary forms are used in constructing many varieties of compositions, among them the theme and variations, the polka, the waltz, the march, etc., as well as most of the shorter movements in sonatas, quartets, etc. They are used in vocal music also, but are less apt to be regular here because the form of vocal music is largely dependent upon the structure of the text.

147. A theme is a fragment of melody used as the subject of a fugue, as the basis of the development section in "sonata form," etc. Sometimes it is a complete tune (often in period form), on which variations are made, as e.g., in the familiar theme and variations.

148. Thematic development consists in taking a short theme (or several short themes) and by means of transposition, interval expansion and contraction, rhythmic augmentation and diminution, inversion, tonality changes, etc., building out of it a lengthy composition or section of a composition. Fig. 60 b, c, d, e, and f show how the theme given in Fig. 60 (a) may be varied in a few of these ways. There are hundreds of other fashions in which this same theme might be varied without destroying its identity. For other examples of thematic development see the development section of Sonata Op. 31, No. 3, as analyzed in Appendix E. [Transcriber's Note: Corrected error "Sec. 3" in original.]



For further illustrations of development in the case of this same theme, see—Christiani—The Principles of Expression in Pianoforte playing, p. 144, ff. from which the foregoing themes have been adapted.

149. A rondo is an instrumental composition (in homophonic style) in which a certain theme appears several times almost always in the same form (i.e., not thematically varied), the repetitions of this theme being separated by contrasting material.

The rondo is the oldest of the larger monophonic forms and has been used in many different ways, but perhaps its most characteristic construction is as follows: (1) Principal subject; (2) second subject in dominant key; (3) principal subject; (4) third subject; (5) first subject again; (6) second subject, in tonic key; (7) coda (or ending).

The student should note particularly the problem of repetition and contrast (mentioned in Sec. 134) as here worked out, as the rondo was the first monophonic form in which this matter was at all satisfactorily solved, and its construction is especially interesting because it is readily seen to be one of the direct predecessors of the highest form of all—the sonata. Examples of rondos may be found in any volume of sonatas or sonatinas.

150. A suite is a set of instrumental dances all in the same or in nearly related keys. The first dance is usually preceded by an introduction or prelude, and the various dances are so grouped as to secure contrast of movement—a quick dance being usually followed by a slower one.

The suite is interesting to students of the development of music as being the first form in several movements to be generally adopted by composers. It retained its popularity from the beginning of the seventeenth to the end of the eighteenth centuries, being finally displaced by the sonata, whose immediate predecessor it is thus seen to be.

The suite was formerly written for solo instrument only (harpsichord, clavichord, piano) but modern composers like Dvořak, Lachner, Moszkowski, and others have written suites for full orchestra also.

151. Among the dances commonly found in suites are the following:

Allemande—duple or quadruple measure.

Bolero—triple measure.

Bouree—duple or quadruple measure.

Chaconne—triple measure.

Courante—a very old dance in triple measure.

Csardas—Hungarian dance in duple or quadruple measure.

Gavotte—quadruple measure.

Gigue (or jig)—duple measure.

Habanera—Spanish dance in triple measure.

Minuet—slow dance in triple measure.

Mazurka—Polish dance in triple measure.

Polonaise—Polish dance in triple measure.

Rigaudon—lively dance in duple or triple measure.

Sarabande—triple measure.

Tarantella—swift Italian dance in sextuple measure.

The allemande is especially interesting to students of music form because of its relation to the sonata, it being the prototype of the sonata-allegro (i.e., the first movement of the sonata). The sarabande and courante are likewise interesting as the prototypes of the second movement, and the bouree, minuet, etc., for their connection with the third movement.

152. The scherzo (lit. musical joke) is a fanciful instrumental composition. It was used by Beethoven as the third movement of the sonata instead of the more limited minuet, but is also often found as an independent piece.

153. A sonata is an instrumental composition of three or more movements (usually four), the first and last of which are almost always in rapid tempo. Each of these movements is a piece of music with a unity of its own, but they are all merged together in a larger whole with a broad underlying unity of larger scope. The composition receives its name from the fact that its first movement is cast in sonata-form. (See Sec. 157 for description of sonata-form.)

When the sonata has four movements, these are usually arranged as follows:

1. A quick movement (allegro, presto, etc.), often preceded by a slower introduction.

2. A slow movement (largo, andante, adagio, etc.).

3. A minuet or scherzo, often with a trio added, in which case the part preceding the trio is repeated after the trio is played.

4. A quick movement—the finale, sometimes a rondo, sometimes another sonata-form, sometimes a theme with variations.

These movements are all in closely related keys, but in a variety of contrasting rhythms.

154. A trio is a sonata for three instruments (such as piano, violin, and cello), while a quartet is a sonata for four instruments, the most common quartet combination being as follows: First and second violins, viola, and violoncello.

The term chamber music is often applied to instrumental music for trio, quartet, quintet, and other similar combinations which are suitable for a small room rather than for a large concert hall.

The words trio and quartet are also applied to vocal works for three and four voices respectively, these having no relation whatsoever to the sonata as described above. The word trio is also applied to the middle section of minuets, scherzas, marches, etc., the term originating in the old usage of writing this part for three instruments only.

155. A concerto is a sonata for a solo instrument with orchestral accompaniment, the form being usually somewhat modified so as to adapt it to a composition in which there must necessarily be opportunity for a good deal of technical display. There are usually but three movements in the concerto.

The great majority of concertos are for piano and orchestra, but examples of concertos for violin, cello, flute, oboe, and other solo instruments (all with orchestral accompaniment) have also been written. A few modern composers have applied the term concerto to certain large organ works (with no orchestral accompaniment, the composition being written for just the one instrument), but this use of the word is so contrary to the accepted definition that it is hardly justifiable.

When a concerto is played on two pianos (without orchestra), this does not mean that there is no orchestral part, but that there is no orchestra to play it, and so the parts that should be played by the orchestral instruments have simply been arranged for a second piano (sometimes organ).

156. A symphony is a sonata for full orchestra. In general its construction is the same as that of the sonata, but it is usually of much larger proportions and has in it much greater variety of both tonal and rhythmic material. The symphony is generally conceded to be the highest type of instrumental music ever evolved.

The symphony was accepted as a standard form in the time of Haydn (1732-1809) and was developed enormously by Haydn himself, Mozart (1756-1791), and Beethoven (1770-1827), reaching perhaps its highest point in the famous "Nine Symphonies" of the last-named composer. Later symphony writers whose works are at present being performed include Schumann, Tschaikowsky, and Dvořak.

The word symphony was formerly used synonymously with ritornelle, both words being applied to instrumental interludes between parts of vocal works, but this usage has now entirely disappeared.

157. Sonata-form (sometimes called sonata-allegro) is a plan for the construction of instrumental music (sonatas, quartets, symphonies, etc.), in which three rather definite divisions always occur, the third division being a more or less literal repetition of the first.

These three parts of sonata-form with their usual subdivisions are:

I. EXPOSITION

(1) Principal theme (or first subject).

(2) Link-episode (or modulation group).

(3) Secondary theme (or song group), always in a nearly related key.

(4) Closing group.

(5) Coda.

II. DEVELOPMENT SECTION

Treating the themes introduced in the exposition in an almost infinite variety of fashions, according to the principles of thematic development. (See Sec. 148).

III. RECAPITULATION (OR REPRISE)

Consisting essentially of the same subdivisions found in the exposition, but differing from this first section in one essential point, viz., that instead of stating the secondary theme in a related key, the entire recapitulation is in the principal key. This third section is always followed by a coda (which may either be very short or quite extended), bringing the whole movement to a more definite close.

The second part of sonata-form (the development section) is sometimes the longest and most intricate of the three divisions, and it is at this point that the composer has an opportunity of displaying to the full his originality and inventive skill. It is principally because of this development section that the sonata is so far superior as a form to its predecessors. For an analyzed example of sonata-form, see Appendix E. The student is advised to take other sonatas and go through the first movements with a view to finding at least the three main divisions mentioned above. In some cases the form will of course be so irregular that all the parts indicated cannot be discovered, but the general outlines of the scheme will always be present.

158. A sonatina, as its name implies, is a little sonata. It differs from the sonata proper principally in having little or no development, the second section being of slight importance as compared with the corresponding section of a sonata.

A grand sonata is like an ordinary sonata in form, but is of unusually large dimensions.

159. Program music is instrumental music which is supposed to convey to the listener an image or a succession of images that will arouse in him certain emotions which have been previously aroused in the composer's mind by some scene, event, or idea. The clue to the general idea is usually given at the beginning of the music in the form of a poem or a short description of the thing in the mind of the composer, but there are many examples in which there is no clue whatsoever except the title of the composition.

Program music represents a mean between pure music (cf. the piano sonata or the string quartet) on the one hand, and descriptive music (in which actual imitations of bird-calls, whistles, the blowing of the wind, the galloping of horses, the rolling of thunder, etc., occur), on the other. Most program music is written for the orchestra, examples being Liszt's "The Preludes," Strauss' "Till Eulenspiegel," etc.

160. A symphonic poem (or tone poem) is an orchestral composition of large dimensions (resembling the symphony in size), usually embodying the program idea. It has no prescribed form and seems indeed to be often characterized by an almost total lack of design, but there are also examples of symphonic poems in which the same theme runs throughout the entire composition, being adapted at the various points at which it occurs to the particular moods expressed by the program at those points.

The symphonic poem was invented by Liszt (1811-1886) and has since been used extensively by Strauss, Saint-Saens and others. It came into existence as a part of the general movement which has caused the fugue and the sonata successively to go out of fashion, viz., the tendency to invent forms which would not hamper the composer in any way, but would leave him absolutely free to express his ideas in his own individual way.



CHAPTER XVI

TERMS RELATING TO VOCAL MUSIC

161. An anthem is a sacred choral composition, usually based on Biblical or liturgical[34] words. It may or may not have an instrumental accompaniment, and is usually written in four parts, but may have five, six, eight, or more.

[Footnote 34: A liturgy is a prescribed form or method of conducting a religious service, and the parts sung in such a service (as e.g., the holy communion, baptism, etc.), are referred to as the musical liturgy.]

The word anthem is derived from antifona (or antiphona), meaning a psalm or hymn sung responsively, i.e., antiphonally, by two choirs, or by choir and congregation.

A full anthem is one containing no solo parts; a solo anthem is one in which the solo part is predominant over the chorus, while a verse anthem is one in which the chorus parts alternate with passages for concerted solo voices (i.e., trios, quartets, etc.).

162. A capella (sometimes spelled cappella) or alla capella music is part-singing (either sacred or secular) without accompaniment.

This term means literally "in chapel style," and refers to the fact that in the early days of the church all singing was unaccompanied.

163. A motet is a sacred choral composition in contrapuntal style. It has no solo parts, thus corresponding to the madrigal (q.v.) in secular music. The motet is intended for a capella performance, but is often given with organ accompaniment.

164. A choral is a hymn-tune of the German Protestant Church. It is usually harmonized in four voices. The choral (sometimes spelled chorale) is described as having "a plain melody, a strong harmony, and a stately rhythm." It differs from the ordinary English and American hymn-tune in being usually sung at a much slower tempo, and in having a pause at the end of each line of text.

165. The mass is the liturgy for the celebration of the Lord's Supper in the service of the Roman Catholic Church. As used in the terminology of music the word refers to the six hymns which are always included when a composer writes a musical mass, and which form the basis of the celebration of the Communion.[35] These six hymns are as follows:

[Footnote 35: It should be understood that this statement refers to the service called "the high mass" only, there being no music at all in connection with the so-called "low mass."]

Kyrie.

Gloria (including the Gratias agimus, Qui tollis, Quoniam, Cum Sancto Spirito).

Credo (including the Et Incarnatus, Crucifixus, and Et Resurrexit).

Sanctus (including the Hosanna).

Benedictus.

Agnus Dei (including the Dona nobis).

The requiem mass is the "mass for the dead" and differs considerably from the ordinary mass. Both regular and requiem masses have been written by many of the great composers (Bach, Beethoven, Verdi, Gounod), and in many cases these masses are so complex that they are not practicable for the actual service of the Church, and are therefore performed only by large choral societies, as concert works.

166. A cantata is a vocal composition for chorus and soloists, the text being either sacred or secular. The accompaniment may be written for piano, organ, or orchestra.

When sacred in character the cantata differs from the oratorio in being shorter and less dramatic, in not usually having definite characters, and in being written for church use, while the oratorio is intended for concert performance.

When secular in subject the cantata differs from the opera in not usually having definite characters, and in being always rendered without scenery or action.

Examples of the sacred cantata are: Stainer's "The Crucifixion," Clough-Leighter's "The Righteous Branch," and Gaul's "The Holy City." Examples of the secular cantata are: Bruch's "Armenius," Coleridge-Taylor's "Hiawatha."

167. An oratorio is a composition on a large scale for chorus, soloists, and orchestra, the text usually dealing with some religious subject. The oratorio, as noted above, is not intended for the church service, but is written for concert performance.

168. An opera is a composition for vocal soloists, chorus, and orchestra, with characters, action, scenery, and dramatic movement. It is a drama set to music.

Grand opera is opera with a serious plot, in which everything is sung, there being no spoken dialog at all.

Opera comique is a species of opera in which part of the dialog is spoken and part sung. Opera comique is not synonymous with comic opera, for the plot of opera comique is as often serious as not. In fact the entire distinction between the terms grand opera and opera comique is being broken down, the latter term referring merely to operas first given at the Opera Comique in Paris, and the former term to those given at the Grand Opera House in the same city.

A comic opera is a humorous opera, the plot providing many amusing situations and the whole ending happily. It corresponds with the comedy in literature.

A light opera is one with an exceedingly trivial plot, in which songs, dances, and pretty scenery contribute to the amusement of the audience. The music is lively, but usually as trivial as the plot.

The term music drama was used by Wagner in referring to his own operas, and is also sometimes applied to other modern operas in which the dramatic element is supposed to predominate over the musical.

169. A libretto (lit.—little book) is the word-text of an opera, oratorio, cantata, or some other similar work.

170. Recitative is a style of vocal solo common to operas, oratorios, and cantatas, especially those written some time ago. Its main characteristic is that the word-text is of paramount importance, both rhythm and tone-progression being governed by rhetorical rather than by musical considerations.

Recitative undoubtedly originated in the intoning of the priest in the ritualistic service of the Church, but when applied to the opera it became an important means of securing dramatic effects, especially in situations in which the action of the play moved along rapidly. Recitative is thus seen to be a species of musical declamation.

In the early examples of recitative there was scarcely any accompaniment, often only one instrument (like the cello) being employed to play a sort of obbligato melody: when full chords were played they were not written out in the score, but were merely indicated in a more or less general way by certain signs and figures. (See "thorough-bass," p. 85, Sec. 200.)

But about the middle of the seventeenth century a slightly different style of recitative was invented, and in this type the orchestra was employed much more freely in the accompaniment, especially in the parts between the phrases of the text, but to some extent also to support the voice while singing. This new style was called recitativo stromento (i.e., accompanied recitative), while the original type was called recitativo secco (i.e., dry recitative).

During the last century the style of recitative has been still further developed by Gluck and Wagner, both of whom used the orchestra as an independent entity, with interesting melodies, harmonies and rhythms all its own, while the vocal part is a sort of obbligato to this accompaniment. But even in this latest phase of recitative, it is the word-text that decides the style of both melody and rhythm in the voice part. Fig. 61 shows an example of dry recitative, taken from "The Messiah."



171. Aria is likewise a style of vocal solo found in operas, etc., but its predominating characteristic is diametrically opposed to that of the recitative. In the aria the word-text is usually entirely subordinate to the melody, and the latter is often very ornate, containing trills, runs, etc.

The rendition of this ornate style of music is often referred to as "coloratura singing," but it should be noted that not all arias are coloratura in style.

The familiar solos from The Messiah—"Rejoice Greatly," and "The trumpet shall sound" are good examples of the aria style.

172. A lied (Ger. = song) is a vocal solo in which the text, the melody, and the accompaniment contribute more or less equally to the effect of the whole.

Strictly speaking the word lied means "a poem to be sung," and this meaning will explain at once the difference between the lied on the one hand, and the Italian recitative and aria on the other, for in the lied the text is of great importance, but the music is also interesting, while in the recitative the text was important but the music very slight, and in the aria the text was usually inconsequential while the music held the center of interest.

The most pronounced characteristic of the lied is the fact that it usually portrays a single mood, sentiment, or picture, thus differing from the ballad, which is narrative in style. It will be noted that this "single mood, or sentiment, or picture" was originally conceived by the poet who wrote the word-text, and that the composer in writing music to this text has first tried to get at the thought of the poet, and has then attempted to compose music which would intensify and make more vivid that thought. This intensification of the poet's thought comes as often through the rhythm, harmony, and dynamics of the accompaniment as through the expressiveness of the voice part.

The style of song-writing in which each verse is sung to the same tune is called the "strophe form," while that in which each verse has a different melody is often referred to as the "continuous" or "through-composed" form (Ger. durch-componiert).

173. A ballad was originally a short, simple song, the words being in narrative style, i.e., the word-text telling a story. In the earlier ballads each verse of the poem was usually sung to the same tune (strophe form), but in the art-ballad as developed by Loewe and others the continuous style of composition is employed, this giving the composer greater opportunities of making vivid through his music the events described by the poem. These later ballads are in consequence neither "short" nor "simple" but compare in structure with the lied itself.

174. A folk-song is a short song sung by and usually originating among the common people. Its dominant characteristic is usually simplicity, this applying to word-text, melody, and accompaniment (if there is one). The text of the folk-song is usually based on some event connected with ordinary life, but there are also many examples in which historical and legendary happenings are dealt with. Auld Lang Syne, and Comin' thru the Rye, are examples of folk-songs.

There has been some difference of opinion as to whether a song, the composer of which is known, can ever constitute a real folk-song: recent writers seem to be taking the sensible view of the matter, viz.: that if a song has the characteristics of a folk- rather than an art-song, and if it remains popular for some time among the common people, then it is just as much a folk-song whether the composer happens to be known or not.

175. A madrigal is a secular vocal composition having from three to eight parts. It is in contrapuntal style, like the motet, and is usually sung a capella.

176. A glee is a vocal composition in three or more parts, being usually more simple in style than the madrigal, and sometimes having more than one movement. The glee may be either gay or sad in mood, and seems to be a composition peculiar to the English people.

177. A part-song is a composition for two or more voices, (usually four) to be sung a capella. It is written in monophonic rather than in polyphonic style, thus differing from the madrigal and glee. Morley's "Now is the Month of Maying" is an example of the part-song, as is also Sullivan's "O Hush Thee, My Baby." The term part-song is often loosely applied to glees, madrigals, etc.



CHAPTER XVII

RHYTHM, MELODY, HARMONY AND INTERVALS

178. The four elements commonly attributed to music (in the order of their development) are: Rhythm, Melody, Harmony, and Timbre (or tone-color).

179. Rhythm is the regular recurrence of accent. In music it is more specifically the regular recurrence of groups of accented and non-accented beats (or pulses)—according to some specified measure-system. Since rhythm implies continuity, there must usually be at least two such measure groups in order to make musical rhythm possible. (See p. 44, Sec. 97.)

180. A melody is a succession of single tones of various pitches so arranged that the effect of the whole will be unified, coherent, and pleasing to the ear.

The soprano part of hymn-tunes and other simple harmonized compositions is often referred to as "the melody."

181. Harmony is the science of chord construction and combination.

The term harmony refers to tones sounding simultaneously, i.e., to chords, as differentiated from tones sounding consecutively, as in melody. The word harmony may therefore be applied to any group of tones of different pitches sounded as a chord, although specifically we usually refer to a succession of such chords when we speak of "harmony." It is possible to use the same combination of tones in either melody or harmony; in fact these two elements as applied to modern music have developed together and the style of present-day melody is directly based upon the development that has recently taken place in harmonic construction.

Harmony (as contrasted with counterpoint) first began to be an important factor in music about 1600 A.D., i.e., at the time when opera and oratorio came into existence, when form was established, and when our modern major and minor scales were adopted. Before this practically all music was composed on a contrapuntal basis.

182. Timbre is that peculiar quality of sound which enables one to distinguish a tone produced by one instrument (or voice) from a tone produced by an equal number of vibrations on another instrument.

The word timbre is synonymous with the terms quality of tone, and tone quality (Ger.—Klang-farbe), the excuse for using it being that it expresses adequately in one word an idea that in our language takes at least two: this excuse would disappear (and incidentally a much-mispronounced word would be eliminated) if the single word quality were to be adopted as the equivalent of timbre. Thus, e.g., the soprano voice singing c' has a quality different from the contralto voice singing the same tone.

(The remainder of this chapter and all of Chapter XVIII deal with terms commonly encountered in the study of harmony. Courses in this subject usually begin with a study of scales, but since this subject has already been somewhat extensively treated, this chapter will omit it, and will begin with the next topic in harmony study, viz.—the interval.)

183. An interval is the relation of two tones with regard to pitch. If the two tones are sounded simultaneously the result is an harmonic interval, but if sounded consecutively the result is a melodic interval. Fig. 62 represents the pitches f' and a' as a harmonic interval, while Fig. 63 represents the same pitches arranged as a melodic interval.



184. In classifying intervals two facts should be constantly kept in mind:

(1) The number name of the interval (third, fifth, sixth, etc.), is derived from the order of letters as found in the diatonic scale. Thus the interval C—E is a third because E is the third tone from C (counting C as one) in the diatonic scale. C—G is a fifth because G is the fifth tone above C in the diatonic scale.

It should be noted however that the same number-names apply even though one or both letters of the interval are qualified by sharps, flats, etc. Thus e.g., C—G[sharp] is still a fifth, as are also C[sharp]—G[flat] and C[flat]—G[sharp].

(2) In determining the specific name of any interval (perfect fifth, major third, etc.), the half-step and whole-step (often referred to respectively as minor second, and major second) are used as units of measurement.

The half-step is usually defined as "the smallest usable interval between two tones." Thus, C—C[sharp] is a half-step, as are also B—C, F—G[flat], etc.

A whole-step consists of two half-steps. C—D is a whole-step, as are also B[flat]—C, E—F[sharp], F[sharp]—G[sharp], G[flat]—A[flat], etc.

The expressions half-step and whole-step are much to be preferred to half-tone and whole-tone, as being more clear and definite. Thus e.g., the sentence "The two tones are a half-step apart" is much better than "The two tones are a half-tone apart."

185. A prime is the relation between two tones whose pitches are properly represented by the same degree of the staff.

A perfect prime is one whose tones have the same pitch. Middle C sounded by piano and violin at the same time would offer an example.

An augmented prime is one whose second tone is one half-step higher than the first. Ex. C—C[sharp].

186. A second is the relation between two tones whose pitches are properly represented by adjacent degrees of the staff. (The first line and first space are adjacent degrees, as are also the third line and fourth space.)

A minor second is one comprising one half-step. Ex. B—C.

A major second is one comprising two half-steps. Ex. B—C[sharp].

An augmented second is one comprising three half-steps. Ex. F—G[sharp].

187. A third is an interval comprising two seconds.

A diminished third has two minor seconds (i.e., two half-steps). C—E[double-flat].

A minor third has one minor and one major second (i.e., three half-steps). C—E[flat].

A major third has two major seconds (i.e., four half-steps). C—E.

188. A fourth is an interval comprising three seconds.

A diminished fourth has two minor and one major second. C[sharp]—F.

A perfect fourth has one minor and two major seconds. C—F.

An augmented fourth (tritone) has three major seconds. C—F[sharp].

189. A fifth is an interval comprising four seconds.

A diminished fifth has two minor and two major seconds. C—G[flat].

A perfect fifth has one minor and three major seconds. C—G.

An augmented fifth has four major seconds. C—G[sharp].

190. A sixth is an interval comprising five seconds.

A minor sixth has two minor and three major seconds. C—A[flat].

A major sixth has one minor and four major seconds. C—A.

An augmented sixth has five major seconds. C—A[sharp].

191. A seventh is an interval comprising six seconds.

A diminished seventh has three minor and three major seconds. C—B[double-flat].

A minor seventh has two minor and four major seconds. C—B[flat].

A major seventh has one minor and five major seconds. C—B.

192. An octave is an interval comprising seven seconds.

A diminished octave has three minor and four major seconds. C—C[flat].

A perfect octave has two minor and five major seconds. C—C.

An augmented octave has one minor and six major seconds. C—C[sharp].

193. A ninth is usually treated as a second, a tenth as a third, etc. The interval of two octaves is often referred to as a fifteenth.

194. If the major diatonic scale be written and the interval between each tone and the key-tone noted, it will be observed that the intervals are all either major or perfect. See Fig. 64.



In this connection also it will be noted that the interval next smaller than major is always minor, while that next smaller than perfect or minor is always diminished: but that the interval next larger than both major and perfect is augmented.

195. An interval is said to be inverted when the tone originally the upper becomes the lower. Thus C—E, a major third, inverted becomes E—C, a minor sixth.



CHAPTER XVIII

CHORDS, CADENCES, ETC.

196. A chord is a combination of several tones sounding together and bearing an harmonic relation to each other. The simplest chord is the triad, which consists of a fundamental tone called the root, with the third and fifth above it. C—E—G is a triad, as are also D—F—A, F—A—C, and G—B—D.

197. Triads are classified as major, minor, diminished, or augmented.

A major triad has a major third and a perfect fifth, i.e., it is a major third with a minor third on top of it. Ex. C—E—G.

A minor triad has a minor third and a perfect fifth, i.e., it is a minor third with a major third on top of it. Ex. C—E[flat]—G.

A diminished triad has a minor third and a diminished fifth, i.e., it is a minor third with another minor third on top of it. Ex. C—E[flat]—G[flat].

An augmented triad has a major third and an augmented fifth, i.e., it is a major third with another major third on top of it. Ex. C—E—G[sharp].

198. A triad may be built on any scale-tone, but those on I, IV, and V, are used so much oftener than the others that they are often called the common chords. In referring to triads the Roman numerals are used to show on what scale-tone the triad is based, the size of the numeral (with other signs) indicating the kind of triad found on each tone of the scale. Thus e.g., the large I shows that the triad on the first tone (in major) is a major triad, the small II shows that the triad on the second tone is minor, etc. The following figure will make this clear.



The triads in the minor scale are as follows:



199. A triad is said to be in fundamental position when its root is the lowest tone. It is said to be in the first inversion when the third is the lowest tone, and in the second inversion when the fifth is the lowest tone. Thus e.g., in Fig. 66 the same chord (C—E—G) is arranged in three different positions, at (a) in fundamental position, at (b) in the first inversion, and at (c) in the second inversion.



200. When the root is not the bass note, figures are sometimes used to show what chord is to be played or written. Thus, e.g., the figure 6 over a bass note means that the note given is the third of a chord, the root being found by going up a sixth from the bass note: i.e., the chord is to be sounded in its first inversion. In the same way the figures 6/4 indicate that the note given is the fifth of the chord, the root and fifth being found by going up a sixth and a fourth from the note given; i.e., the chord is to be sounded in its second inversion.

The use of these and other similar figures and signs is called figured bass (or thorough bass) notation. An example of a figured bass is given in Fig. 67.



Thorough bass notation was formerly used extensively in writing accompaniments to vocal works, the accompanist having to interpret the notes and signs given, and then to make up an interesting accompaniment as he went along. Much of Handel's music was written in this way, but in modern editions of these works the chords have been printed in full and the signs omitted.

201. A seventh chord consists of a fundamental tone with its third, fifth, and seventh. The fifth is sometimes omitted. A ninth chord consists of a fundamental with its third, fifth, seventh, and ninth.

202. A cadence is the close of a musical phrase: in melody it refers to the last two tones; in harmony to the last two chords.

The word cadence is derived from cadere, a Latin word meaning to fall, the reference being to the falling of the voice (i.e., the dropping to the normal pitch) at the close of a sentence.

203. The most frequent cadence in harmony is that involving the chord on I preceded by the chord on V. Because of its directness the cadence V—I is called the authentic cadence.

204. The most satisfactory form (to the ear) of the authentic cadence is that in which the highest voice (the soprano) of the final chord is the root of that chord. When the final chord appears in this position the cadence is called perfect[36] authentic, and when the third or fifth of the chord appear in the soprano, the cadence is called imperfect authentic. Fig. 68 shows the chord G—B—D cadencing to C—E—G in three different ways. The first one (a) is called a perfect authentic cadence, but the last two (c) and (d) are imperfect authentic.

[Footnote 36: Many theorists (including Durand in his monumental "Treatise on Harmony") consider the V—I cadence to be the only one which may legitimately be called perfect, but the majority of writers seem to take the view that either authentic or plagal cadence may be either perfect or imperfect, depending upon the soprano tone, as noted above.]



205. A plagal cadence is one in which the tonic chord is preceded by the sub-dominant chord (IV—I). The plagal cadence (sometimes called the church cadence, or amen cadence), like the authentic, is described as being perfect when the soprano of the tonic chord is the root of that chord, and imperfect when the soprano of the final chord is the third or fifth of that chord. Fig. 69 shows the chord F—A—C cadencing to C—E—G in three ways. The first one (a) is called a perfect plagal cadence, the last two are imperfect plagal.



206. A half-cadence occurs when the dominant chord is used as the final chord of a phrase, and is immediately preceded by the tonic chord. This form is used to give variety in the course of a composition, but is not available at the end because it does not give a definite close in the tonic key. Fig. 70 shows the use of the half-cadence at the close of such a phrase.



207. A deceptive cadence is the progression of the dominant chord to some other chord than the tonic, the word deceptive implying that the ear expects to hear V resolve to I and is deceived when it does not do so. The most common form of deceptive cadence is that in which V (or V^7) resolves to VI. It is used to give variety, but as in the case of the half-cadence, is not available at the end of a composition. Fig. 71 gives an example.



208. A sequence is a succession of similar harmonic progressions, these resulting from a typical or symmetrical movement of the bass part. See Fig. 72.



The word sequence is also applied to a succession of similar melodic progressions, as in Fig. 73.



209. Modulation is a change of key without any break in the continuity of chords or melody tones. Harmonic modulations are usually effected through the medium of a chord, some or all of whose tones are common to both keys. Examples of both harmonic and melodic modulations are shown in Figs. 74 and 75.



The chord most frequently used in modulating is the dominant seventh, i.e., a seventh chord (see Sec. 201) on the dominant tone of the key. In the key of C this chord is G—B—D—F; in the key of D it is A—C[sharp]—E—G; in the key of A[flat] it is E[flat]—G—B[flat]—D[flat], etc.



210. A suspension is the temporary substitution of a tone a degree higher than the regular chord-tone, this temporary tone being later replaced by the regular chord-tone. See Fig. 76 (a).



211. A retardation is the temporary substitution of a tone a degree lower than the regular tone, this tone (as in the case of the suspension) being later replaced by the regular chord tone. See Fig. 77 (a).



The "regular chord tone" to which both suspension and retardation resolve is called the tone of resolution.

212. The anticipation is a chord-tone introduced just before the rest of the chord to which it belongs is sounded. See Fig. 78 (a).



213. A pedal point (or organ point) is a tone sustained through a succession of harmonic progressions, to the chords of some of which it usually belongs. The term pedal point originated in organ playing, (where the foot on a pedal can sustain a tone while the hands are playing a succession of harmonies), but as now used it may be applied to any kind of music. The dominant and tonic are the tones most often used in this way. See Fig. 79.



214. When the upper three voices of a four-voice composition are written close together (the soprano and tenor never appearing more than an octave apart), the term close position is applied. But when the upper voices are not written close together, the term open position is applied.

215. By transposition is meant playing, singing, or writing a piece of music in some other key than the original. Thus e.g., if a song written in the key of G is too high in range for a soloist, the accompanist sometimes transposes it to a lower key (as F or E), thus causing all tones to sound a second or a third lower than they did when the same song was played in the original key.



CHAPTER XIX

MISCELLANEOUS TERMS

A battuta—with the beat; in strict rhythm. [Transcriber's Note: Corrected error "battua" in original.]

A quatre mains—for four hands.

Accompagnamento—the accompaniment.

All'unisono—in unison.

Alla breve—2/2 measure.

The term alla breve is also sometimes used as a tempo indication, to show a rate of speed so great that a half-note has a beat, i.e., only two beats in a measure—hence twice as fast as before.

Alla capella—usually the same as a capella (see p. 76, Sec. 162) but sometimes used in the same sense as alla breve.

Alla marcia—in march style.

Alla zingara—in gypsy style.

Alt—see in alt.

Alto—the lowest female voice. Range approximately g-e''.

The word alto is derived from the Latin word altus, meaning high, the term being formerly applied to the highest male voice, which originally sang (and still does so in many male choirs) the alto part.

Animato come sopra—in animated style as above.

Antiphony (antiphonal)—the responsive singing of two choirs, usually one at either end of the church, or at either side of the chancel.

Arabesque—an instrumental composition in light, somewhat fantastic style.

The term arabesque is derived from the word Arabian, and was originally applied to a style of decoration.

Arioso—in the style of an air or song, i.e., a flowing, vocal style.

Attacca—attack the next division without any pause.

Attacca subito—same as attacca.

Attacca subito il seguente—attack at once that which follows. [Transcriber's Note: In last 3 entries, corrected misspelling "attaca" in original.]

Attack—the promptness or firmness with which a phrase is begun.

Bagpipe—A Scotch instrument on which the tone is produced by a combination of bellows and reeds. Its characteristic effect is the continuous sounding of a low tone (sometimes several tones) while the melody is being played on the higher reeds.

Barcarole (or barcarolle)—a boat song. Also applied to a vocal or instrumental composition in the style of the gondolier's boat song.

Baritone (or barytone)—the male voice having a range between that of the tenor and that of the bass. Approximate range G-g'.

Bass—the lowest male voice. Approximate range E-e'.

Basso—same as bass.

Berceuse—a cradle song.

Binary form—a form in two parts.

Binary measure—a measure having two beats.

Bis—twice. Used to indicate a repetition. (Rare.)

Brace—the sign used to join several staffs, showing that all tones represented on these staffs are to be performed together. The term is often used also in referring to the music written on staffs so joined; as—"Begin with the upper brace."

Broken chord—a chord whose tones are not all sounded simultaneously, as e.g., in an accompaniment group.

Broken octave—an octave whose tones are sounded one at a time instead of simultaneously.

Cacophony—harsh, discordant, unpleasant, especially incorrect combinations of tones. The opposite of euphony.

Cadenza—A brilliant passage, usually in an instrumental composition, introduced just before the close of a movement. The cadenza was formerly improvised by the performer, (thus giving an opportunity of displaying his technical skill), but since Beethoven, composers have usually written their own cadenzas.

Cantabile—in a singing style.

Cantando—same as cantabile.

Canto—the highest voice part; i.e., the soprano part.

Note the derivation of canto, cantabile, etc., from the Latin word cantus, meaning a song.

Carol—a hymn of joyful praise, usually sung in connection with Easter or Christmas festivities. The word carol meant originally a dance, hence the happy character of songs of this type.

Catch—a round set to humorous words.

Chromatic (noun)—a term somewhat loosely applied to any tone not belonging to the key as indicated by the signature. Many teachers are replacing the word chromatic in this sense with the term intermediate tone, this term being applicable whether the foreign tone is actually used for ornamental purposes as a chromatic, or to effect a modulation. Thus e.g., "F[sharp] is the intermediate tone between F and G in the key of C."

Clavichord—an instrument with keys, resembling the square piano in appearance. The tone was produced by forcing wedge-shaped pieces of metal against the strings, thus setting them in vibration. The clavichord was one of the immediate predecessors of the piano, much of the music written by Bach being composed for it, although this music is now played on the modern piano.

Colla voce—with the voice: i.e., play the accompaniment according to the soloist's performance rather than strictly according to the rhythm indicated in the score.

Colla parte—same as colla voce.

Coloratura—florid passages in singing. Also applied to the style of singing employed in rendering such passages. (See p. 76, Sec. 171.)

Consonance—A combination of tones agreeable to the ear and requiring no resolution to other tone-combinations in order to give the effect of finality. The major triad C—E—G is an example of a consonant chord.

Contralto—same as alto.

Con variazioni—with variations.

Direct—a sign ([direct symbol]) placed at the end of the last staff on a page, to indicate what the first note on the next page is going to be. This sign is now practically obsolete.

Dirge—a funeral chant. The dirge is named from the first word of a chant used in the "office for the dead," which begins—Dirige Domine, Deus meus, in conspectu tuo viam meam (Direct, O Lord, My God, my way in Thy sight).

Discord—an ugly, unharmonious combination of tones.

Dissonance—a harmonic combination of tones giving rise to the feeling of incompleteness or unrest, and therefore requiring resolution to some other combination which has an agreeable or final feeling. (cf. consonance.) The diminished triad C—E[flat]—G[flat] is an example of a dissonant chord.

Divisi—divided. An indication showing that the first violins, or the sopranos, or any other body of performers ordinarily sounding in unison are now to divide into two or more parts.

Duet—a composition for two performers. (From the It. word due—two.)

Ecole—a school or style of composition or performance.

Etude—a study. Also an instrumental composition in the style of a study, but intended for artistic performance.

Euphony—agreeable tone combinations; the opposite of cacophony. (From the Greek word meaning well-sounding.)

Facile—easy.

Fanfare—a trumpet call.

Fantasia—An instrumental composition not based on any regular form.

Fiasco—a complete failure or breakdown.

This use of the word fiasco (which means in Italian a flask, or bottle) is said to have reference to the bursting of a bottle, the complete ruin of the bottle being compared with the complete failure of a performance.

Gamut—all the tones of a scale.

Glissando—playing a scale on the keyboard by drawing the finger along over the keys, thus depressing them in very rapid succession. The word is derived from the French word glisser—to glide.

Harpsichord—one of the immediate predecessors of the piano.

Humoresque—a capricious, fantastic composition. (Cf. fantasia.)

Idyl—a short, romantic piece of music in simple and unaffected style.

In alt—pitches in the first octave above the treble staff. Thus e.g., "C in alt" is the C represented by the second added line above the treble staff.

In altissimo—pitches in the octave above the alt octave.

Instrumentation—see orchestration.

Interlude—a short movement between two larger movements.

Loco—place; i.e., play as written. (See p. 15, Sec. 46.)

Lunga trillo—a long trill.



CHAPTER XX

MISCELLANEOUS TERMS (Continued)

Lyric—a short, song-like poem of simple character. Also applied to instrumental pieces of like character.

Maggiore—major.

Marcato il canto—the melody well marked; i.e., subdue the accompaniment so that the melody may stand out strongly.

Melos—melody. This word melos is also applied to the peculiar style of vocal solo found in Wagner's music dramas. See recitative (p. 75, Sec. 170).

Mellifluous—pleasing; pleasant sounding.

Menuetto, menuet—same as minuet. (See p. 68, Sec. 151.)

Mezzo soprano—a woman's voice of soprano quality, but of somewhat lower compass than the soprano voice. Range approximately b to g''.

Minore—minor.

Nocturne (sometimes spelled nocturn, notturna, nokturne, etc.)—a night piece; a quiet, melodious, somewhat sentimental composition, usually for piano solo.

Nuance—delicate shading; subtle variations in tempo and dynamics which make the rendition of music more expressive.

Obbligato (sometimes incorrectly spelled obligato)—an accessory melody accompanying harmonized music, (usually vocal music).

The word obbligato (It. bound, or obliged) refers to the fact that this is usually a melody of independent value, so important that it cannot be omitted in a complete performance.

Offertory (sometimes spelled offertoire, or offertorium)—a piece of music played or sung during the taking up of the offering in the church service. The word is often applied by composers to any short, simple piece of music (usually for organ) that is suitable for the above purpose.

Opus—work; used by composers to designate the order in which their compositions were written, as e.g., Beethoven, Op. 2, No. 1.

Orchestration—the art of writing for the orchestra, this implying an intimate knowledge of the range, quality, and possibilities of all the orchestral instruments.

Ossia—or else; used most often to call the attention of the performer to a simpler passage that may be substituted for the original one by a player whose skill is not equal to the task he is attempting to perform.

Overture—(from overt—open)—an instrumental prelude to an opera or oratorio. The older overtures were independent compositions and bore no particular relation to the work which was to follow, but in modern music (cf. Wagner, Strauss, etc.), the overture introduces the principal themes that are to occur in the work itself, and the introduction thus becomes an integral part of the work as a whole. The word overture is sometimes applied to independent orchestral compositions that have no connection with vocal works, as the Hebrides Overture by Mendelssohn.

Pizzicato—plucked. A term found in music for stringed instruments, and indicating that for the moment the bow is not to be used, the tone being secured by plucking the string.

Polacca—a Polish dance in three-quarter measure.

Polonaise—same as polacca.

Postlude—(lit. after-play)—an organ composition to be played at the close of a church service.

Prelude—(lit. before-play)—an instrumental composition to be played at the beginning of a church service, or before some larger work (opera, etc.). The term is also applied to independent piano compositions of somewhat indefinite form. (Cf. preludes by Chopin, Rachmaninoff, etc.)

Priere—a prayer; a term often applied (especially by French composers) to a quiet, devotional composition for organ.

Quintole, quintuplet—a group of five notes to be performed in the time ordinarily given to four notes of the same value. There is only one accent in the group, this occurring of course on the first of the five tones.

Religioso, religiosamente—in a devotional style.

Requiem—the mass for the dead in the Roman Catholic service. It is so called from its first word requiem which means rest. (See p. 77, Sec. 165.)

Rhapsody—an irregular instrumental composition of the nature of an improvisation. A term first applied by Liszt to a series of piano pieces based on gypsy themes.

Ribattuta—a device in instrumental music whereby a two-note phrase is gradually accelerated, even to the extent of becoming a trill. (See Appendix E, p. 150, for an example.) [Transcriber's Note: Corrected misspelling "Ribbatua" in original.]

Ritornello, ritornelle—a short instrumental prelude, interlude, or postlude, in a vocal composition, as e.g., in an operatic aria or chorus.

Schottische—a dance in two-quarter measure, something like the polka.

Sec, secco—dry, unornamented: applied to a style of opera recitative (see p. 75, Sec. 170), and also to some particular chord in an instrumental composition which is to be sounded and almost instantly dropped.

Score—a term used in two senses:

1. To designate some particular point to which teacher or conductor wishes to call attention; as e.g., "Begin with the lower score, third measure." The word brace is also frequently used in this sense.

2. To refer to all the parts of a composition that are to be performed simultaneously, when they have been assembled on a single page for use by a chorus or orchestral conductor. The term vocal score usually means all chorus parts together with an accompaniment arranged for piano or organ, while the terms full score and orchestral score refer to a complete assemblage of all parts, each being printed on a separate staff, but all staffs being braced and barred together.

Senza replica, senza repetizione—without repetition; a term used in connection with such indications as D.C., D.S., etc., which often call for the repetition of some large division of a composition, the term senza replica indicating that the smaller repeats included within the larger division are not to be observed the second time. [Transcriber's Note: Corrected misspelling "senza repetitione" in original.]

Serenade, serenata—an evening song.

Sextet—a composition for six voices or instruments.

Sextuplet—a group of six notes to be performed in the time ordinarily given to four of the same value. The sextuplet differs from a pair of triplets in having but one accent.

Simile, similiter—the same; indicating that the same general effect is to be continued.

Solfeggio, solfege—a vocal exercise sung either on simple vowels or on arbitrary syllables containing these simple vowel sounds. Its purpose is to develop tone quality and flexibility. These terms are also often applied to classes in sight-singing which use the sol-fa syllables.

Sopra—above.

Soprano—the highest female voice. Range approximately b—c'''.

Sostenuto—sustained or connected; the opposite of staccato.

Sotto—under. E.g., sotto voce—under the voice, i.e., with subdued tone.

Solmization—sight-singing by syllable.

Staccato—detached; the opposite of legato.

Subito—suddenly.

Tenor—the highest male voice. Range approximately d—c''.

Tenuto—(from teneo, to hold)—a direction signifying that the tones are to be prolonged to the full value indicated by the notes.

Toccata—a brilliant composition for piano or organ, usually characterized by much rapid staccato playing.

Triplet—a group of three tones, to be performed in the time ordinarily given to two of the same value. The first tone of the triplet is always slightly accented.

Tutti—(derived from totus, toti, Latin—all)—a direction signifying that all performers are to take part. Also used occasionally to refer to a passage where all performers do take part.



APPENDIX A

THE HISTORY OF MUSIC NOTATION

Many conflicting statements have been made regarding the history and development of music writing, and the student who is seeking light on this subject is often at a loss to determine what actually did happen in the rise of our modern system of writing music. We have one writer for example asserting that staff notation was begun by drawing a single red line across the page, this line representing the pitch f (fourth line, bass staff), the neumae (the predecessors of our modern notes) standing either for this pitch f, or for a higher or lower pitch, according to their position on the line, or above or below it. "Another line," continues this writer, "this time of yellow color, was soon added above the red one, and this line was to represent c' (middle C). Soon the colors of these lines were omitted and the letters F and C were placed at the beginning of each of them. From this arose our F and C clefs, which preceded the G clef by some centuries."[37]

[Footnote 37: Elson—Music Dictionary, article, "Notation."]

Another writer[38] gives a somewhat different explanation, stating that the staff system with the use of clefs came about through writing a letter (C or F) in the margin of the manuscript and drawing a line from this letter to the neume which was to represent the tone for which this particular letter stood.

[Footnote 38: Goddard—The Rise of Music, p. 177.]

A third writer[39] asserts that because the alphabetical notation was not suitable for recording melodies because of its inconvenience in sight-singing "points were placed at definite distances above the words and above and below one another." "In this system ... everything depended on the accuracy with which the points were interspersed, and the scribes, as a guide to the eye, began to scratch a straight line across the page to indicate the position of one particular scale degree from which all the others could be shown by the relative distances of their points. But this was not found sufficiently definite and the scratched line was therefore colored red and a second line was added, colored yellow, indicating the interval of a fifth above the first."

[Footnote 39: Williams in Grove's Dictionary, article, "Notation."]

It will be noted that all three writers agree that a certain thing happened, but as in the case of the four Gospels in the New Testament, not all the writers agree on details and it is difficult to determine which account is most nearly accurate in detail as well as in general statement. Communication was much slower a thousand years ago than now and ideas about new methods of doing things did not spread rapidly, consequently it is entirely possible that various men or groups of men in various places worked out a system of notation differing somewhat in details of origin and development but alike in final result. The point is that the development of musical knowledge (rise of part-writing, increased interest in instrumental music, etc.), demanded a more exact system of notation than had previously existed, just as the development of science in the nineteenth century necessitated a more accurate scientific nomenclature, and in both cases the need gave rise to the result as we have it to-day.

Out of the chaos of conflicting statements regarding the development of music notation, the student may glean an outline-knowledge of three fairly distinct periods or stages, each of these stages being intimately bound up with the development of music itself in that period. These three stages are:

(1) The Greek system, which used the letters of the alphabet for representing fixed pitches.

(2) The period of the neumae.

(3) The period of staff notation.

Of the Greek system little is known beyond the fact that the letters of the alphabet were used to represent pitches. This method was probably accurate enough, but it was cumbersome, and did not afford any means of writing "measured music" nor did it give the eye any opportunity of grasping the general outline of the melody in its progression upward and downward, as staff notation does. The Greek system seems to have been abandoned at some time preceding the fifth century. At any rate it was about this time that certain accent marks began to be written above the text of the Latin hymns of the church, these marks serving to indicate in a general way the progress of the melody. E.g., an upward stroke of the pen indicated a rise of the melody, a downward stroke a fall, etc. In the course of two or three centuries these marks were added to and modified quite considerably, and the system of notation which thus grew up was called "neume notation," the word neume (sometimes spelled neuma, or pneuma) being of Greek origin and meaning a nod or sign.