The measurements of Michele de Rossi coincide with this in a remarkable manner. He finds the area of each separate catacomb to be respectively 100, 125, 150, 180 and 250 feet. None of these spaces are at all too large for the area commonly left round a tomb of importance, and the family property of this area would extend to any depth. Each cemetery was complete in itself, but sometimes connected with others by subterranean roads.

These tombs were protected by special laws, and the area in which the tomb stood was included with it. The area was often of considerable extent, and was intended for the burial-place of succeeding generations of the family to whom it belonged. The tombs of the period of the early empire were by no means exclusively for the columbaria for cinerary urns. The instances in which there are both places for bodies and urns are perhaps more numerous than those for urns only. The fine sarcophagi now found in museums, or applied to all sorts of uses, as water-troughs, vases for flowers, and various other purposes, were all originally in tombs, and generally in tombs in which there were also columbaria for cinerary urns. Some Pagan tombs on the Via Latina have catacombs for the interment of bodies under them, and often bodies were put in them.

The custom of burning the bodies was never universal, and lasted only for a certain period; the custom of burying bodies came in again soon after the Christian era, and probably was influenced by the strong feeling which sprung up among the Christians on this subject. The sumptuous painted chambers in the upper part of the tombs of the first and second centuries on the Via Latina were evidently imitated by the poor in the catacombs in the fourth and fifth centuries and later; but there is no evidence of any Scriptural or religious subjects for paintings before the time of Constantine. The character of the paintings is almost universally later, and the few that are early are not Christian nor Scriptural.



It might very well happen that some members of the family were Christians and others were not, and this would account for the mixture of Pagan tombs with Christian ones in the same catacombs. The subterranean sand-pit roads frequently run parallel to the high roads at a little distance from them, and such a road passing at the back of the subterranean cemetery or catacomb would be very convenient to Christians in time of persecution. The part of these roads which came within the limits of the cemetery would naturally be used for burial places, also, as we see that they were distinctly in the case of S. Hermes, and nearly with equal certainty in other cases. In ordinary times, there was no necessity for secrecy. The bodies of Christian martyrs were given up for the purpose of burial to those who applied for them.

The catacombs of SS. Saturnius and Thraso, the entrance to which is in the gardens of the Villa Gangalani, about a mile from Rome, on the Via Salaria, are stated to have formed part of the great catacomb of S. Priscilla, the entrance to which is about a quarter of a mile farther from Rome, on the same road. On descending into that of S. Saturninus by a steep flight of steps of modern appearance, but perhaps restored only, we soon pass under the road and hear carriages passing overhead; we then continue to descend to the depth of about fifty feet, divided into five corridors, only four of which can at present be seen; but we pass the entrance to the fifth on one of the stair-cases, and see the opening to it. The two lower corridors of this catacomb have tombs or cubicula on the sides; a few of these are painted, and the vault of the corridor in front of them, also.

The sandstone in which this catacomb is made is more than usually hard, for which reason apparently there are only three of the side chapels for family burying places, and few of the arched tombs; most of the recesses for graves are merely parallelograms just large enough to contain the body, or two bodies side by side, one behind the other, the recess being excavated to a sufficient depth for that purpose, and some of these have the slabs covering the openings left in their places. The skeletons are allowed to remain in several of the tombs where the slab has been removed and left open. One of the chapels has remains of paintings of the fourth century in a very decayed state. The other two chapels are connected by a short passage; they have evidently been family burying places, a second added when the first was full. The passage is made through the principal tomb of the first chapel, the body previously interred there was probably removed to the inner chapel when that was made. The painted chapel is in the upper corridor, the double one in the lowest.

In descending from the garden, the two upper corridors have tombs on the sides, and are regular catacombs; the third is an arenarium, or sand-pit, without tombs, and large enough for a horse and cart to pass along, as in the ordinary sand-pits. There must have been another entrance to this, and it is said to have been half a mile off, which is not improbable, judging by other sand-pits, both those now in use and others that are closed, some of which are known to be more than a mile long, and with the different branch galleries, the corridors altogether often extend several miles. These galleries are large and wide enough for a horse and cart, but not for two to pass, sidings being made at intervals for that purpose. The passages in the catacombs vary much both in height and in width, but are seldom more than three feet wide. The chapels also vary in size, but none of them would hold more than fifty people; those in the present catacomb are small.



That each of these chapels was the burial-place of a family, and was considered as private property, is evident from the remains of a door at the entrance of several of them, as in the catacomb of S. Priscilla. In one of these, the stone corbel, with the hole for the pivot to work in, remains in its place; the lower stone, with the corresponding hole, has been moved, but is lying on the floor in an adjoining chapel. Another door has been made to slide up and down like a portcullis or a modern sash-window, as we see by the groove remaining on both sides. This is close to a luminaria, or well for admitting light and air, and it seems quite possible that it really was a window, or that the upper part was made to slide down to admit the light and air from the luminaria. If this was the burial-place of Priscilla, the paintings were probably renewed in the restoration by John I., A.D. 523. The lower part of the wall is faced with stucco paneled with oblong panels, colored in imitation of different kinds of marble; the stucco is about an inch thick, like slabs of marble, and the divisions between the panels are sunk to that depth, as if each panel had been painted before it was placed and fixed to the walls like marble slabs. There are some long narrow slips of white stucco lying about, which seem to have been fitted into the hollow grooves between the slabs. The vaults in this catacomb are in many parts supported by brick arches; in one place, at a crossing, are four small low brick arches, the character of which agrees with the period of the restoration in the sixth century; the mortar between the bricks or tiles is about the same thickness as the tiles themselves, which are rather more than an inch thick, so that there are five tiles to a foot, including the mortar between them. These brick arches are not subsequent repairs, but part of the original construction to carry the vault. The arenarium, or sand-pit gallery, through which the present entrance is made, has evidently been used as a subterranean road. A branch of an aqueduct running along the side of this is part of an extensive system of irrigation carried on throughout all this district, the water having been brought from the Aqua Virgo, which passed in this direction. It was probably part of the original line of the Aqueduct, which has been altered in the portion near to Rome; this has not been traced out to any considerable extent, but Signor de Rossi has found many remains and indications of it. The sand-pit roads, or arenaria, ran for miles parallel to the high roads, and were probably used by the carters in preference to the open roads in hot weather, as they are always cool.

Christian Inscriptions are all funereal, and are for the most part found in the catacombs, or subterranean cemeteries. The word cemetery is derived from a Greek word, meaning "a sleeping place," hence the frequent formulae in the Christian epitaphs, "dormit in pace," he sleeps in peace; "dormitio Elpidis," the sleeping place of Elpis; "cubiculum Aureliae," the sleeping chamber of Aurelia. The term catacomb was applied to these subterranean cemeteries at a much later period. The practice of subterranean burial among the early Christians was evidently derived from the Jewish custom of burying the dead in excavated sepulchres, and thus may have been adopted by the early Jewish converts. The Roman Jews had a very early catacomb of their own, in the Monte Verde, contiguous to their place of abode, in the Trasteverine quarter of Rome. This subterranean mode of sepulture is undoubtedly of Egyptian origin. It is generally supposed that the early Christians used for their burial places the excavations made by the Romans for procuring stone and cement for building purposes. This is an erroneous view. Recent geological observations on the soil of the Agro Romano have shown that the surface of the Campagna consists of volcanic rocks of different natures and ages. The earliest of the series, the tufa lithoide, was constantly employed from the earliest ages in the buildings of the city, as attested by the massive blocks of the Cloaca Maxima, the tabularium of the Capitol, and the walls of Romulus; the second, or tufa granolare, which though it has just consistency enough to retain the form given to it by the excavator, can not be hewn or extracted in blocks; and the pozzolana, which has been extensively used in all ages for mortar or Roman cement. The tufa lithoide and the pozzolana were thus alone used for building purposes by the Romans, and the catacombs are never found excavated in these. The catacombs were hewn only in the tufa granolare, and were consequently excavated expressly for burials by the early Christians. The Christian architects carefully avoided the massive strata of the tufa lithoide, and we believe it is ascertained that all the known catacombs are driven exclusively along the courses of the tufa granolare. With equal care these subterranean engineers avoided the layers of pozzolana, which would have rendered their work insecure, and in which no permanent rock tomb could have been constructed. Thus we arrive at the curious fact, that in making the catacombs the excavators carefully avoided the strata of hard stone and the strata of soft stone, used respectively for building and for mortar, and selected that course of medium hardness which was best adapted to their peculiar purpose. The early Christian tomb inscriptions are characterized by symbols and formulae peculiar to the Christian creed; the idea of another life, a life beyond the grave, usually prevails in them.

The symbols found in connection with the funereal inscriptions are of three kinds; the larger proportion of these refer to the profession of Christianity, its doctrines and its graces. A second class, of a partly secular description, only indicate the trades of the deceased, and the remainder represent proper names: thus a lion must be read as a proper name, Leo; an ass, Onager; a dragon, Dracontius. Of the first kind the most usually met with is the monogram of Christ. The other symbols generally in use are the ship, the emblem of the church; the fish, the emblem of Christ, the palm, the symbol of martyrdom. The anchor represented hope in immortality; the dove, peace; the stag reminded the faithful of the pious aspiration of the Psalmist; the horse was the emblem of strength in the faith; the hunted hare, of persecution; the peacock and the phoenix stood for signs of the resurrection. Christ, as the good pastor, was also introduced in the epitaph. Even personages of the Pagan mythology were introduced, which the Christians employed in a concealed sense, as Orpheus, enchanting the wild beasts with the music (see page 701) of his lyre, was the secret symbol of Christ as the civilizer of men leading all nations to the faith. Ulysses, fastened to the mast of his ship, was supposed to present some faint resemblance to the crucifixion.

In classifying the Roman inscriptions, M. de Rossi has adopted the following divisions. The first comprises those inscriptions only which contain some express note of time, and are therefore susceptible of exact chronological arrangement. The second comprises the select inscriptions, viz.: first, sacred and historical ones, and next those which, either by testimony, by forms, or by symbols, illustrate the doctrines, the worship, or the morals of the Christians. The third, the purely topographical, assigns each inscription its proper place among the ancient localities of Rome. This comprises also inscriptions of unknown or uncertain locality, as well as inscriptions of spurious origin or doubtful authenticity.

In considering the chronological arrangements of Christian inscriptions, it is important to keep in view that in the earlier centuries the Christians kept note of time either by the years of the bishop, or by some of the civil forms which prevailed in the various countries in which they resided. In Rome the common date was that of the consular year. The common use of the Christian era as a note of time began, as is well known, later than the sixth century, at which M. de Rossi's series terminates. In M. de Rossi's collection one inscription bears date from the year A.D. 107, and another from 111. Of the period from the year 204, in which the next inscription with a date occurs, till the peace of the church in 312, twenty-eight dated inscriptions have been found; after the peace of the church the number of dated inscriptions increases rapidly. Between the accession of Constantine and the close of the fourth century, his collection contains 450 dated inscriptions, and the fifth century presents about the same number; but in the sixth, the number again declines, that century producing little more than 200.

In those cases where no note of time is marked, M. de Rossi has availed himself of other chronological indications and tests, founded on the language, on the style, on the names, and on the material execution of the inscription, in determining the date. Out of the 11,000 extant Roman inscriptions anterior to the seventh century, M. de Rossi finds chronological evidence of the date of no fewer than 1374.

There are also varieties in inflection, such as "spiritu sancta" for "spiritu sancto," "pauperorum," for "pauperum," "vocitus" for "vocatus," "requiescent" for "requiescunt," etc.

There are also new or unusual terms, or new familiar words in new or unusual meanings, such as "pausavit, rested, bisomus, trisomus, quadrisomus," holding two, three, four bodies; compar and conpar (husband and wife); fecit for egit, passed; "percepit," received, scil. baptism, as also "consecutus est," in the same sense, etc.

Sometimes Latin is written in Greek characters and sometimes Greek in Latin.

The age is expressed by "vixit," or "vixit in saeculo," "annos" (or "annis") "menses," "dies" (or "diebus") ——, with the number of hours sometimes stated. Sometimes "qui fuit" stands for "vixit;" sometimes neither is expressed, and we have the form in the genitive, "sal. annorum," etc.

Frequently the time passed in married life is mentioned, and we find such phrases as "vixit mecum, duravit mecum, vixit in conjugio, fecit mecum, fecit in conjugio, fecit cum compare," with a precise statement of the number of years, etc., and often with some expression marking the happiness of the couple's married life.

The epithets applied to the deceased indicate strong affection, and the eulogies are sometimes extravagant.

The occupation or position in life is stated, with the proper titles, in many dated Christian epitaphs. But they are all, it is supposed, later than the time of Constantine.

The same designations of the place of burial and of the tomb are found in both Christian and Pagan epitaphs.

Acclamations or expressions of good wishes or prayers to or for the deceased frequently occur in the inscriptions.

The letters also of these inscriptions are usually very irregular. They are from half an inch to four inches in height, colored in the incision with a pigment resembling Venetian red. The sense, too, of the inscriptions is not always very obvious. An extreme simplicity of language and sentiment is the prevailing characteristic of the earlier inscriptions. But, on the other hand, exaggerated examples of the opposite style are occasionally met with.

Another peculiarity in these Christian inscriptions is the disuse of the three names usually assumed by the Romans. M. de Rossi has given twenty inscriptions with the names complete, prior to Constantine. Of these, no fewer than seventeen have praenomina, whereas after Constantine praenomina may be said entirely to disappear.

The year is usually indicated by the names of the consuls. The abbreviation COS for "consulibus" was in use up to the middle of the third century, when COSS, CONS, and CONSS began to be adopted; COS is very seldom found during the fourth century, and almost never in the fifth or sixth; COSS fell into disuse about the first quarter of the fifth century, and after that CONS was used; in the time of Diocletian with S for one consul and SS for two. At the same time CC. SS. CS were introduced, but they were very rarely used in the fifth, and there is scarcely an example of them in the sixth. From about the middle of the fourth century CONS began to be placed before instead of after the names, and this usage became the prevalent custom in the fifth and sixth.

At the date of the discovery of the Roman catacombs, the whole body of known Christian inscriptions collected from all parts of Italy fell far short of a thousand in number. Of these, too, not a single one was of subterranean origin, and not dated earlier than A.D. 553. At present the Christian inscriptions of Rome on catacombs alone, and anterior to the sixth century, considerably exceed 11,000. They have been carefully removed from the cemeteries, and are now systematically arranged by M. de Rossi, on the walls of the Christian museum, recently formed by order of Pius IX., in the Lateran Palace. A large number of these inscriptions are also inserted in the walls of the Galleria Lapidaria in the Vatican.

EARLY INSCRIPTIONS.

VG. VESPASIANO III COS IAN A.D. 71.

This fragment has been received as a part of a Christian epitaph by Reggi, Marini and de Rossi. It is the most ancient of all such as bear dates.

SERVILIA. ANNORVM. XIII PIS. ET BOL. COSS.

Servilia, aged thirteen, died in the consulate of Piso and Bolanus. A.D. 111.

TEMPORE. ADRIANI. IMPERATORIS. MARVIS. ADOLESCENS DVX. MILITVM QVI SATIS. VIXIT DVM VITAM PRO CHO CVM. SANGVINE CONSVNSIT. IN. PACE. TANDEM QUIEVIT. BENE MERENTES CVM. LACRIMIS. ET. METV. POSVERVNT. I.D. VI.

"In the time of the Emperor Adrian, Marius, a young military officer who had lived long enough, when with blood he gave up his life for Christ. At length he rested in peace. The well-deserving set up this with tears and in fear, on the 6th before the ides." A.D. 130.

ALEXANDER MORTVVS NON EST SED VIVIT SVPER ASTRA ET CORPVS IN HOC TVMVLO QVIESCIT VITAM EXPLEVIT SVS ANTONINO IMP^o QVIVBI MVLTVM BENE FITII ANTEVENIRE PRAEVIDERET PROGRATIA ODIVM REDDIDIT GENVA ENIM FLECTENS VERO DEO SACRIFICATVRVS AD SVPPLICIA DVCITVRO TEMPORA INFAVSTA QVIBVS INTER SACRA ET VOTA NE IN CAVERNIS QVIDEM SALVARI POSSIMVS QVID MISERIVS VITA SED QVID MISERIVS IN MORTE CVM AB AMICIS ET PARENTIBVS SEPELIRI NEQVEANT TANDEM IN COELO CORVSCANT PARVM VIXIT QVI VIXIT IV. X. TEM.

"In Christ. Alexander is not dead, but lives beyond the stars, and his body rests in this tomb. He lived under the Emperor Antoninus, who, foreseeing that great benefit would result from his services, returned evil for good. For, while on his knees, and about to sacrifice to the true God, he was led away to execution. O, sad times! in which sacred rites and prayers, even in caverns, afford no protection to us. What can be more wretched than such a life? and what than such a death? when they could not be buried by their friends and relations. At length they sparkle in heaven. He has scarcely lived who has lived in Christian times." A.D. 160.

From the Cemetery of St. Callisto.

AVRELIA DULCISSIMA FILIA QVAE DE. SAECVLO RECESSIT VIXIT ANN. XV. M. IIII. SEVERO ET QVINTIN COSS.

"Aurelia; our sweetest daughter, who departed from the world. She lived fifteen years and four months. Severus and Quintinus being consuls." A.D. 325.

Consule Claudio et Paterno, nonis Novembribus, die Veneris, luna XXIV, Leuces filiae Severae carissimae posuit et spiritui sancto tuo. Mortua annorum LV et mensium XI dierum X.

"In the consulship of Claudius and Paternus, on the nones of November, on Friday, the 24th day of the moon, Leuce erected (this memorial) to her very dear daughter, and to thy holy spirit. She (died at the age) of fifty-five years, and eleven months, (and) ten days." A.D. 269.

D. M. P. LIBERIO VICXIT ANN N. V MENSES N. III DIES N. VIII R. ANICIO FAVSTO ET VIRIO GALLO COSS

"Publius Liberio lived five years, three months, and eight days. He retired (from this world) in the consulship of Anicius Faustus and Virius Gallus." A.D. 298.

B.M. CVBICVLVM. AVRELIAE. MARTINAE. CASTISSIMAE ADQVE. PVDI. CISSIMAE FEMINAE QVE FECIT. IN. COIVGIO. ANN. XXIII. D. XIIII. BENE MERENTI. QVE VIXIT. ANN. XL. M. XI. D. XIII. DEPOSITIO EIS DIE. III. NONAS. OCT. NEPOTIANO. ET FACVNDO. CONNS. IN PACE

"To the well-deserving.

The chamber of Aurelia Martina, my wife, most chaste and modest, who lived in wedlock twenty-three years and fourteen days. To the well-deserving one, who lived forty years, eleven months, and thirteen days. Her burial was on the third nones of October. Nepotianus and Facundus being consuls." In peace. A.D. 336. Galleria Lapidaria. Vatican.

Another in Greek characters:

"Here lies Euterpe, the companion of the Muses, having lived simply and piously, and irreproachably for fifteen years, twenty-two days, and three months. She died on the fifth day before the calends of December, in consulship of our lords, for the tenth time, and for the third time (i.e., in the Consulship of Constantine, for the tenth time, and Julian for the third time)." A.D. 360.

ROMANO. NEOFITO BENEMERENTI QVI VI XIT. ANNOS. VIII. DXV. REQVIESCIT IN PACE DN FL. GRATIANO. AVG. II. ET. PETRONIO PROBO. CS.

"To Romanus, the neophyte, the well-deserving, who lived eight years, fifteen days. He rests in the peace of the Lord. Flavius and Gratianus and Petronius Probus being consuls."

HIC QVIESCIT ANCILLA DEI QVE DE SVA OMNIO POSSIDIT DOMVM ISTA QVEM AMICE DEFLEN SOLACIVMQ REQVIRVNT. PRO HVNC VNVM ORA SVBOLEM QVEM SVPERIS. TITEM REQVISTI ETERNA REQVIEM FELICITA. S. CAVSA MANBIS IIIIX. KALENDAS OTOBRIS CVCVRBITINVS ET ABVMDANTIVS HIC SIMVL QVIESCIT DD. NN. GRATIANO V. ET TEODOSIO. AAGG.

Hic quiescit ancilla Dei, quae de suis omnibus possidet domum istam, quam amicae deflent solaciumque requirunt. Pro hac una ora subole, quam superstitem reliquisti. AEterna in requie felicitatis causa manebis, XIV. kalendis Octobris, Cucurbitinus et Abumdantius hic simul quiescunti. DDNN Gratiano v et Theodosio Augustis (Consulibus).

"Here rests a handmaid of God, who out of all her riches now possesses but this one house, whom her friends bewail, and seek in vain for consolation. Oh pray for this one remaining daughter, whom thou hast left behind! Thou wilt remain in the eternal repose of happiness. On the 14 of the Calends of October. Curcurbitinus and Abumdantius rest here together. In the consulship of our Lords Gratian (V.) and Theodosius Emperors." A.D. 380.

HIC POSITA EST ANIMA DVLCES INNOCA SAPIENS ET PVLCHRA NOMINE QUIRIACE QVE VIXIT. ANNOS. III. M III. DVIII. DP IN PACE IIII. ID IAN. CONSS. DN. TEVDOSIO. AVG. II ET MEROBAVDE. VC. III

Hic posita est anima dulces (dulcis) innoca (innocua), sapiens et pulchra, nomine Quiriace, quae vixit annos III., menses III., dies VIII. Deposita in pace, IV. Idus Januarias, Consulibus Domino nostro Teudosio (Theodoric) Augusto II. et Merobaude Vire Clarissimo III.

"Here has been laid a sweet spirit, guileless, wise and beautiful, by name Quiriace, who lived three years, three months, and eight days. Buried in peace, in the fourth day before the Ides of January, in the consulship of our Lord Theodorius Augustus, for the second time, and Merobaudes, a most distinguished man, for the third time." A.D. 388.

PERPETVAM SEDEM NVTRITOR POSSIDES IPSE HIC MERITVS FINEM MAGNIS DEFVNCTE PERICLIS HIC REQVIEM FELIX SVMIS COGENTIBVS ANNIS HIC POSITVS PAPAS ANTIMIOO VIXIT ANNIS LXX DEPOSITVS DOMINO NOSTRO ARCADIO II ET FL. RVFINO VVCCSS NONAS NOBEMB.

"You, our nursing father, occupy a perpetual seat, being dead, and deserving an end of your great dangers. Here happy, you find rest, bowed down with years. Here lies the tutor, Antimio, who lived seventy years. Buried on the nones of November; our Lords Arcadius for the second time, and Flavius Rufinus being consuls." A.D. 392. Galleria Lapidaria.

HIC REQVIESCET IN SOMNO PACIS MALA QVI VIXIT ANNOS XXXVIII. M. V. DV. ACCEPTA APVT DE IV. IDVS IVNIAS AETIO CONL.

Hic requiescet (requiescit) in somno pacis, Mala qui (quae) vixit annos XXXVIII. menses V. dies V. Accepta aput (apud) De(um) IV idus Junias. Aetio Consule.

"Here rests in the sleep of peace Mala, who lived thirty-eight years, five months, five days. Received before God, on the fourth day before the Ides of June, in the consulship of Aetius." A.D. 432.

LEVIVAE CONIVNX PETRONIA FORMA PVDORIS HIS MEA DEPONENS SEDISVS OSSA LOCO PARCITE VOS LACRIMIS DVLCES CVM CONIVGE NATAE VIVENTEMQVE DEO CREDITE FLERE NEFAS DP IN PACE III NON OCTOBRIS FESTO VC. CONSS.

"Petronia, a priest's wife, the type of modesty. In this place I lay my bones; spare your tears, dear husband and daughters, and believe that it is forbidden to weep for one who lives in God. Buried in peace on the 3d nones of October, in the consulate of Festus." A.D. 472.

IN PACE AVRELIO. FELICI QVI BIXIT CVM COIVCE ANNOS X. VIII DVLCIS. IN COIVGIO BONE MEMORIE BIXIT. ANNOS. L. V RAPTVS ETERNE DOMVS. XII KAL. IENVARIAS.

"In peace To Aurelius Felix, who lived with his wife eighteen years in sweetest wedlock. Of good memory. He lived fifty-five years. Snatched away eternally on the twelfth kalend of January."

IRENE IN PACE. ARETVSA IN DEO

"Irene sleeps in peace." "Aretusa sleeps in God."



ZOTICVS HIC AD DORMIEN DVM. "Zoticus laid here to sleep."

DOMITIANUS ANIMA SIMPLEX DORMIT IN PACE.

"Domitianus, a simple soul, sleeps in peace."

NICEFORVS ANIMA DVLCIS IN REFRIGERIO.

"Nicephorus, a sweet soul, in a place of refreshment."

PRIMITIVS IN PACE QVI POST MVLTAS. ANGVSTIAS FORTISSIMVS MARTYR ET. VIXIT. ANNOS P.M. XXXVIII CONIVG. SVO PERDVLCISSIMO BENEMERENTI FECIT.

"Primitius in peace: a most valiant martyr after many torments. Aged 38. His wife raised this to her dearest well-deserving husband."

LANNVS XPI. MARTIR HIC REQVIESCIT. SVB DIOCLIZIANO PASSVS.

"Lannus, a martyr of Christ, rests here. He suffered under Diocletian."

NABIRA IN PACE ANIMA DVLCIS QVI BIXIT ANNOS XVI. M. V ANIMA MELEIEA TITVLV FACTV A PARENTES

"Navira in peace; a sweet soul who lived sixteen years and five months; a soul sweet as honey: this epitaph was made by her parents."

SEVERO FILIO DVL CISSIMO LAVRENTIVS PATER BENEMERENTI QVI BI XIT ANN. IIII. ME. VIII. DIES V. ACCERSITVS AB ANGELIS VII. IDVS. IANVA.

"Laurence to his sweetest son Severus, borne away by angels on the 7th ides of January."

MACVS PVER INNOCENS ESSE IAMINTER INNOCENTIS COEPISTI. QVAM STAVILES TIVI HAEC VITA EST QVAM TELETVM EXCIP ET MATER ECLESIAE DEOC MVNDO REVERTENTEM COMPREMATVR PECTORVM GEMITVS STRVATVR FLETVS OCVLORVM.

"Macus (or Marcus) an innocent boy. You have already begun to be among the innocent ones. How enduring is such a life to you! How gladly will your mother, the church of God, receive you, returning to this world! Let us restrain our sighs and cease from weeping." Galleria Lapidaria.

PAX HIC MIHI SEMPER DOLOR ERIT IN AEVO ET TVVM BENERABILEM BVLTVM LICEAT VIDERE SOPORE CONIVNX ALBANAQVE MIHI SEMPER CASTA PVDICA RELICTVM ME TVO GREMIO QVEROR. QYOD MIHI SANCTVM TE DEDERAT DIVINITVS AVTOR RELICTIS TVIS IACES IN PACE SOPORE MERITA RESVRGIS TEMPORALIS TIBI DATA REQVETIO QVE VIXIT ANNIS XLV. MENV. DIES XIII DEPOSITA IN PACE FECIT PLACVS MARITVS

Peace. "This grief will always weigh upon me: may it be granted me to behold in sleep your revered countenance. My wife, Albana, always chaste and modest, I grieve, deprived of your support, for our Divine Author gave you to me as a sacred (boon). You, well-deserving one, having left your (relations), lie in peace—in sleep—you will arise—a temporary rest is granted you. She lived forty-five years, five months, and thirteen days. Buried in peace. Placus, her husband, made this." Galleria Lapidaria.

CHURCH OF S. SEBASTIAN "IN CATACUMBIS."

I. INSCRIPTION OF POPE DAMASUS IN HONOR OF S. EUTYCHIUS, THE MARTYR, IN TWELVE VERSES (on the left hand on entering the church). These inscriptions are very numerous in the catacombs, and all of this beautiful calligraphy, and usually in Latin verse, not without elegance of style, though the construction of the sentences is sometimes not clear. Damasus restored all the catacombs, after they had been damaged during the persecution under Julian the Apostate.

EVTYCHIVS. MARTYR. CRVDELIA. IVSSA. TYRANNI CARNIFICVMQ. VIAS. PARITER. TVNC. MILLE. NOCENDI VINCERE. QVOD. POTVIT. MONSTRAVIT. GLORIA. CHRISTV CARCERIS. INLVVIEM. SEQVITVR. NOVA. POENA. PER. ARTVS TESTARVM. FRAGMENTA. PARANT. NE. SOMNVS. ADIRET BISSENI. TRANSIERE. DIES. ALIMENTA. NEGANTVR MITTITVR. IN. BARATHRUM. SANCTVS. LAVAT. OMNIA. SANGVIS VVLNERA. QVAE. INTVLERAT. MORTIS. METVENDA. TOTESTAS NOCTE. SOPORIFERA. TVRBANT. INSOMNIA. MENTEM OSTENDIT. LATEBRA. INSONTIS. QVAE. MEMBRA. TENERET QVAERITVR. INVENTVS. COLITVR. FOVET. OMNIA. PRESTANS EXPRESSIT. DAMASVS. MERITVM. VENERARE. SEPVLCHQVM F

"That Eutychius, the Martyr, was able to overcome the cruel orders of the tyrant, and equally at that time the executioners' thousand ways of torment, the glory of Christ shewed. A new punishment follows the filth of the prison. They provide breaking of tiles on his limbs, to prevent sleep approaching. Twice six days passed, food is refused. The saint is thrown into a pit, blood bedews all the wounds which the dread power of death had caused. In night, which usually brings sleep, sleeplessness troubles his mind. The place of concealment which held the limbs of the innocent, manifested them(?). He is sought for, being found he is reverenced, he benefits all things. Damasus shewed forth his exceeding merit; venerate his tomb."

2. ANOTHER INSCRIPTION IN THE SAME CATACOMB CHURCH (over a door on the right-hand side, looking towards the altar).

VISITET. HIC. PIA. MENS. SCTORVM. BVSTA. FREQVENTER IN. CRISTO. QVORVM. GLORIA. PERPES. ERIT

HIC. EST. CEMETERIV. BEATI. CHALIXTI. PAPE. ET. MARTIRIS INCLITI. QVICVQVE. ILLVD. CŌTRICTVS. ET. CŌFESSVS. INGRESSVS FVERIT. PLENAM. REMISSIONE. OMNIV. PECTORV. SVORV. OBTINEBIT PER. MERITA. GLORIOSA. CENTV. SEPTVAGINTA. QVATVOR. MILIV SCTORV. MARTIRV. QVORV. IBI. CORPORA. IN. PACE. SEPVLTA. SVT VNA. CV. QVADRAGINTA. SEX. PONTIFICIBVS. BEATIS. QVI. OMNES EX MAGNA. TRIBVLATIONE. VENERVT. ET. VT. HEREDES. IN. DOMO DOMINI. FIERĒT. MORTIS. SVPPLICIVM. PRO. CRISTI. NOMINE PERTVLERVNT

"Here let the pious mind often visit the tombs of the saints, Whose glory will be everlasting in Christ."

"Here is the cemetery of the blessed Calixtus, renowned Pope and Martyr. Whoever shall have entered it contrite and after confession, shall obtain full remission of all his sins, through the glorious merits of 174,000 martyr saints, whose bodies are buried here in peace, together with forty-six blessed pontiffs, who all came out of great tribulation, and suffered the punishment of death for Christ's name, that they might become heirs in the Lord's house."

PAINTINGS.

If the tombs of the early martyrs, before "the peace of the church," were commonly decorated with paintings at all, which is not probable, it is almost certain that some of those paintings have been renewed at various subsequent periods. The best monuments of the first three centuries are the tomb stones with inscriptions and small simple emblems incised upon them.

It is difficult to decide by the art of drawing only between the end of the third and the beginning of the fourth century. But this art was in the height of perfection in the first century, in the second it was still very good, in the third it had begun to decline, but not so rapidly as to justify the assumption that the very bad drawings in the catacombs belong to that period, with the exception of those already mentioned as not Christian. The drawing of the figures in the mosaic pictures in the vault of S. Constantia, which are of the first half of the fourth century, are decidedly better than any of the Scriptural subjects in the catacombs. The mosaic pictures of the fifth century on the sides of the nave of S. Maria Maggiore, published by Ciampini, are much more like them.

S. Paulinus, bishop of Nola, writing in the fifth century, says that he had painted a catacomb, for the pilgrims, and gives his reasons for doing so. He thought good to enliven the whole temple of S. Felix, in order that these colored representations might arrest the attention of the rustics, and prevent their drinking too much at the feasts. The temple here evidently means the tomb or crypt in which the commemorative feasts were held, and were represented by paintings. His expressions imply that such paintings were not then a received custom.

That the painted vaults in the catacombs were used for feasts on various occasions in the same manner as the painted chambers in the Pagan tombs, is evident from the manner in which several writers of the fourth and fifth centuries mention them; in addition to the letters of Paulinus of Nola and S. Augustine, and the hymns of Prudentius, there is also a remarkable passage in a sermon of Theodoret on the Martyrs (written about A.D. 450):

"Our Lord God leads His own even after death into the temples for your Gods, and renders them vain and empty; but to these [Martyrs] He renders the honors previously paid to them. For your daily food and your sacred and other feasts of Peter, Paul, and Thomas, and Sergius and Marcellinus, and Leontius, and Antoninus, and Mauricius, and other martyrs, the solemnities are performed; and in place of the old base pomp and obscene words and acts, their modest festivities are celebrated, not with drunkenness and obscene and ludicrous exhibitions, but with hearing divine songs and holy sermons, and prayers and praises adorned with tears. When, therefore, you would dilate on the honor of the martyrs, what use is there in sifting them? Fly, my friends, the error of demons, and under their guidance seize upon the road that leads to God, and welcome their presence with holy songs, as the way is to eternal life."

Bosio enumerates six cubicula or family burial-chapels in the cemetery or catacomb of Priscilla, and thirteen arched tombs with paintings. These pictures, of which he gives engravings, were far more perfect in his time than they are now. His engravings are good for the period when they were executed; but it was a time when all drawing was bad, slovenly, and incorrect, so that the general idea only of the picture is all we can expect. The costume and ornaments do not indicate any very early period of art, but rather a time when it had declined considerably. Costume in Rome, as in the East generally, was far more stationary and less subject to changes than in the West, and these may be as early as the fourth or fifth century, but can hardly be earlier. Several of the martyrs buried in the Via Salaria suffered in the tenth persecution under Diocletian, called the great persecution, about the year 300: the decorations of their tombs, therefore, can not be earlier than the fourth century, and many of them have been restored or renewed at subsequent times. John I., A.D. 523, is recorded to have renewed the cemetery of Priscilla, and this probably means that he renewed the paintings in the style of his own time, as the greater part of the paintings now remaining are of the character of that period.

On comparing the costumes of the figures in this catacomb with those in the illuminations of the celebrated manuscript of Terence, usually attributed to the seventh or eighth century, and which can hardly be earlier than the fifth, we see at once that the long flowing robe was the ordinary costume of the period, and that the narrow scarf of black ribbon hanging over the shoulders, with the ends reaching nearly to the ground, was the usual badge of a servant. This seems to have been adopted as part of the costume of a Christian going to pray to God, whether in a church or chapel or any other place, emblematical of the yoke of Christ, as Durandus says. The surplice and stole of the priest of the Anglican Church is a more close copy of this ancient costume than any now worn in the Roman church. The rich cope, cape, or cloak was the dress of the Roman senator and of the Pagan priests; it was probably adopted by the Bishop of Rome when he assumed the title and office of Pontifex Maximus, and after a time the custom was followed by other bishops and priests of his communion.

GLASS VASES.

A valuable work on the ancient glass vases found in the catacombs was published by F. Buonarotti in Florence, nearly simultaneously with the work of Boldetti on the catacombs, and of Fabretti on the inscriptions found in them. This is the foundation of all the subsequent works on the subject; the figures are badly drawn and engraved, according to the fashion of the period, but many of the later works are not much better. The subjects are generally the same as in the paintings on the walls: the Good Shepherd, more numerous than any other; Adam and Eve, Moses striking the Rock, Noah and the Ark, the raising of Lazarus, Peter and Paul, generally busts—these are very numerous. Both the style of drawing and the character of the inscriptions indicate late dates and frequent copying from the same type. In one are three figures, S. Peter, S. Paul, with S. Laurence seated between them. S. Agnes occurs frequently, always drawn as in the usual type of the eighth century. Other busts are evidently portraits of persons interred. In some are the father, mother and child;—one has the name of Cerontius; another of two busts, Cericia and Sottacus;—another is a family group, father, mother and four children; the name is partly broken off ....N ... BVSVISTRIS. P. Z. remains.—Abraham with a drawn sword in his hand, and Isaac with his eyes bound, kneeling at his feet, with the ram. A tall female figure with the hands uplifted in prayer; the inscription is PETRVS PAVLVS ANE possibly for AGNES. Another similar subject consists of two figures seated facing each other; over the left hand figure the name CRISTVS, over the right hand one ISTEFANVS. Several of the subjects are distinctly Pagan; others are evidently from the Jews' catacomb, as two lions guarding the ark, and under them two of the seven-branched candlesticks, with leaves and vases and palm-branch.

S. CALIXTUS.

This is one of the earliest of the catacombs; it is mentioned at a very early period as a burying-place, then in use, not as being then just made. Michele de Rossi, in the course of his investigations in this catacomb, found a brick staircase and some brick loculi, evidently an alteration of and addition to the original catacombs, and the stamps on these bricks were those of Marcus Aurelius, A.D. 161-180. This staircase is in the lower part of the catacomb, made for the purpose of enlarging it, and seems to show that the ground had been used as a cemetery in the first century. The original part was probably made before there were any Christians to be buried. Although the staircase is later, and the bricks used again, they were probably found on the spot.

Calixtus is said to have been entrusted with the government of the clergy, and set over the cemetery by Zephyrinus his predecessor, before he became bishop or pope. This expression, over the cemetery, seems to prove that the whole of the catacombs were considered as one cemetery, and that he had the general superintendence of the burial of the Christians.

This is the catacomb usually exhibited to strangers and now used for pilgrimages; its present state is very uninteresting to the archaeologist. The upper part of it nearest to the entrance has been so much restored that it has lost all archaeological importance. This portion of the catacomb is illuminated on certain occasions, and is employed to excite the devotion of the faithful. A low mass is said at an altar fitted up in the cemetery chapel of S. Caecilia, on the anniversary of her martyrdom, and this part of the catacomb on that occasion is illuminated with candles.

The other parts are in the usual state, stripped of nearly every inscription, and the graves empty. The earliest inscription from this catacomb, of ascertained date, is of A.D. 268 or 279; it is dated by the names of the consuls, which would apply to either of these two dates. One important inscription of Bishop Damasus is preserved, and is valuable in many ways; it shows that the cemetery chapel, in which it was found, was made in his time, and the slab of marble on which it is engraved has a Pagan inscription on the back of it, evidently proving that it was used merely as a slab of marble, without reference to that inscription. It shows for what purpose some of the Pagan inscriptions found in the catacombs may have been brought there. Two small and very curious tombstones, consisting of mosaic pictures said to have been taken from this catacomb, are now preserved in the sacristy of the church of S. Maria in Trastevere. They were for some centuries in the nave, built into one of the piers; but during the restorations made in 1868-76, they were removed and built into the wall of the sacristy. One represents a landscape, with building in the style of the third century, and a harbor or a lake with a vessel, and fishermen dragging in a great net, evidently intended for the miraculous draught of fishes. This is an extremely curious mosaic picture, the probable date of which is the beginning of the fourth century. The other small mosaic represents birds of various kinds, and is much earlier than the view of the harbor, perhaps as early as the first century. Possibly the birds were intended to be symbolical of the souls of the faithful. These are engraved by Ciampini in his work on Mosaics. Some of the original paintings [Bosio gives, on eight plates, engravings of a number of vases and lamps found in this catacomb, several views of cubicula, and upwards of seventy paintings. The same subjects have been repeated by Perret and Signor de Rossi.] remain in the lower part of this catacomb that have not been restored, and these are of the usual subjects: Daniel and the two lions, Moses striking the rock, the raising of Lazarus, etc.



THE LAST SUPPER.

S. CALIXTUS.

This painting has more the appearance of being really intended for the Last Supper than most of the paintings of this class. The central figure has a certain dignity about it. Upon the round plates on the table are fishes, and the eight baskets are full of bread. It may be a Christian painting of a bad period, and intended to commemorate some of our Lord's miracles. The principal lines on the edges of the dresses have been renewed. This painting is under an arco-solium in the chapel of the Sacraments, the burial-place of the Bishops of Rome in the third century. All the paintings in that part of this great catacomb that is usually open to the public, and in which masses are said on certain occasions, have long been said by well-informed persons to have been restored within the last twenty years, but this is now denied by the Roman Catholic authorities.

An engraving of this painting is given by Bosio in the sixth arco-solium of this catacomb, p. 523; he calls it Christ and the Apostles. It is also given by Perret in the modern French style, vol. i. p. 28; and by Dr. Northcote in plate xiii., much embellished by color and improved by the skill of modern artists.

S. PONTIANUS.

The Baptistery, with the Baptism of Christ painted on the wall, over the arch. He is represented standing in the River Jordan up to His waist in water, in which fishes are swimming, and at which a hart is drinking; the Holy Dove is over His head. S. John Baptist is standing on the bank, and pouring water on His head, or perhaps only holding out his hand to touch it. On the opposite side is another figure in a white dress, hiding his face. All the three figures have the nimbus.

AN AGAPE.

An Agape, or love-feast, is a common subject of the paintings in the catacombs, and sometimes seems to be evidently a representation of the family gatherings that were held on the anniversaries in these tombs, in the same manner as they were in the painted tombs in the Via Latina or the Via Appia. These paintings are often supposed to be the LAST SUPPER, and sometimes may be so, but the one before us can hardly be intended for Christ and his Apostles.

CHRIST AND THE CHURCH.

These two figures, one on either side of a small table, on which are two dishes, one with a fish upon it and the other with bread, are supposed to represent our Lord after the Resurrection, and the Christian Church in the form of a woman, with the hands uplifted in the Oriental attitude of prayer, such as is usually called in the catacombs an Orante. This explanation is of course conjectural only, but seems not improbable. The painting is so much damaged that it is difficult to tell to what period it belongs. A part of this great catacomb is as early as the second century. In this passage stravit may mean covering the walls with slabs of porphyry also, as well as the floor. It is evident that in several instances the word platonia is applied by Anastasius to a chapel lined with marble plates for inscriptions, as at S. Sebastian's.

HEAD OF CHRIST IN AN AUREOLE.—MARY, MOTHER OF CHRIST, AND MARY MAGDALENE.—ST. MARK, ST. PAUL AND ST. PETER.

This cemetery or catacomb is on the western side of the Tiber, about half a mile beyond the Porta Portuensis, on the road to Porto, but on the hill above, and on a higher level than the road in what is now a vineyard. The soil in which this catacomb is made is quite different from the others; instead of the granular tufa, or volcanic sand, which is the soil generally used for them near the Via Appia and the Via Ardeatina, this is an alluvial soil formed by the action of water on the bank of the Tiber. Whether from this cause, or from some others that have not been explained, the paintings in this catacomb are far more perfect than those in any other; they are the most celebrated and the most popular, and those that have been more often engraved and published than any others.



The picture of the head of Christ is a very fine one, in an aureole or circular nimbus, with the cross on it, called also a cruciform nimbus. This head has been many times engraved and published, and it is amusing to compare those commonly sold in the shops of Rome with the original as shown in the photograph. These will illustrate the manner in which the clever modern artists have improved upon the originals; it is difficult to understand that they are intended for the same picture.

The figures of the three saints, St. Paul, St. Peter, and St. Mark, are painted on the ceiling, while Mary, the Mother of Christ, and Mary Magdalene are over and on the left side of the head of Christ.

[Page Decoration]

[Page Decoration]



TRUTH OF THE BIBLE.

It may seem presumptuous for us to undertake to write upon this subject. "It is to paint the sun with charcoal," for the most scholastic divine to give his reflections on the Word of God. With the most devout feeling of the infinite value of such an article or the great evil which might result from the complexity of its appearance, we have concluded that nothing but the most reverential feeling of the sacredness of the subject can secure us from falling into dangers not to be lightly regarded, not merely in regard to facts, but in respect also to comments and reflections; but with this caution such an article may be rendered eminently edifying and interesting.

Why should we conclude this work, in this age of infidelity, without at least stating what was known of the Bible? Why should we not bring the "cloud of witnesses" of the ruins we have already described? The discovery of the Assyrian and Babylonian historic records running contemporaneously with Scripture narratives have afforded innumerable points of proof. From the ruins of Nineveh and the Valley of the Nile; from the slabs and bas-reliefs of Sennacherib and the tombs, the catacombs with their 1,100 Christian inscriptions, and the monuments of Pharaoh; from the rolls of Chaldee paraphrasts and Syrian versionists; from the cells and libraries of monastic scribes and the dry and dusty labors of scholars and antiquarians, the skepticism of history has almost been silenced by the vivid reproductions of the ancient and eastern world.

An attentive perusal of the present volume will afford many illustrations of these remarks. Knowing that the substance of the narrative is drawn from sources of indisputable authority, the reader can have no anxiety respecting the truth of the facts recorded. He will, therefore, be able to resign himself altogether to the gracious influence which such a history is calculated to exercise on the mind.

The assistance which the reader will derive from a well-arranged narrative of these sublime events will be found of importance, not only as exciting attention to facts, otherwise less noticed, but as habituating him, in perusing the divine originals, to arrange and classify the several portions of the history for himself. When this ability is acquired, the mind will have a readier command over the materials of reflection, and the several arguments on which the proof of heavenly truth is founded will be seen with greater distinctness, and appreciated with a more practical feeling of their strength and value.

With the assistance of the many scholarly productions on this matter, why should we not at least set the Bible side by side with Homer, Herodotus, Virgil, Horace, and others, which have already taken quite a space in the present work. The Scripture surely contains, independently of a divine origin, more true sublimity, more exquisite beauty, purer morality, more important history, and finer strains both of poetry and eloquence, than could be collected within the same compass from all other books that were ever composed in any age or in any idiom.

The Bible accords in a wonderful manner with universal history. There is nothing more common in history than the recognition of a God. Sacred and profane history alike involve this principle. The fictions of the poets respecting the different ages of the world coincide with Scripture facts. The first, or Golden Age, is described as a paradisiacal state, feebly representing the bliss of the first pair in Eden, Gen. ii. And the second, or Iron Age, described in the fiction of Pandora and her fatal box of evils, which overspread the earth, is in accordance with the history of the introduction of evil into the world, Gen. iii. The celebrated Vossius shows, with great ingenuity, the similitude there is between the history of Moses and the fable of Bacchus. The cosmogony of the ancient Phoenicians is evidently similar to the account of creation given by Moses, and a like assertion may be made respecting the ancient Greek philosophy. Travel north, south, east and west, and you find the period employed in creation used as a measure of time, though no natural changes point it out as a measure, as is the case with the month and year. Consult the heathen classics, the records of our Scythian ancestors, the superstitions of Egypt, of the Indies, both East and West, and, indeed, of all the varied forms in which superstition has presented herself, and in one or in all you meet with evidences of a universal flood, of man's fall, of the serpent having been the instrument in it, of propitiatory sacrifices, of the expectation of a great deliverer. The long lives of men in the early ages of the world are mentioned by Berosus, Manetho, Hiromus and Helanicus, as also by Hesoid and many other writers quoted by Josephus, and afterwards by Servius, in his notes on Virgil. Pausanius, Philostratus, Pliny and several other writers give us accounts of the remains of gigantic bodies which have been found in the earth, serving in some degree to confirm Moses' account of the antediluvian giants. Berosus, the Chaldean historian, quoted by Josephus, and Abidenus by Eusebius, Plutarch, Lucian, Molo, Nicholas Damascenus, as well as many of the heathen poets, mention the deluge; and some traditions respecting it are to be found among the Americans and Chinese; not to mention what some modern travelers have fabulously related concerning some ruins of the ark, said to remain on Mount Ararat, and to have been seen there a few centuries ago. Alexander Polyphistor quotes Artapanus and Eupolemus, as mentioning the Tower of Babel; and the former speaks of it as built by Belus. Strabo, Tacitus, Pliny, etc., give us an account of the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah and the neighboring cities, in the main agreeable to that of Moses. Herodotus, Diodorus, Strabo, etc., mention circumcision as a rite used by several of those nations into which, according to Moses, Abraham traveled, or which were descended from him. Berosus, and several others, make express and honorable mention of Abraham and some of his family. Eupolemus and Dius, as quoted by Eusebius and Grotius, mention many remarkable circumstances of David and Solomon, agreeing with the Old Testament story. As for the mention of Nebuchadnezzar, and some of the succeeding kings of Babylon, as well as of Cyrus and his successors, it is so common in ancient writers, as not to need a more particular notice of it. And very many passages of the Old Testament are mentioned by Celsus, and objections to Christianity formed upon them. Is not all this in favor of the credibility of the Old Testament? And with respect to the New Testament, we have the testimony of Tacitus and Suetonius to the existence of Jesus Christ, the Founder of the Christian religion, and to His crucifixion in the reign of Tiberius, and during the procuratorship of Pontius Pilate, the time in which the evangelists place that event. Porphyry, also, though an inveterate enemy to Christianity, not only allowed that there was such a person as Christ, but honored Him as a most wise and pious man, translated into heaven as being approved by the gods; and accordingly quotes some oracles, referring both to His sufferings and virtues, with their subsequent rewards. Celsus, likewise, an Epicurean philosopher, full of enmity to the Christian religion, mentions numberless circumstances in the history of Christ, indeed so many, that an abstract of the Christian history might almost be taken from the very fragments of his book preserved by Origen, and never pretends to dispute His real existence, or the truth of the facts recorded of Him. Hierocles, a man of learning and a magistrate, who wrote against the Christians, speaks of Jesus as extolled by the Christians as a god; mentions Peter and Paul by name; and refers both to the Gospels and to the Epistles. The Emperor Julian, in the fourth century, called "Apostate," writes of the birth of Jesus in the reign of Augustus; bears witness to the genuineness and authenticity of the Gospels, and the Acts of the Apostles; and allows that Jesus Christ wrought miracles. He aimed to overthrow the Christian religion, but has confirmed it. The slaughter of the infants at Bethlehem is attested by Macrobius; the darkness at the crucifixion is recorded by Phlegon, and quoted by Origen. The manners and worship of the primitive Christians are distinctly named by Pliny. The great dearth throughout the Roman world, foretold by Agabus, in the reign of Claudius (Acts xi. 28), is attested by Suetonius Dion, Josephus, and others. The expulsion of the Jews from Rome by Claudius (Acts xviii. 2) was occasioned, says Suetonius, by the insurrection they had made about Chrestus, which is his way of spelling Christ. It has been repeatedly proved, with laborious research, and profuse erudition, that vestiges of all the principal doctrines of the Christian religion are to be found in the monuments, writings, or mythologies of all nations and ages. And the principal facts contained in the Gospels are confirmed by monuments of great fame subsisting in every Christian country at this very day. For instance, baptism in the name of the Father, Son and Holy Ghost, the rite by which from the beginning men have been initiated into the Church of Christ, and the profession of Christianity. The Lord's Supper, celebrated in memory of the dying love of Christ. And the stated observation of the first day of the week, in honor of Christ's resurrection from the dead. Who can say, and prove, that this is not evidential of the truth and credibility of the New Testament? What but inspiration could have produced such internal harmony, and such external accordance?



Of the monuments, none is more striking than the Arch of Titus. This celebrated structure was erected by the Senate and the people of Rome in estimation of the services of Titus in conquering the Jews. It is probable that the monument was completed after the death of Titus. It consists of a single arch of Grecian marble, of exquisite proportions, with fluted columns on each side. The frieze, which gives it special interest and value, is on the right-hand side passing under the arch going towards the Coliseum. It represents the triumphal procession of captive Jews, the silver trumpets, the tables of shew-bread, and the golden candlestick, with its seven branches. The candlestick itself is said to have been thrown into the Tiber from the Milvina Bridge, on the occasion of the battle between Maxentius and Constantine. Should the proposal to turn the course of the Tiber be carried into effect it is not impossible that this precious relic may yet be recovered.

No book was ever produced by chance. Every volume in the world is indebted for its existence to some being or beings. And the Bible, we are assured, could not but have had an intelligent author. But within the range of intelligence there exist only bad beings, good beings, and God. Hence, among these must be found whatever originates in intelligence, for this classification includes all beings that are intelligent. Now that bad beings—wicked men and infernal spirits—could not have originated a book so full of goodness, is a reasonable opinion; for it bears no resemblance to such an origin. It commands all duty, forbids all sin, and pronounces the heaviest penalties against all unholy conduct; and as darkness can not originate light, so neither can evil originate good. Nor would it help the matter to suppose that good beings—pious men and holy angels—were the contrivers of these well-arranged records; for they neither could nor would write a book, ascribing their own inventions to divine inspiration; especially as such forgeries are most severely reprobated in every part of it. As therefore God is the only remaining being within the range of intelligence to whom the Scriptures can be reasonably ascribed, they must, of necessity, have been written by Him. And, indeed, the Bible is a work as much exceeding every effort of mere man as the sun surpasses those scanty illuminations by which his splendor is imitated, or his absence supplied.

We are now conducted, by fair and consecutive reasoning, to our last general proposition, which is this: God was the author of the Bible.

By the Bible we mean, of course, both the Old and New Testaments. "The two Testaments," says one, "may be likened to the double-doors of the Temple—the Old is the New infolded—the New is the Old unfolded." The New Testament distinctly recognizes the Old as a revelation from God; and, referring to the Canon as received by the Jews, declares the books of which it consists genuine and credible. And by God being the author of the Bible we mean that it was "given by inspiration of Him." It may be necessary here to define certain terms which either have been, or may be, hereafter, employed in this essay. And these are:—Scripture; Testament; Inspiration; Gospel; Christianity; and Religion. Scripture, from scriptura, signifies writing—applied by way of eminence to what is written in the Bible. Testament, from testamentum, a deed or will; but according to another rendering the appropriate name of the Bible is, the Old and New Covenants; namely, the Mosaic and the Christian. Inspiration, from spiro, signifies I breathe. "By the divine inspiration of the Holy Scriptures," says an able writer, "I mean, such an immediate and complete discovery, by the Holy Spirit to the minds of the sacred penmen, of these things which could not have been otherwise known, and such an effectual superintendency as to those matters of which they might be informed or by other means, as entirely to preserve them from all error, in every particular which could in the least affect any of the doctrines or commandments contained in their writings." Gospel, from god, good, and spell, a history, a narrative, or message; and which denotes good news, glad tidings, news from God—applied emphatically to the book which contains the recital of our Saviour's life, miracles, death, and so on. Christianity, from christianitas, signifies the religion of Christians. And Religion, from religare, signifies to tie or bind, because by true religion the soul is tied or bound, as it were, to God and His service. These things being premised, we shall be justified in proceeding to establish our proposition; namely, that God was the author of the Bible. And we hold this to be demonstrable.

From its great antiquity. It is acknowledged to be the oldest book in the world. Its records embrace the creation of the world, the origin of man, the introduction of evil, the fall and recovery of our race; and it contains the only rational account ever given of these momentous matters. We can trace the Bible to the time of the Caesars, beyond that to the translation of the Septuagint, and beyond that we can carry the proof up to the separation of the Jews and Samaritans; we can ascend up to the time when we discover that the law must have been given by a person called Moses to a people in the wilderness, at a time when idolatry was universal, and just as we have the facts recorded in the nineteenth and twentieth chapters of the book of Exodus. And if Moses did not get the law from God, the getting it at all—the having it then as it is—is just as great a miracle as its coming from God Himself; and you may take your choice of the miracles—for the one is as great a miracle as the other. Tatian, one of the Greek fathers, tells us, that "Though Homer was before all poets, philosophers, and historians, and was the most ancient of all profane writers, yet Moses was more ancient than Homer himself." Tertullian, another celebrated writer of the second century, speaks to the same effect. "The Pagans themselves have not denied that the books of Moses were extant many ages before the states and cities of Greece; before their temples and gods; and also before the beginning of Greek letters." He moreover adds, "Moses lived five hundred years before Homer's time; and the other prophets who came a long time after Moses were yet more ancient than any of the wise men, lawgivers, and philosophers of Greece. And as the writings of Homer were a pattern to them, so in like manner he followed the writings of the prophets, as they were then known and spread abroad in the world." And the excellent and learned Sir W. Jones, adverting to the same point, remarked, "The antiquity of these writings no man doubts."

From its uncorrupted preservation. Though it has been hated and held in utter detestation by thousands, yet it has been preserved amidst all the revolutions of time, and handed down from generation to generation, even until now. And that it is in all essential points the same as it came originally from the hands of its authors, we have the most satisfactory evidence that can be required. "With regard to the Old Testament," says the late learned William Greenfield, "the original manuscripts were long preserved among the Jews, who were always remarkable for being most faithful guardians of their sacred books, which they transcribed repeatedly, and compared most carefully with the originals, of which they even numbered the words and letters. That the Jews have neither mutilated nor corrupted these writings is fully proved by the silence of the prophets as well as of Christ and His apostles, who, though they bring many heavy charges against them, never once accuse them of corrupting one of their sacred writings; and also by the agreement, in every essential point, of all the versions and manuscripts, amounting to nearly 1,150, which are now extant, and which furnishes a clear proof of their uncorrupted preservation."



One of the most wonderful and ancient of these is the Pentateuch, as represented in the cut below. Mr. Mills says of it: "The roll itself is of what we would call parchment, but of a material much older than that, written in columns twelve inches deep and seven and a half wide. The writing is in a fair hand but not nearly so large or beautiful as the book copies which I had previously examined. The writing being rather small each column contains from seventy to seventy-two lines. The name of the scribe is written in a kind of acrostic, and forms part of the text, running through three columns and is found in the book of Deuteronomy. It was the work of the great grandson of Aaron, as indicated in the writing. The roll has all the appearance of a very high antiquity, and is wonderfully well preserved, considering its venerable age.

"One of the halves of the metal cylinder is very curious and deserves more attention than it has received at the hands of Biblical archaeologists. It is of silver, about two feet and six inches long, by ten or twelve inches in diameter, and is covered with embossed work with a descriptive legend attached to each portion. It proves to be the Tabernacle of the Wilderness.

"In fact, the constant reading of the sacred books, which were at once the rule of their faith and of their political constitution, in public and private; the numerous copies of the original as well as of the Septuagint version, which was widely spread over the world; the various sects and parties into which the Jews were divided after their canon was closed, as well as their dispersion into every part of the globe, concurred to render any attempt at fabrication impossible before the time of Christ, and after that period, the same books being in the hands of the Christians, they would instantly have detected the fraud of the Jews if they had endeavored to accomplish such a design, while the silence of the Jews, who would not have failed to notice the attempt if it had been made, is a clear proof that they were not corrupted by the Christians.

"Equally satisfactory is the evidence for the integrity and incorruptness of the New Testament. The multiplication of copies, both of the original and of translations into a variety of languages, which were read, not only in private, but publicly in the religious assemblies of the early Christians; the reverence of the Christians for these writings; the variety of sects and heresies which soon arose in the Christian Church, each of whom appealed to the Scriptures for the truth of their doctrines, rendered any material alteration in the sacred books utterly impossible; while the silence of their acutest enemies, who would most assuredly have charged them with the attempt if it had been made, and the agreement of all the manuscripts and versions extant, are positive proofs of the integrity and incorruptness of the New Testament; which are further attested by the agreement with it of all the quotations which occur in the writings of the Christians from the earliest age to the present time. In fact, so far from there having been any gross adulteration in the Sacred Volumes, the best and most able critics have proved that, even in lesser matters, the Holy Scriptures of the New Testament have suffered less from the injuries of time and the errors of transcribers than any other ancient writings whatever; and that the very worst manuscript extant would not pervert one article of our faith, nor destroy one moral precept."

Add to this the testimony of the British Critic. "Not one syllable penned by eight obscure authors of the Scriptures of the New Testament, received by the Church as canonical at the death of John, has been lost in the course of eighteen centuries. Yet of the historical works of Tacitus half at least are wanting; out of the one hundred and forty-four books of Livy only thirty-five exist; the collections of Atticus have entirely perished; the orations of Hortensius are known only through the allusions of his rival; and the literary fame of the great dictator survives but in two narratives, one of which has sometimes been doubted. 'Where is the wise? Where is the scribe? Where is the disputer of this world?' May it not be the power of God which, amidst this wreck of eloquence and learning, has preserved unmutilated, even to these later days, the simple and unstudied compositions of the illiterate Galileans—the impassioned but rugged addresses of the tent-maker of Cilicia?" Dr. Adam Clarke, no mean judge, pronounced by the late Rev. Robert Hall to have been "an ocean of learning," said, "I have diligently examined the question, and I can conscientiously say that we have the Sacred Oracles, at least in essential sum and substance, as they were delivered by God to Moses and the prophets; and to the Church of Christ by Jesus, His evangelists and apostles; and that nothing in the various readings of the Hebrew and Greek manuscripts can be found to strengthen any error in doctrine or obliquity in moral practice. All is safe and sound—all is pure and holy." And the judicious Selden, whom Grotius calls "the glory of the English nation," in his "Table Talk," speaking of the Bible, says, "The English translation of the Bible is the best translation in the world, and renders the sense of the original best; taking in for the English translation the Bishop's Bible as well as King James'. The translators in King James' time took an excellent way. That part of the Bible was given to him who was most excellent in such a tongue, and then they met together, and one read the translation, the others holding in their hands some Bible, either of the learned tongues, or French, Spanish, or Italian, etc. If they found any fault they spoke, if not he read on."[24]

From its important discoveries. It makes discoveries to man on the most momentous subjects, which natural reason never could have made. One of the ancients said, "The Bible is the history of God." It reveals all that is needful to be known of the existence, nature, perfections, relations, mind and will of God. It discloses the whole history of man—opening with his creation, continuing with his present state, and closing with his eternal destiny. It lays open the amazing love of God to man, the plan of redemption, the means of salvation and the cleansing nature of the blood of Christ. It furnishes answers to the most interesting and perplexing questions ever suggested to man by himself, or propounded to him by his fellow-beings; and thus supplies him with that information which no other volume can impart. It points a second life, unveils eternity, and speaks of the resurrection of the body—the immortality of the soul—a judgment to come—a heaven, the gift of redeeming love—and a hell, the dire desert of sin. In one word, it is God's heart opened to man—a map of heaven—an infallible rule of life—an immovable ground of hope—an everlasting spring of consolation—and the only sure guide to eternal life and happiness. A fine old writer beautifully remarks, "What is there not in the holy Scriptures? Are we poor? There is a treasury of riches. Are we sick? There is a shop of soul-medicines. Are we fainting? There is a cabinet of cordials. Are we Christless? There is the star that leads to Christ. Are we Christians? There are the bands that keep in Christ. Are we afflicted? There is our solace. Are we persecuted? There is our protection. Are we deserted? There is our recovery. Are we tempted? There are our sword and victory. Are we young? There is our beauty. Are we old? There is our wisdom. While we live, here is the rule of our conversation; when we die, here is the hope of our glorification. So that I may say with Tertullian, 'I adore the fullness of the Scripture.' Oh blessed Scriptures! Who can know them and not love them? Who can love them and not delight to meditate in them night and day? Who can meditate in them and not desire to love them, love to desire them, and both desire and love to understand them? This is the Book of books, as David said of Goliah's sword, 'There's none like that.'" The Bible is, indeed, what that great philosopher, the Honorable Robert Boyle, called it, "that matchless book." We have often thought that the sublime descriptions which it gives of God, the humbling and exalting doctrines which it reveals, and the high-toned morality which it inculcates, are of themselves proofs decisive of its divine authority. For, certainly, there is nothing like them in the most admired productions of the most celebrated authors, either in ancient or modern times.

From its peculiar style. How remarkably simple and plain! No histories were ever so plainly related as those of the Bible: no precepts were ever so clear, or promises less ambiguous. How wonderfully grand and sublime! Whenever the matter requires it, the style is

"Like the ladder in the Patriarch's dream, Its foot on earth, its height beyond the skies."

Witness many of the Psalms; the book of Job; the prophets, especially, Isaiah xl. and xliii.; and the Apocalypse. And how astonishingly concise and expressive! The sacred writers never burden their subject with a load of words. They express themselves in words few, and well-chosen—"in comely dress, without the paint of art." Witness the Proverbs; 1 Cor. xiii., etc. "Let there be light," is noticed by the great critic Longinus, as a truly lofty expression. And the style of Scripture has awakened the attention even of infidels. Rousseau was struck with the majesty of the Scriptures. His eloquent eulogium on the Gospel and its author is well known. Dr. Tillotson observes "The descriptions which Virgil makes of the Elysian Fields and the Infernal Regions fall infinitely short of the majesty of the holy Scriptures when describing heaven and hell, so that in comparison they are childish and trifling;" and yet, perhaps, he had the most regular and best governed imagination of any man, and observed the greatest decorum in his descriptions. "There are I know," said the elegant Joseph Addison, "men of heavy temper and without genius, who can read the words of Scripture with as much indifference as they do other papers; however, I will not despair to bring men of wit into a love and admiration of the sacred writings, and, old as I am, I promise myself to see the day when it shall be as much the fashion among men of politeness, to admire a rapture of St. Paul's, as a fine expression of Virgil or Homer; and to see a well-dressed young man produce an evangelist out of his pocket, and be no more out of countenance than if it were a classic printed by Elzevir."

From its internal harmony. Though written at different periods, by persons residing in different parts of the earth, and by persons whose natural abilities, education, habits, employments, etc., were exceedingly varied, yet where is there any real contradiction? The sacred writers exactly coincide in the exhibition they give us of God; of man; of sin and salvation; of this world and the next; and, in short, of all things connected with our duty, safety, interest, and comfort. They all were evidently of the same judgment, aimed to establish the same principles, and applied them to the same practical purposes. They could not write by concert—comparing notes, etc., for they lived in different times and places; and yet the exact coincidence that is perceived among them, by the diligent student, is most astonishing, and can not be accounted for on any rational principles without admitting that they "wrote as they were moved by the Holy Ghost."

"Whence, but from heaven, should men, unskilled in arts, In different nations born, and different parts, Weave such agreeing truths; or how or why Should all conspire to cheat us with a lie? Unasked their pains; ungrateful their advice; Starving their gains, and martyrdom their prize."

From its striking impartiality. The amanuenses or penmen of the Holy Ghost for the Scriptures were not contemptible or ordinary, but incomparable and extraordinary persons. As Moses, "the meekest man on earth," the peculiar favorite of God, with whom God "talked face to face;" the None-such of all the prophets in Israel. Samuel, the mighty man in prayer. David the King, "that man after God's own heart." King Solomon, that "wisest of all the Kings," whom God honored with the building of the Temple. Daniel, in whom was found "an excellent spirit," and great dexterity in "expounding secrets and mysteries." John, "the disciple whom Jesus loved" above all the rest, who "leaned on Jesus' breast." Paul, "who was caught up into the third heavens," "whose writings," saith Chrysostom, "like a wall of adamant, compass about, or surround all the churches." In a word, "all of them holy men of God, moved by the Holy Ghost." The moral character of the sacred penmen is above suspicion: their greatest enemies have never attempted to throw the least stain upon their characters. Many of them were actually present at the scenes which they describe; eye-witnesses of the facts, and ear-witnesses of the discourses which they describe. They could not, therefore, be deceived themselves: nor could they have the least inducement to deceive others. They honestly record their own mistakes and faults, as well as the other particulars of the story. Every candid person must admit that the Scriptures are remarkable for faithfulness of narrative, and that, contrary to the practice of other histories, they do not conceal the faults of the persons they describe. The faults of Abraham and Jacob are detailed, as well as their virtues; and the incredulity of Thomas, and the defection of Peter, are not concealed, but faithfully recorded. The apostles, especially, seem everywhere to forget that they are writing of themselves, and appear not at all solicitous about their own reputation, but only that they might represent facts just as they were, whatever might be the consequences. Hence they readily confess, not only the meanness of their original employments, and the scandals of their former life, but their prejudices, follies, faults, unbelief, cowardice, ambition, rash zeal, foolish contentions, etc. How faithful is the pen of inspiration—here truth with impartial hand dips her pencil, now in brighter, now in darker colors, and thus draws her characters to the very life. Dr. Beattie justly says, "The style of the Gospel bears intrinsic evidence of its truth. We find there no appearance of artifice or party spirit; no attempt to exaggerate on the one hand, or depreciate on the other; no remarks thrown in to anticipate objections, nothing of that caution which never fails to distinguish the testimony of those who are conscious of imposture; no endeavor to reconcile the reader's mind to what may be extraordinary in the narrative; all is fair, candid, and simple." And we number this among the proofs of the Divine authority of the Bible.

From its stupendous miracles. Miracle, from miraculum, a wonder, a prodigy. "A miracle," says Horne, "is a sensible suspension or controlment of, or deviation from, the known laws of nature." It is a signal act of Divine Omnipotence, that which no other being but God can do. Miracles flow from Divine power, and are the proper evidence of a Divine mission. The reality of the miracles recorded in Scripture, wrought by Christ, and by prophets and apostles, may be proved by the number and variety—their being performed publicly, and not in a corner—before enemies as well as before friends—instantaneously, and not by degrees—and independent of all second causes—were such as all men could examine and judge of—and all served an important end, worthy of a Divine author: viz., to establish Divine truth. How superior the miracles wrought by Moses and Aaron to those wrought by the wise men and the sorcerers and the magicians of Egypt! Witness the transformation of the rod, Exodus vii. 10-12—the production of the annoying vermin lice—Exodus viii. 16-19—the plague of darkness, Exodus x. 22-24—the dividing of the Red Sea, Exodus xiv. 21-31. These bear all the characters of true miracles. And how far above the pretended supernatural doings of Mohammed, and the alleged Pagan and Romish miracles, were the wonderful deeds of Christ and His apostles! For example, our Saviour stilled the tempest, calmed the ruffled ocean, walked upon the sea, fed the famished multitude, opened the eyes of the blind, unstopped the ears of the deaf, healed the sick, cleansed the lepers, cast out devils, raised the dead, and restored Himself to life; and His apostles healed the lame, cast out a spirit of divination, gave the Holy Ghost, restored the dead to life, etc. Every ingenuous mind must see in these all the characters of real miracles. Ponder Matt. xi. 2-6; and John xiv. 11. Nicodemus, a Pharisee and ruler among the Jews, was so struck with the extraordinary character of our Lord's miracles that he came to Him, saying, "Rabbi," excellent master, "we know that Thou art a teacher come from God: for no man can do these miracles that Thou doest, except God be with Him." And miracles we think, with Nicodemus, show that a prophet or religious teacher comes from God, because God would not work a miracle in attestation of a falsehood, or to encourage a false teacher. When, therefore, a miracle is wrought in confirmation of anything, or as evidence of anything, we know that the thing is true, because God has given to it His testimony. Every real miracle is a work of God, done by His permission, and with His concurrence; it is therefore, emphatically, the testimony of God. And that greatest of miracles, the resurrection of our Lord Himself from the dead, crowns the whole, and clearly attests the Divinity of the Bible, and the truth of the Christian religion.

From its wonderful prophecies. Prophecy is a declaration of something to come; a prediction of future events. It is the foretelling of such future things as were beyond the reach of human sagacity, and which, therefore, none but God could reveal. What mere man can foretell the events of to-morrow? Who can say what shall transpire in ages to come? This is the sole prerogative of God, who alone knows the end from the beginning. Now the Bible abounds with predictions which were uttered long before their actual fulfillment, and which no human sagacity or foresight could possibly conjecture or foretell. Take the first gospel promise given—the seed of the woman to bruise the serpent's head; and remember that this promise was delivered at least four thousand years before its fulfillment. The celebrated prediction of Jacob (Gen. xlix. 10) was uttered between sixteen and seventeen hundred years before it took place. Moses declared the siege of Jerusalem by the Romans, etc. (Deut. xxviii. 49, etc.), fifteen centuries previously. In the first book of Kings (chap. xiii. 2, 3) there is a prophecy concerning Josiah by name, three hundred and thirty-one years; and in Isaiah (xlv. 1) concerning Cyrus, one hundred years, before either of them were born. According to the predictions of the prophets Nineveh has been desolated (Nahum i. 1, 2, 3); Babylon swept with the bosom of destruction (Isaiah xiii. 14); Tyre become a place for the spreading of nets (Ezekiel xxvi. 4, 5); Egypt the basest of the kingdoms, etc. (Ezekiel xxix. 14, 15). Daniel distinctly predicted the overthrow, in succession, of the four great empires of antiquity—the Babylonian, the Persian, the Grecian and the Roman, all of which has taken place. Not only are the leading features of the character of Christ delineated with the faithfulness of history hundreds of years before He appeared, but there is scarcely an incident in His life which prophecy has overlooked. And according to the predictions of the New Testament we see Jerusalem in ruins; the Temple not rebuilt; the Jews scattered, but not destroyed; the conversion of the nations to Christianity; the many anti-christian corruptions of the Gospel; the idolatry, tyranny and persecution of the Roman hierarchy, etc. What prescience does all this imply—prescience no where to be found but in God! "Let now the infidel or the skeptical reader meditate thoroughly and soberly on these predictions. The priority of the records to the events admits of no question. The completion is obvious to every competent enquirer. Here, then, are facts. We are called upon to account for those facts on rational and adequate principles. Is human foresight equal to the task? Enthusiasm? Conjecture? Chance? Political contrivance? If none of these, neither any other principle that may be devised by man's sagacity, can account for the facts; then true philosophy, as well as true religion, will ascribe them to the inspiration of the Almighty. Every effect must have a cause." Prophecy is a species of perpetual miracle. And the prophecies of Scripture do not come short of the fullest demonstration which the case will admit of, that the books that contain them are the unerring word of God.

From its holy tendency. It came immediately from God, and leads immediately to Him. It bears on it the stamp and impression of Deity; and is, emphatically and really, "the power of God unto salvation to every one that believeth." It contains the most excellent precepts—the most weighty exhortations—and the most precious promises. The Bible teaches us the best way of living; the noblest way of suffering; and the most comfortable way of dying. The word of God, accompanied by His Spirit, conveys strength to the weak, wisdom to the simple, comfort to the sorrowful, light to those who are in darkness, and life to the dead. It introduces the infinite God as speaking in a manner worthy of Himself; with simplicity, majesty and authority.