As to nozzles for spraying it may be said that there is no one pattern that is best for all purposes. For most uses in home grounds the cyclone or vermorel type (Fig. 233) will give best satisfaction. The pump manufacturers supply special nozzles for their machines.



Insecticide spraying formulas.

The two classes of insecticides are here described,—the poisons (arsenites and white hellebore) for chewing insects, as the beetles and all kinds of worms; the contact insecticides, as kerosene, oils, soap, tobacco, lime-sulfur, for plant-lice, scale, and insects in such position that the material cannot be fed to them (as maggots in the underground parts).

Paris green.—The standard insecticidal poison. This is used in varying strengths, depending on the insect to be controlled and the kind of plant treated. Mix the Paris green into a paste and then add to the water. Keep the mixture thoroughly agitated while spraying. If for use on fruit trees, add 1 lb. of quick lime for every pound of Paris green to prevent burning the foliage. For potatoes it is frequently used alone, but it is much safer to use the lime. Paris green and bordeaux mixture may be combined without lessening the value of either, and the caustic action of the arsenic is prevented. The proportion of the poison to use is given under the various insects discussed in the succeeding pages.

Arsenate of lead.—This can be applied in a stronger mixture than other arsenical poisons without injuring the foliage. It is, therefore, much used against beetles and other insects that are hard to poison, as elm-leaf beetle and canker-worm. It comes in the form of a paste and should be mixed thoroughly with a small quantity of water before placing in the sprayer, else the nozzles will clog. Arsenate of lead and bordeaux mixture can be combined without lessening the value of either. It is used in strengths varying from 4 to 10 lb. per 100 gal., depending on the kind of insect to be killed.

Arsenite of soda and arsenite of lime are sometimes used with bordeaux mixture.

White Hellebore.—For wet application, use fresh white hellebore, 4 oz.; water, 2 or 3 gal. For dry application, use hellebore, 1 lb.; flour or air-slaked lime, 5 lb. This is a white, yellowish powder made from the roots of the white hellebore plant. It loses its strength after a time and should be used fresh. It is used as a substitute for the arsenical poisons on plants or fruits soon to be eaten, as on currants and gooseberries for the currant-worm.

Tobacco.—This is a valuable insecticide and is used in several forms. As a dust it is used extensively in greenhouses for plant-lice, and in nurseries and about apple trees for the woolly aphis. Tobacco decoction is made by steeping or soaking the stems in water. It is often used as a spray against plant-lice. Tobacco in the form of extracts, punks, and powders is sold under various trade names for use in fumigating greenhouses. (See page 188.)

Kerosene emulsion.—Hard, soft, or whale-oil soap, 1/2 lb.; water, 1 gal.; kerosene, 2 gal. Dissolve the soap in hot water; remove from the fire and while still hot add the kerosene. Pump the liquid back into itself for five or ten minutes or until it becomes a creamy mass. If properly made, the oil will not separate out on cooling.

For use on dormant trees, dilute with 5 to 7 parts of water. For killing plant-lice on foliage dilute with 10 to 15 parts of water. Crude oil emulsion is made in the same way by substituting crude oil in place of kerosene. The strength of oil emulsions is frequently indicated by the percentage of oil in the diluted liquid:—

For a 10% emulsion add 17 gal. of water to 3 gal. stock emulsion. For a 15% emulsion add 10 1/3 gal. of water to 3 gal. stock emulsion. For a 20% emulsion add 7 gal. of water to 3 gal. stock emulsion. For a 25% emulsion add 5 gal. of water to 3 gal. stock emulsion.

Carbolic acid emulsion.—Soap, 1 lb.; water, 1 gal.; crude carbolic acid, 1 pt. Dissolve the soap in hot water, add the carbolic acid, and agitate into an emulsion. For use against root-maggots, dilute with 30 parts of water.

Soaps.—An effective insecticide for plant-lice is whale-oil soap. Dissolve in hot water and dilute so as to obtain one pound of soap to every five or seven gallons of water. This strength is effective against plant-lice. It should be applied in stronger solutions, however, for scale insects. Home-made soaps and good laundry soaps, like Ivory soap, are often as effective as whale-oil soap.

Miscible oils.—There are now on the market a number of preparations of petroleum and other oils intended primarily for use against the San Jose scale. They mix readily with cold water and are immediately ready for use. While quickly prepared, easily applied, and generally effective, they cost considerably more than lime-sulfur wash. They are, however, less corrosive to the pumps and more agreeable to use. They are especially valuable to the man with only a few trees or shrubs who would not care to go to the trouble and expense to make up the lime-sulfur wash. They should be diluted with not more than 10 or 12 parts of water. Use only on dormant trees.

Lime and sulfur wash.—Quicklime, 20 lb.; flowers of sulfur, 15 lb.; water, 50 gal. The lime and sulfur must be thoroughly boiled. An iron kettle is often convenient for the work. Proceed as follows: Place the lime in the kettle. Add hot water gradually in sufficient quantity to produce the most rapid slaking of the lime. When the lime begins to slake, add the sulfur and stir together. If convenient, keep the mixture covered with burlap to save the heat. After slaking has ceased, add more water and boil the mixture one hour. As the sulfur goes into solution, a rich orange-red or dark green color will appear. After boiling sufficiently, add water to the required amount and strain into the spray tank. The wash is most effective when applied warm, but may be applied cold. If one has access to a steam boiler, boiling with steam is more convenient and satisfactory. Barrels may be used for holding the mixture, and the steam applied by running a pipe or rubber hose into the mixture. Proceed in the same way until the lime is slaked, when the steam may be turned on. Continue boiling for 45 min. to an hour, or until sulfur is dissolved.

This strength can be applied safely only when the trees are dormant. It is mainly an insecticide for San Jose scale, although it has considerable value as a fungicide.

Lime-sulfur mixtures and solutions for summer spraying are now coming to take the place of bordeaux in many cases. Scott's self-boiled lime-sulfur mixture, described in U. S. D. A. Bureau Plant Industry Circ. 27 is now a standard fungicide for brown-rot and black-spot or scab of the peach. Concentrated lime-sulfur solutions, either home boiled or commercial, are effective against apple scab and have the advantage of not russeting the fruit. Such concentrates, testing 32 deg. Baume, should be diluted at about 1 gal. to 30 of water. Apply at same time as with bordeaux. Add arsenate of lead as with bordeaux.

Fungicide spraying formulas.

The standard fungicide is bordeaux mixture, made in several forms. The second most important fungicide for the home gardener is ammoniacal copper carbonate. Sulfur dust (flowers of sulfur) and liver of sulfur (potassium sulfide) are also useful in dry or wet sprays for surface mildews. The lime-sulfur wash, primarily an insecticide, also has fungicidal property.

Bordeaux mixture.—Copper sulfate, 5 lb.; stone lime or quicklime (unslaked), 5 lb.; water, 50 gal. This formula is the strength usually recommended. Stock mixtures of copper sulfate and lime are desirable. They are prepared in the following way:—

(1) Dissolve the required amount of copper sulfate in water in the proportion of one pound to one gallon several hours before the solution is needed, the copper sulfate crystals being suspended in a sack near the top of the water. A solution of copper sulfate is heavier than water. As soon then, as the crystals begin to dissolve the solution will sink, keeping water in contact with the crystals. In this way, the crystals will dissolve much sooner than if placed in the bottom of the barrel of water. In case large quantities of stock solution are needed, two pounds of copper sulfate may be dissolved in one gallon of water.

(2) Slake the required amount of lime in a tub or trough. Add the water slowly at first, so that the lime crumbles into a fine powder. If small quantities of lime are used, hot water is preferred. When completely slaked, or entirely powdered, add more water. When the lime has slaked sufficiently, add water to bring it to a thick milk, or to a certain number of gallons. The amount required for each tank of spray mixture can be secured approximately from this stock mixture, which should not be allowed to dry out.

(3) Use five gallons of stock solution of copper sulfate for every fifty gallons of bordeaux required. Pour this into the tank. Add water until the tank is about two-thirds full. From the stock lime mixture take the required amount. Knowing the number of pounds of lime in the stock mixture and the volume of that mixture, one can take out approximately the number of pounds required. Dilute this a little by adding water, and strain into the tank. Stir the mixture, and add water to make the required amount. Experiment stations often recommend the diluting of both the copper sulfate solution and the lime mixture to one-half the required amount before pouring together. This is not necessary, and is often impracticable for commercial work. It is preferable to dilute the copper sulfate solution. Never pour together the strong stock mixtures and dilute afterward. Bordeaux mixture of other strengths, as recommended, is made in the same way, except that the amounts of copper sulfate and lime are varied.

(4) It is not necessary to weigh the lime in making bordeaux mixture, for a simple test can be used to determine when enough of a stock lime mixture has been added. Dissolve an ounce of yellow prussiate of potash in a pint of water and label it "poison." Cut a V-shaped slit in one side of the cork so that the liquid may be poured out in drops. Add the lime mixture to the diluted copper sulfate solution until the ferro-cyanide (or prussiate) test solution will not turn brown when dropped from the bottle into the mixture. It is always best to add a considerable excess of lime.

"Sticker" or adhesive for bordeaux mixture.—Resin, 2 lb.; sal soda (crystals), 1 lb.; water, 1 gal. Boil until of a clear brown color—one to one and one-half hours. Cook in iron kettle in the open. Add this amount to each fifty gallons of bordeaux for onions and cabbage. For other plants difficult to wet, add this amount to every one hundred gallons of the mixture. This mixture will prevent the bordeaux from being washed off by the heaviest rains.

Ammoniacal copper carbonate.—Copper carbonate, 5 oz.; ammonia, 3 pt.; water, 50 gal. Dilute the ammonia in seven or eight parts of water. Make a paste of the copper carbonate with a little water. Add the paste to the diluted ammonia, and stir until dissolved. Add enough water to make fifty gallons. This mixture loses strength on standing, and therefore should be made as required. It is used in place of bordeaux when one wishes to avoid the coloring of maturing fruits or ornamental plants. Not as effective as bordeaux.

Potassium sulfide.—Potassium sulfide (liver of sulfur), 3 oz.; water, 10 gal. As this mixture loses strength on standing, it should be made just before using. It is particularly valuable for the powdery mildew of many plants, especially gooseberry, carnation rust, rose mildew, etc.

Sulfur.—Sulfur has been found to possess considerable value as a fungicide. The flowers of sulfur may be sprinkled over the plants, particularly when they are wet. It is most effective in hot, dry weather. In rose houses it is mixed with half its bulk of lime, and made into a paste with water. This is painted on the steam pipes. The fumes destroy mildew on the roses. Mixed with lime, it has proved effective in the control of onion smut when drilled into the rows with the seed. Sulfur is not effective against black-rot of grapes.

Treatment for some of the common insects.

The most approved preventive and remedial treatments for such insect pests as are most likely to menace home grounds and plantations are here briefly discussed. In case of any unusual difficulty that he cannot control, the home-maker should take it up with the agricultural experiment station in the state, sending good specimens of the insect for identification. He should also have the publications of the station.

The statements that are here made are intended as advice rather than as directions. They are chosen from good authorities (mostly from Slingerland and Crosby in this case); but the reader must, of course, assume his own risk in applying them. The effectiveness of any recommended treatment depends very largely on the care, thoroughness, and timeliness with which the work is done; and new methods and practices are constantly appearing as the result of new investigations. The dates given in these directions are for New York.

Aphis or plant-louse.—The stock remedies for aphides or plant-lice are kerosene emulsion and the tobacco preparations. Whale-oil soap is also good. The tobacco may be applied as a spray, or in the house as fumigation; the commercial forms of nicotine are excellent. (See page 194.) Be sure to apply the remedy before the leaves have curled and afford protection for the lice; be sure, also, to hit the underside of the leaves, where the lice usually are. The presence of lice on trees is sometimes first discovered from the honey-dew that drops on walks.

Usually the emulsion is diluted with 10-15 parts of water for plant-lice (see formula, page 194); but some of the species (as the dark brown cherry-leaf louse) require a stronger emulsion, about 6 parts of water.

The lady-birds (one of which is shown in Fig. 234) destroy great numbers of plant-lice, and their presence should therefore be encouraged.



Apple-maggot or "railroad-worm."—The small white maggots make brownish winding burrows in the flesh of the fruit, particularly in summer and early fall varieties. This insect cannot be reached by a spray as the parent fly inserts her eggs under the skin of the apple. When full-grown, the maggot leaves the fruit, passes into the ground, and there transforms inside a tough, leathery case. Tillage has been found to be of no value as a means of control. The only effective treatment is to pick up all windfalls every two or three days, and either to feed them out or to bury them deeply, thus killing the maggots.

Asparagus beetle.—Clean cultural methods are usually sufficient to prevent the asparagus beetle's seriously injuring well-established beds. Young plants require more or less protection. A good grade of arsenate of lead, 1 lb. to 25 gal. of water, will quickly destroy the grubs on the foliage of either young or old plants. Apply it with an ordinary sprinkling can, or better, use one of the numerous spraying devices now on the market. The necessity for treatment must be determined by the abundance of the pests. They should not be permitted to become abundant in midsummer or the over-wintering beetles may injure the shoots in the spring.

Blister-mite on apple and pear.—The presence of this minute mite is indicated by small irregular brownish blisters on the leaves. Spray in late fall or early spring with the lime-sulfur wash, with kerosene emulsion, diluted with 5 parts of water, or miscible oil, 1 gal. in 10 gal. of water.

Borers.—The only certain remedy for borers is to dig them out, or to punch them out with a wire. Keep the space about the base of the tree clean, and watch closely for any sign of borers. The flat-headed borer of the apple works under the bark on the trunk and larger branches, particularly where much exposed to sun. The dead and sunken appearance of the bark indicates its presence. The round-headed borer works in the wood of apples, quinces, and other trees; it should be hunted for every spring and fall. On hard land, it is well to dig the earth away from the base of the tree and fill the space with coal ashes; this will make the work of examination much easier.

The peach and apricot borer is the larva of a clear-wing moth. The larva burrows just under the bark near or beneath the surface of the ground; its presence is indicated by a gummy mass at the base of the tree. Dig out the borers in June and mound up the trees. At the same time, apply gas-tar or coal-tar to the trunk from the roots to a foot or more above the surface of the ground.

The bronze birch borer is destroying many fine white birch trees in some parts of the country. Its presence is known by the dying of the top of the tree. There yet is no known way of preventing this borer from attacking white birches, and the only practicable and effective method so far found for checking its ravages is promptly to cut and burn the infested trees in autumn, in winter, or before May 1. There is no probability of saving a tree when the top branches are dead, although cutting out the dead parts may stay the trouble temporarily. Cut and burn such trees at once and thus prevent the spread of the insect.

Bud-moth on apple.—The small brown caterpillars with black heads devour the tender leaves and flowers of the opening apple buds in early spring. Make two applications of either 1 lb. Paris green or 4 lb. arsenate of lead in 100 gal. of water; the first when the leaf-tips appear and the second just before the blossoms open. If necessary, spray again after the blossoms fall.

Cabbage and cauliflower insects.—The green caterpillars that eat cabbage leaves and heads hatch from eggs laid by the common white butterfly (Fig. 295). There are several broods every season. If plants are not heading, spray with kerosene emulsion or with Paris green to which the sticker has been added. If heading, apply hellebore.

The cabbage aphides, small mealy plant-lice, are especially troublesome during cool, dry seasons when their natural enemies are less active. Before the plants begin to head, spray with kerosene emulsion diluted with 6 parts of water, or whale-oil soap, 1 lb. in 6 gal. of water.

The white maggots that feed on the roots hatch from eggs laid near the plant at the surface of the ground by a small fly somewhat resembling the common house fly. Hollow out the earth slightly around every plant and freely apply carbolic acid emulsion diluted with 30 parts of water. Begin the treatment early, a day or two after the plants are up or the next day after they are set out. Repeat the application every 7 to 10 days until the latter part of May. It has also been found to be practicable to protect the plants by the use of tightly fitting cards cut from tarred paper. (See page 187.)

Canker-worms.—These caterpillars are small measuring-worms or loopers that defoliate apple trees in May and June (Fig. 217). The female moths are wingless, and in late fall or early spring crawl up the trunks of the trees to lay their eggs on the branches. Spray thoroughly once or twice, before the blossoms open, with 1 lb. Paris green or 4 lb. arsenate of lead in 100 gal. of water. Repeat the application after the blossoms fall. Prevent the ascent of the wingless females by means of sticky bands or wire-screen traps.

Case-bearers on apple.—The small caterpillars live in pistol-shaped or cigar-shaped cases, about 1/4 in. long. They appear in spring on the opening buds at the same time as the bud-moth and may be controlled by the same means.

Codlin-moth.—The codlin-moth lays the eggs that produce the pinkish caterpillar which causes a large proportion of wormy apples and pears. The eggs are laid by a small moth on the leaves and on the skin of the fruit. Most of the caterpillars enter the apple at the blossom end. When the petals fall, the calyx is open and this is the time to spray. The calyx soon closes and keeps the poison inside ready for the young caterpillar's first meal. After the calyx has closed, it is too late to spray effectively. The caterpillars become full grown in July and August, leave the fruit, crawl down on the trunk, and there most of them spin cocoons under the loose bark. In most parts of the country there are two broods annually. Immediately after the blossoms fall, spray with 1 lb. Paris green or 4 lb. arsenate of lead in 100 gal. of water. Repeat the application 7 to 10 days later. Use burlap bands on trunks, killing all caterpillars under them every ten days from July 1 to August 1, and once later before winter.

Cucurbit (cucumber, melon, and squash) insects.—Yellow, black-striped beetles appear in numbers and attack the plants as soon as they are up. Plant early squashes as a trap-crop around the field. Protect the vines with screens (Fig. 229) until they begin to run, or keep them covered with bordeaux mixture, thus making them distasteful to the beetles.

Squash vines are frequently killed by a white caterpillar that burrows in the stem near the base of the plant. Plant a few early squashes between the rows of the late varieties as a trap-crop. As soon as the early crop is harvested, remove and burn the vines. When the vines are long enough, cover them at the joints with earth in order to develop secondary root systems for the plant in case the main stem is injured.

Dark green plant-lice feed on the under sides of squash leaves, causing them to curl and wither. Spray with kerosene emulsion diluted with 6 parts of water. It is necessary thoroughly to cover the under side of the leaves; the sprayer, therefore, must be fitted with an upturned nozzle. Burn the vines as soon as the crop is harvested and keep down all weeds.

The stink-bug is very troublesome to squashes. The rusty-black adult emerges from hibernation in spring and lays its eggs on the under side of the leaves. The nymphs suck the sap from the leaves and stalks, causing serious injury. Trap the adults under boards in the spring. Examine the leaves for the smooth shining brownish eggs and destroy them. The young nymphs may be killed with kerosene emulsion.

Curculio.—The adult curculio of the plum and peach is a small snout-beetle that inserts its eggs under the skin of the fruit and then makes a characteristic crescent-shaped cut beneath it. The grub feeds within the fruit and causes it to drop. When full grown, it enters the ground, changes in late summer to the beetle, which finally goes into hibernation in sheltered places. Spray plums just after blossoms fall with arsenate of lead, 6 to 8 lb. in 100 gal. of water, and repeat the application in about a week. After the fruit has set, jar the trees daily over a sheet or curculio-catcher and destroy the beetles; this is practically the only procedure for peaches, for they cannot be sprayed.

The quince curculio is somewhat larger than that infesting the plum and differs in its life-history. The grubs leave the fruits in the fall and enter the ground, where they hibernate and transform to adults the next May, June, or July, depending on the season. When the adults appear, jar them from the tree on sheets or curculio-catchers and destroy them. To determine when they appear, jar a few trees daily, beginning the latter part of May in New York.

Currant-worm.—In the spring the small green, black-spotted larvae feed on the foliage of currants and gooseberries, beginning their work on the lower leaves. A second brood occurs in early summer. When worms first appear, spray with 1 lb. Paris green or 4 lb. arsenate of lead in 100 gal. of water. Ordinarily the poison should be combined with bordeaux (for leaf-spot).

Cut-worms.—Probably the remedy for cut-worms most often practiced in gardens, and which cannot fail to be effective when faithfully carried out, is hand-picking with lanterns at night or digging them out from around the base of the infested plants during the day. Bushels of cut-worms have been gathered in this way, and with profit. When from some cause success does not attend the use of the poisoned baits, to be discussed next, hand-picking is the only other method yet recommended that can be relied upon to check cut-worm depredations.

The best methods yet devised for killing cut-worms in any situation are the poisoned baits, using Paris green or arsenate of lead for the purpose. Poisoned bunches of clover or weeds have been thoroughly tested, even by the wagon-load, over large areas, and nearly all have reported them very effective; lamb's quarters (pigweed), pepper-grass, and mullein are among the weeds especially attractive to cutworms. On small areas the making of the baits is done by hand, but they have been prepared on a large scale by spraying the plants in the field, cutting them with a scythe or machine, and pitching them from wagons in small bunches wherever desired. Distributed a few feet apart, between rows of garden plants at nightfall, they have attracted and killed enough cut-worms often to save a large proportion of the crop; if the bunches can be covered with a shingle, they will keep fresher much longer. The fresher the baits, and the more thoroughly the baiting is done, the more cut-worms one can destroy. However, it may sometimes happen that a sufficient quantity of such green succulent plants cannot be obtained early enough in the season in some localities. In this case, and we are not sure but in all cases, the poisoned bran mash can be used to the best advantage. It is easily made and applied at any time, is not expensive, and thus far the results show that it is a very attractive and effective bait. A tablespoonful can be quickly dropped around the base of each cabbage or tomato plant; small amounts may be easily scattered along the rows of onions and turnips, or a little dropped on a hill of corn or cucumbers.

The best time to apply these poisoned baits is two or three days before any plants have come up or been set out in the garden. If the ground has been properly prepared, the worms will have had but little to eat for several days and they will thus seize the first opportunity to appease their hunger upon the baits, and wholesale destruction will result. The baits should always be applied at this time wherever cut-worms are expected. But it is not too late usually to save most of a crop after the pests have made their presence known by cutting off some of the plants. Act promptly and use the baits freely.

For mechanical means of protecting from cut-worms, see pp. 186-7.

Elm-leaf beetle.—Generally speaking one thorough and timely spraying is ample to control the elm-leaf beetle (Fig. 235). Use arsenate of lead, 1 lb. to 25 gal., and make the application to the under side of the leaves the latter part of May or very early in June in New York. Occasionally, when the beetle is very abundant, due in all probability to no spraying in earlier years, it may be advisable to make a second application, and the same may be true when conditions necessitate the application earlier than when it will be most efficacious. This latter condition is likely to obtain wherever a large number of trees must be treated with inadequate outfit.



Oyster-shell scale.—This is an elongate scale or bark-louse, 1/8 in. in length, resembling an oyster shell in shape and often incrusting the bark of apple twigs. It hibernates as minute white eggs under the old scales. The eggs hatch during the latter part of May or in June, the date depending on the season. After they hatch, the young may be seen as tiny whitish lice crawling about on the bark. When these young appear, spray with kerosene emulsion, diluted with 6 parts of water, or whale-oil or any good soap, 1 lb. in 4 or 5 gal. of water.

Pear insects.—The psylla is one of the most serious insects affecting the pear tree. It is a minute, yellowish, flat-bodied, sucking insect often found in the axils of the leaves and fruit early in the season. They develop into minute cicada-like jumping-lice. The young psyllas secrete a large quantity of honey-dew in which a peculiar black fungus grows, giving the bark a characteristic sooty appearance. There may be four broods annually and the trees are often seriously injured. After the blossoms fall, spray with kerosene emulsion, diluted with 6 parts of water, or whale-oil soap, 1 lb. in 4 or 5 gal. of water. Repeat the application at intervals of 3 to 7 days until the insects are under control.

The pear slug is a small, slimy, dark green larva which skeletonizes the leaves in June, and a second brood appears in August. Spray thoroughly with 1 lb. Paris green, or 4 lb. arsenate of lead, in 100 gal. of water.

Potato insects.—The Colorado potato beetle, or potato-bug, emerges from hibernation in the spring and lays masses of orange eggs on the under side of the leaves. The larvae are known as "slugs" and "soft-shells" and cause most of the injury to the vines. Spray with Paris green, 2 lb. in 100 gal. of water, or arsenite of soda combined with bordeaux mixture. It may sometimes be necessary to use a greater strength of the poison, particularly on the older "slugs."

The small black flea-beetles riddle the leaves with holes and cause the foliage to die. Bordeaux mixture as applied for potato blight protects the plants by making them repellent to the beetles.

Raspberry, blackberry, and dewberry insects.—The greenish, spiny larvae of the saw-fly feed on the tender leaves in spring. Spray with Paris green or arsenate of lead, or apply hellebore.

The cane-borer is a grub that burrows down through the canes, causing them to die. In laying her eggs, the adult beetle girdles the tip of the cane with a ring of punctures, causing it to wither and droop. In midsummer, cut off and destroy the drooping tips.

Red spider.—Minute reddish mites on the under sides of leaves in greenhouses and sometimes out of doors in dry weather. Syringe off the plants with clear water two or three times a week, taking care not to drench the beds.

Rose insects.—The green plant-lice usually work on the buds, and the yellow leaf-hoppers feed on the leaves. Spray, whenever necessary, with kerosene emulsion, diluted with 6 parts of water, or whale-oil or any good soap, 1 lb. in 5 or 6 gal. of water.

The rose-chafer is often a most pernicious pest on roses, grapes, and other plants. The ungainly, long-legged, grayish beetles occur in sandy regions and often swarm into vineyards and destroy the blossoms and foliage. Spray thoroughly with arsenate of lead, 10 lb. in 100 gal. of water. Repeat the application if necessary. (See under Rose in Chap. VIII.)

San Jose scale.—This pernicious scale is nearly circular in outline and about the size of a small pin head, with a raised center. When abundant, it forms a crust on the branches and causes small red spots on the fruit. It multiplies with marvelous rapidity, there being three or four broods annually in New York, and each mother scale may give birth to several hundred young. The young are born alive, and breeding continues until late autumn when all stages are killed by the cold weather except the tiny half-grown black scales, many of which hibernate safely. Spray thoroughly in the fall after the leaves drop, or early in the spring before growth begins, with lime-sulfur wash, or miscible oil 1 gal. in 10 gal. of water. When badly infested, make two applications, one in the fall and another in the spring. In case of large old trees, 25 per cent crude oil emulsion should be applied just as the buds are swelling.

In nurseries, after the trees are dug, fumigate with hydrocyanic acid gas, using 1 oz. of potassium cyanide for every 100 cu. ft. of space. Continue the fumigation from one-half to three-quarters of an hour. Do not fumigate the trees when they are wet, since the presence of moisture renders them liable to injury.

Tent-caterpillar.—The insect hibernates in the egg stage. The eggs are glued in ring-like brownish masses around the smaller twigs, where they may be easily found and destroyed. The caterpillars appear in early spring, devour the tender leaves, and build unsightly nests on the smaller branches. This pest is usually controlled by the treatment recommended for the codlin-moth. Destroy the nests by burning or by wiping out when small. Often a bad pest on apple trees.

Violet gall-fly.—Violets grown under glass are often greatly injured by a very small maggot, which causes the edges of the leaves to curl, turn yellowish, and die. The adult is a very minute fly resembling a mosquito. Pick off and destroy infested leaves as soon as discovered. Fumigation is not advised for this insect or for red-spider.

White-fly.—The minute white-flies are common on greenhouse plants and often in summer on plants about gardens near greenhouses. The nymphs are small greenish, scale-like insects found on the under side of the leaves; the adults are minute, white, mealy-winged flies. Spray with kerosene emulsion or whale-oil soap; or if infesting cucumbers or tomatoes, fumigate over night with hydrocyanic acid gas, using 1 oz. of potassium cyanide to each 1000 cu. ft. of space. (See page 188.)

White grubs.—The large curved white grubs that are so troublesome in lawns and strawberry fields are the larvae of the common June beetles. They live in the ground, feeding on the roots of grasses and weeds. Dig out grubs from beneath infested plants. Thorough early fall cultivation of land intended for strawberries will destroy many of the pupae. In lawns, remove the sod, destroy the grubs, and make new sward, when the infestation is bad.

Treatment for some of the common plant diseases.

The following advice (mostly adapted from Whetzel and Stewart) covers the most frequent types of fungous disease appearing to the home gardener. Many other kinds, however, will almost certainly attract his attention the first season if he looks closely. The standard remedy is bordeaux mixture; but because this material discolors the foliage the carbonate of copper is sometimes used instead. The treatments here recommended are for New York; but it should not be difficult to apply the dates elsewhere. The gardener must supplement all advice of this character with his own judgment and experience, and take his own risks.

Apple scab.—Usually most evident on the fruit, forming blotches and scabs. Spray with bordeaux, 5-5-50 or 3-3-50; first, just before the blossoms open; second, just as the blossoms fall; third, 10 to 14 days after the blossoms fall. The second spraying seems to be the most important. Always apply before rains, not after.

Asparagus rust.—The most common and destructive disease of asparagus, producing reddish or black pustules on the stems and branches. Late in the fall, burn all affected plants. Fertilize liberally and cultivate thoroughly. During the cutting season, permit no plants to mature and cut all wild asparagus plants in vicinity once a week. Rust may be partially controlled by spraying with bordeaux, 5-5-50, containing a sticker of resin-sal-soda soap, but it is a difficult and expensive operation and probably not profitable except on large acreage. Begin spraying after cutting as soon as new shoots are 8 to 10 in. high and repeat once or twice a week until about September 15. Dusting with sulfur has proved effective in California.

Cabbage and cauliflower diseases.—Black-rot is a bacterial disease; the plants drop their leaves and fail to head. Practice crop rotation; soak seed 15 min. in a solution made by dissolving one corrosive sublimate tablet in a pint of water. Tablets may be bought at drug stores.

Club-root or club-foot is a well-known disease. The parasite lives in the soil. Practice crop rotation. Set only healthy plants. Do not use manure containing cabbage refuse. If necessary to use infested land, apply good stone lime, 2 to 5 tons per acre. Apply at least as early as the autumn before planting; two to four years is better. Lime the seed-bed in same way.

Carnation rust.—This disease may be recognized by the brown, powdery pustules on the stem and leaves. Plant only the varieties least affected by it. Take cuttings only from healthy plants. Spray (in the field, once a week; in the greenhouse, once in two weeks) with copper sulfate, 1 lb. to 20 gal. of water. Keep the greenhouse air as dry and cool as is compatible with good growth. Keep the foliage free from moisture. Train the plants so as to secure a free circulation of air among them.

Chestnut.—The bark disease of chestnut has become very serious in southeastern New York, causing the bark to sink and die and killing the tree. Cutting out the diseased places and treating aseptically may be useful in light cases, but badly infected trees are incurable, in the present state of our knowledge. Inspection of nursery stock and burning of affected trees is the only procedure now to be recommended. The disease is reported in New England and western New York.

Chrysanthemum leaf-spot.—Spray with bordeaux, 5-5-50, every ten days or often enough to protect new foliage. Ammoniacal copper carbonate may be used, but it is not so effective.

Cucumber diseases.—"Wilt" is a disease caused by bacteria that are distributed chiefly by striped cucumber beetles. Destroy the beetles or drive them away by thorough spraying with bordeaux, 5-5-50. Gather and destroy all wilted leaves and plants. The most that can be expected is that the loss may be slightly reduced.

Downy mildew is a serious fungous disease of the cucumber known among growers as "the blight." The leaves become mottled with yellow, show dead spots, and then dry up. Spray with bordeaux, 5-5-50. Begin spraying when the plants begin to run, and repeat every 10 to 14 days throughout the season.

Currant diseases.—Leaf-spots and anthracnose are caused by two or three different fungi. The leaves become spotted, turn yellow, and fall prematurely. They may be controlled by three to five sprayings with bordeaux, 5-5-50, but it is doubtful whether the diseases are sufficiently destructive on the average to warrant so much expense.

Gooseberry powdery mildew.—The fruit and leaves are covered with a dirty white growth of fungus. In setting a new plantation, choose a site where the land is well underdrained and where there is a good circulation of air. Cut away drooping branches. Keep the ground underneath free from weeds. Spray with potassium sulfide, 1 oz. to 2 gal.; begin when the buds are breaking and repeat every 7 to 10 days until the fruit is gathered. Powdery mildew is very destructive to the European varieties.

Grape black-rot.—Remove all "mummies" that cling to the arms at trimming time. Plow early, turning under all old mummies and diseased leaves. Rake all refuse under the vine into the last furrow and cover with the grape hoe. This cannot be too thoroughly done. The disease is favored by wet weather and weeds or grass in the vineyard. Use surface cultivation and keep down all weeds and grass. Keep the vines well sprouted; if necessary sprout twice. Spray with bordeaux mixture, 5-5-50, until the middle of July, after that with ammoniacal copper carbonate. The number of sprayings will vary with the season. Make the first application when the third leaf shows. Infections take place with each rain, and occur throughout the growing season. The foliage should be protected by a coating of the spray before every rain. The new growth especially should be well sprayed.

Hollyhock rust.—Fig. 212. Eradicate the wild mallow (Malva rotundifolia). Remove all hollyhock leaves as soon as they show signs of rust. Spray several times with bordeaux mixture, taking care to cover both sides of leaves.

Lettuce drop or rot.—This is a fungous disease often destructive in greenhouses, discovered by the sudden wilting of the plants. It is completely controlled by steam sterilization of the soil to the depth of two inches or more. If it is not feasible to sterilize the soil, use fresh soil for every crop of lettuce.

Muskmelon diseases.—"Blight'" is a very troublesome disease. The leaves show angular dead-brown spots, then dry up and die; the fruit often fails to ripen and lacks flavor. It is caused by the same fungus as is the downy mildew of cucumbers. While bordeaux has proved effective in controlling the downy mildew on cucumbers, it seems to be of little value in lessening the same disease on melons.

"Wilt" is the same as the wilt of cucumbers; same treatment is given.

Peach diseases.—Brown-rot is difficult to control. Plant resistant varieties. Prune the trees so as to let in sunlight and air. Thin the fruit well. As often as possible pick and destroy all rotten fruits. In the fall destroy all remaining fruits. Spray with bordeaux mixture before the buds break, or self-boiled lime-sulfur.

Leaf-curl is a disease in which the leaves become swollen and distorted in spring and drop during June and July (Fig. 213). Elberta is an especially susceptible variety. Easily and completely controlled by spraying the trees once, before the buds swell, with bordeaux, 5-5-50, or with the lime-sulfur mixtures used for San Jose scale.

Black-spot or scab often proves troublesome in wet seasons and particularly in damp or sheltered situations. While this disease attacks the twigs and leaves, it is most conspicuous and injurious on the fruit, where it appears as dark spots or blotches. In severe attacks the fruit cracks. In the treatment of this disease it is of prime importance to secure a free circulation of air about the fruit. Accomplish this by avoiding low sites, by pruning, and by removal of windbreaks. Spray as for leaf-curl and follow with two applications of potassium sulfide, 1 oz. to 3 gal., the first being made soon after the fruit is set and the second when the fruit is half grown.

Yellows is a so-called "physiological disease." Cause unknown. Contagious, and serious in some localities. Known by the premature ripening of the fruit, by red streaks and spots in the flesh, and by the peculiar clusters of sickly, yellowish shoots that appear on the limbs here and there (Fig. 215). Dig out and burn diseased trees as soon as discovered.

Pear diseases.—Fire-blight kills the twigs and branches, on which the leaves suddenly blacken and die but do not fall. It also produces cankers on the trunk and large limbs. Prune out blighted branches as soon as discovered, cutting 6 to 8 in. below the lowest evidences of the disease. Clean out limb and body cankers. Disinfect all large wounds with corrosive sublimate solution, 1 to 1000, and cover with coat of paint. Avoid forcing a rapid, succulent growth. Plant the varieties least affected.

Pear scab is very similar to apple scab. It is very destructive to some varieties, as, for example, Flemish Beauty and Seckel. Spray three times with bordeaux, as for apple scab.

Plum and cherry diseases.—Black-knot is a fungus, the spores of which are carried from tree to tree by the wind and thus spread the infection. Cut out and burn all knots as soon as discovered. See that the knots are removed from all plum and cherry trees in the neighborhood.

Leaf-spot is a disease in which the leaves become covered with reddish or brown spots and fall prematurely (Fig. 211); badly affected trees winterkill. Often, the dead spots drop out, leaving clear-cut holes. Spray with bordeaux, 5-5-50. For cherries, make four applications: first, just before blossoms open; second, when fruit is free from calyx; third, two weeks later; fourth, two weeks after third. In plums it may be controlled by two or three applications of bordeaux, 5-5-50. Make the first one about ten days after the blossoms fall and the others at intervals of about three weeks. This applies to European varieties. Japan plums should not be sprayed with bordeaux.

Potato diseases.—There are different kinds of potato blight and rot. The most important are early blight and late blight—both fungous diseases. Early blight affects only the foliage. Late blight kills the foliage and often rots the tubers. Two serious troubles often mistaken for blight are: (1) Tip burn, the browning of the tips and margins of the leaves due to dry weather; and (2) flea-beetle injury, in which the leaves show numerous small holes and then dry up. The loss from blight and flea-beetles is enormous—often, one-fourth to one-half the crop. For blight-rot and flea-beetles spray with bordeaux, 5-5-50. Begin when the plants are 6 to 8 in. high and repeat every 10 to 14 days during the season, making 5 to 7 applications in all. Use 40 to 100 gal. per acre at each application. Under conditions exceptionally favorable to blight it will pay to spray as often as once a week.

Scab is caused by a fungus that attacks the surface of the tubers. It is carried over on diseased tubers and in the soil. In general, when land becomes badly infested with scab, it is best to plant it with other crops for several years. (See page 190.)

Raspberry diseases.—Anthracnose is very destructive to black raspberries, but not often injurious to the red varieties. It is detected by the circular or elliptical gray scab-like spots on the canes. Avoid taking young plants from diseased plantations. Remove all old canes and badly diseased new ones as soon as the fruit is gathered. Although spraying with bordeaux, 5-5-50, will control the malady, the treatment may not be profitable. If spraying seems advisable, make the first application when the new canes are 6 to 8 in. high and follow with two more at intervals of 10 to 14 days.

Cane-blight or wilt is a destructive disease affecting both red and black varieties. Fruiting canes suddenly wilt and die. It is caused by a fungus which attacks the cane at some point and kills the bark and wood, thereby causing the parts above to die. No successful treatment is known. In making new settings, use only plants from healthy plantations. Remove the fruiting canes as soon as the fruit is gathered.

Red-rust is often serious on black varieties, but does not affect red ones. It is the same as red rust of blackberry. Dig up and destroy affected plants.

Rose diseases.—Black leaf-spot is one of the commonest diseases of the rose. It causes the leaves to fall prematurely. Spray with bordeaux, 5-5-50, beginning as soon as the first spots appear on the leaves. Two or three applications at intervals of ten days will very largely control the disease. Ammoniacal copper carbonate may be used on roses grown under glass. Apply once a week until disease is under control.

For mildew on greenhouse roses, keep the steam pipes painted with a paste made of equal parts lime and sulfur mixed up with water. The mildew is a surface-feeding fungus and is killed by the fumes of the sulfur. Outdoor roses that become infested with the mildew may be dusted with sulfur, or sprayed with a solution of potassium sulfide, 1 oz. to 3 gal. water. Spray or dust with the sulfur two or three times at intervals of a week or ten days.

Strawberry leaf-spot.—The most common and serious fungous disease of the strawberry; also called rust and leaf-blight. The leaves show spots which at first are of a deep purple color, but later enlarge and the center becomes gray or nearly white. The fungus passes the winter in the old diseased leaves that fall to the ground. In setting new plantations, remove all diseased leaves from the plants before they are taken to the field. Soon after growth begins, spray the newly set plants with bordeaux, 5-5-50. Make three or four additional sprayings during the season. The following spring, spray just before blossoming and again 10 to 14 days later. If the bed is to be fruited a second time, mow the plants and burn over the beds as soon as the fruit is gathered. Plant resistant varieties.

Tomato leaf-spot.—The distinguishing character of this disease is that it begins on the lower leaves and works towards the top, killing the foliage as it goes. It is controlled with difficulty because it is carried over winter in the diseased leaves and tops that fall to the ground. When setting out plants, pinch off all the lower leaves that touch the ground; also any leaves that show suspicious-looking dead-spots. The trouble often starts in the seed-bed. Spray plants very thoroughly with bordeaux, 5-5-50, beginning as soon as the plants are set out. Stake and tie up for greater convenience in spraying. Spray under side of the leaves. Spray every week or ten days.



CHAPTER VII

THE GROWING OF THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS—THE CLASSES OF PLANTS, AND LISTS

In choosing the kinds of plants for the main grounds the gardener should carefully distinguish two categories,—those plants to compose the structural masses and design of the place, and those that are to be used for mere ornament. The chief merits to be sought in the former are good foliage, pleasing form and habit, shades of green, and color of winter twigs. The merits of the latter lie chiefly in flowers or colored foliage.

Each of these categories should be again divided. Of plants for the main design, there might be discussion of trees for a windbreak, of trees for shade; of shrubs for screens or heavy plantings, for the lighter side plantings, and for incidental masses about the buildings or on the lawn; and perhaps also of vines for porches and arbors, of evergreens, of hedges, and of the heavier herbaceous masses.

Plants used for mere embellishment or ornamentation may be ranged again into categories for permanent herbaceous borders, for display beds, ribbon edgings, annuals for temporary effects, foliage beds, plants for adding color and emphasis to the shrubbery masses, plants desired to be grown as single specimens or as curiosities, and plants for porch-boxes and window-gardens.

Having now briefly suggested the uses of the plants, we shall proceed to discuss them in reference to the making of home grounds. This chapter contains a brief consideration of:

_Planting for immediate effect,

The use of "foliage" trees and shrubs,

Windbreaks and screens,

The making of hedges,

The borders,

The flower-beds,

Aquatic and bog plants,

Rockeries and alpine plants;_

and then it runs into nine sub-chapters, as follows:—

1. Plants for carpet-beds, p. 234;

2. The annual plants, p. 241;

3. Hardy herbaceous perennials, p. 260;

4. Bulbs and tubers, p. 281;

5. The shrubbery, p. 290;

6. Climbing plants, p. 307;

7. Trees for lawns and streets, p. 319;

8. Coniferous evergreen trees and shrubs, p. 331;

9. Window-gardens, p. 336.

And then, in Chapter VIII, the particular cultures of plants needing special care are briefly discussed.

Planting for immediate effect.

It is always legitimate, and, in fact, desirable, to plant for immediate effect. One may plant very thickly of rapid-growing trees and shrubs for this purpose. It is a fact, however, that very rapid-growing trees usually lack strong or artistic character. Other and better trees should be planted with them and the featureless kinds be gradually removed. (Page 41.)

The effect of a new place may be greatly heightened by a dexterous use of annuals and other herbaceous stuff in the shrub plantations. Until the shrubbery covers the ground, temporary plants may be grown among them. Subtropical beds may give a very desirable temporary finish to places that are pretentious enough to make them seem in keeping.

Very rough, hard, sterile, and stony banks may sometimes be covered with coltsfoot (Tussilago Farfara), sacaline, Rubus cratoegifotius, comfrey, and various wild growths that persist in similar places in the neighborhood.

However much the planter may plan for immediate effects, the beauty of trees and shrubs comes with maturity and age, and this beauty is often delayed, or even obliterated, by shearing and excessive heading-back. At first, bushes are stiff and erect, but when they attain their full character, they usually droop or roll over to meet the sward. Some bushes make mounds of green much sooner than others that may even be closely related. Thus the common yellow-bell (Forsythia virdissima) remains stiff and hard for some years, whereas F. suspensa makes a rolling heap of green in two or three years. Quick informal effects can also be secured by the use of Hall's Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera Halliana of nurserymen), an evergreen in the South, and holding its leaves until midwinter or later in the North. It may be used for covering a rock, a pile of rubbish, a stump (Fig. 236), to fill a corner against a foundation, or it may be trained on a porch or arbor. There is a form with yellow-veined leaves. Rosa Wichuraiana and some of the dewberries are useful for covering rough places.

Many vines that are commonly used for porches and arbors may be employed also for the borders of shrub-plantations and for covering rough banks and rocks, quickly giving a finish to the cruder parts of the place. Such vines, among others, are various kinds of clematis, Virginia creeper, actinidia, akebia, trumpet creeper, periploca, bitter-sweet (Solanum Dulcamara), wax-work (Celastrus scandens).

Of course, very good immediate effects may be secured by very close planting (page 222), but the homesteader must not neglect to thin out these plantations when the time comes.



The use of "foliage" trees and shrubs.

There is always a temptation to use too freely of the trees and shrubs that are characterized by abnormal or striking foliage. The subject is discussed in its artistic bearings on pages 40 and 41.

As a rule, the yellow-leaved, spotted-leaved, variegated, and other abnormal "foliage" plants are less hardy and less reliable than the green-leaved or "natural" forms. They usually require more care, if they are kept in vigorous and seemly condition. Some marked exceptions to this are noted in the lists of trees and shrubs.

There are some plants of striking foliage, however, that are perfectly reliable, but they are usually not of the "horticultural variety" class, their characteristics being normal to the species. Some of the silver or white-leaved poplars, for example, produce the most striking contrasts of foliage, particularly if set near darker trees, and for this reason they are much desired by many planters. Bolle's poplar (Populus Bolleana of the nurseries) is one of the best of these trees. Its habit is something like that of the Lombardy. The upper surface of the deeply lobed leaves is dark dull green, while the under surface is almost snowy white. Such emphatic trees as this should generally be partially obscured by planting them amongst other trees, so that they appear to mix with the other foliage; or else they should be seen at some distance. Other varieties of the common white poplar or abele are occasionally useful, although most of them sprout badly and may become a nuisance. But the planting of these immodest trees is so likely to be overdone that one scarcely dare recommend them, although, when skillfully used, they may be made to produce most excellent effects. If any reader has a particular fondness for trees of this class (or any others with woolly-white foliage) and if he has only an ordinary city lot or farm-yard to ornament, let him reduce his desires to a single tree, and then if that tree is planted in the interior of a group of other trees, no harm can result.

Windbreaks and screens.

A shelter-belt for the home grounds is often placed at the extreme edge of the home yard, toward the heaviest or prevailing wind. It may be a dense plantation of evergreens. If so, the Norway spruce is one of the best for general purposes in the northeastern states. For a lower belt the arbor vitae is excellent. Some of the pines, as the Scotch or Austrian, and the native white pine, are also to be advised, particularly if the belt is at some distance from the residence. As a rule, the coarser the tree the farther it should be placed from the house.

The common deciduous trees of the region (as elm, maple, box-elder) may be planted in a row or rows for windbreaks. Good temporary shelter belts are secured by poplars and large willows. On the prairies and far north the laurel willow (Salix laurifolia of the trade) is excellent. Where snow blows very badly, two lines of breaks may be planted three to six rods apart, so that the inclosed lane may catch the drift; this method is employed in prairie regions.

Persons may desire to use the break as a screen to hide undesirable objects. If these objects are of a permanent character, as a barn or an unkempt property, evergreen trees should be used. For temporary screens, any of the very large-growing herbaceous plants may be employed. Very excellent subjects are sunflowers, the large-growing nicotianas, castor beans, large varieties of Indian corn, and plants of like growth. Excellent screens are sometimes made with vines on a trellis.

Very efficient summer screens may be made with ailanthus, paulownia, basswood, sumac, and other plants that tend to throw up very vigorous shoots from the base. After these plants have been set a year or two, they are cut back nearly to the ground in winter or spring, and strong shoots are thrown up with great luxuriance during the summer, giving a dense screen and presenting a semi-tropical effect. For such purposes, the roots should be planted only two or three feet apart. If, after a time, the roots become so crowded that the shoots are weak, some of the plants may be removed. Top-dressing the area every fall with manure will tend to make the ground rich enough to afford a very heavy summer growth. (See Fig. 50.)

The making of hedges.

Hedges are much less used in this country than in Europe, and for several reasons. Our climate is dry, and most hedges do not thrive so well here as there; labor is high-priced, and the trimming is therefore likely to be neglected; our farms are so large that much fencing is required; timber and wire are cheaper than live hedges.

However, hedges are used with good effect about the home grounds. In order to secure a good ornamental hedge, it is necessary to have a thoroughly well-prepared deep soil, to set the plants close, and to shear them at least twice every year. For evergreen hedges the most serviceable plant in general is the arbor vitae. The plants may be set at distances of 1 to 2-1/2 feet apart. For coarser hedges, the Norway spruce is used; and for still coarser ones, the Scotch and Austrian pines. In California the staple conifer hedge is made of Monterey cypress. For choice evergreen hedges about the grounds, particularly outside the northern states, some of the retinosporas are very useful. One of the most satisfactory of all coniferous plants for hedges is the common hemlock, which stands shearing well and makes a very soft and pleasing mass. The plants may be set from 2 to 4 feet apart.

Other plants that hold their leaves and are good for hedges are the common box and the privets. Box hedges are the best for very low borders about walks and flower-beds. The dwarf variety can be kept down to a height of 6 inches to a foot for any number of years. The larger-growing varieties make excellent hedges 3, 4, and 5 feet high. The ordinary privet or prim holds its leaves well into winter in the North. The so-called Californian privet holds its leaves rather longer and stands better along the seashore. The mahonia makes a low, loose hedge or edging in locations where it will thrive. Pyracantha is also to be recommended where hardy. In the southern states, nothing is better than Citrus trifoliata. This is hardy even farther north than Washington in very favored localities. In the South, Prunus Caroliniana is also used for hedges. Saltbush hedges are frequent in California.

For hedges of deciduous plants, the most common species are the buckthorn, Japan quince, the European hawthorn and other thorns, tamarix, osage orange, honey locust, and various kinds of roses. Osage orange has been the most used for farm hedges. For home grounds, Berberis Thunbergii makes an excellent free hedge; also Spiraea Thunbergii and other spireas. The common Rosa rugosa makes an attractive free hedge.

Hedges should be trimmed the year after they are set, although they should not be sheared very closely until they reach the desired or permanent height. Thereafter they should be cut into the desired form in spring or fall, or both. If the plants are allowed to grow for a year or two without trimming, they lose their lower leaves and become open and straggly. Osage orange and some other plants are plashed; that is, the plants are set at an angle rather than perpendicularly, and they are wired together obliquely in such a way that they make an impenetrable barrier just above the surface of the ground.

For closely clipped or sheared hedges, the best plants are arbor vitae, retinospora, hemlock, Norway spruce, privet, buckthorn, box, osage orange, pyracantha, Citrus trifoliata. The pyracantha (Pyracantha coccinea) is an evergreen shrub allied to crataegus, of which it is sometimes considered to be a species. It is also sometimes referred to cotoneaster. Although hardy in protected places in the North, it is essentially a bush of the middle and southern latitudes, and of California. It has persistent foliage and red berries. Var. Lalandi has orange-red berries.

The borders.

The word "border" is used to designate the heavy or continuous planting about the boundaries of a place, or along the walks and drives, or against the buildings, in distinction from planting on the lawn or in the interior spaces. A border receives different designations, depending on the kinds of plants that are grown therein: it may be a shrub-border, a flower-border, a hardy border for native and other plants, a vine-border, and the like.

There are three rules for the choosing of plants for a hardy border: choose (1) those that you like best, (2) those that are adapted to the climate and soil, (3) those that are in place or in keeping with that part of the grounds.

The earth for the border should be fertile. The whole ground should be plowed or spaded and the plants set irregularly in the space; or the back row may be set in a line. If the border is composed of shrubs, and is large, a horse cultivator may be run in and out between the plants for the first two or three years, since the shrubs will be set 2 to 4 feet apart. Ordinarily, however, the tilling is done with hand tools. After the plants are once established and the border is filled, it is best to dig up as little as possible, for the digging disturbs the roots and breaks the crowns. It is usually best to pull out the weeds and give the border a top-dressing each fall of well-rotted manure. If the ground is not very rich, an application of ashes or some commercial fertilizer may be given from time to time.

The border should be planted so thick as to allow the plants to run together, thereby giving one continuous effect. Most shrubs should be set 3 feet apart. Things as large as lilacs may go 4 feet and sometimes even more. Common herbaceous perennials, as bleeding heart, delphiniums, hollyhocks, and the like, should go from 12 to 18 inches. On the front edge of the border is a very excellent place for annual and tender flowering plants. Here, for example, one may make a fringe of asters, geraniums, coleus, or anything else he may choose. (Chap. II.)

Into the heavy borders about the boundaries of the place the autumn leaves will drift and afford an excellent mulch. If these borders are planted with shrubs, the leaves may be left there to decay, and not be raked off in the spring.

The general outline of the border facing the lawn should be more or less wavy or irregular, particularly if it is on the boundary of the place. Alongside a walk or drive the margins may follow the general directions of the walk or drive.

In making borders of perennial flowers the most satisfactory results are secured if a large clump of each kind or variety is grown. The herbaceous border is one of the most flexible parts of grounds, since it has no regular or formal design. Allow ample space for each perennial root,—often as much as three or four square feet,—and then if the space is not filled the first year or two, scatter over the area seeds of poppies, sweet peas, asters, gilias, alyssum, or other annuals. Figures 237-239, from Long ("Popular Gardening," i., 17, 18), suggest methods of making such borders. They are on a scale of ten feet to the inch. The entire surface is tilled, and the irregular diagrams designate the sizes of the clumps. The diagrams containing no names are to be filled with bulbs, annuals, and tender plants, if desired.



It must not be supposed, however, that one cannot have a border unless he has wide marginal spaces about his grounds. It is surprising how many things one can grow in an old fence. Perennials that grow in fence-rows in fields ought also to grow in similar boundaries on the home grounds. Some of garden annuals will thrive alongside a fence, particularly if the fence does not shut off too much light; and many vines (both perennial and annual) will cover it effectively. Among annuals, the large-seeded, quick-germinating, rapid-growing kinds will do best. Sunflower, sweet pea, morning glory, Japanese hop, zinnia, marigold, amaranths, four o'clock, are some of the kinds that will hold their own. If the effort is made to grow plants in such places, it is important to give them all the advantage possible early in the season, so that they will get well ahead of the grass and weeds. Spade up the ground all you can. Add a little quick-acting fertilizer. It is best to start the plants in pots or small boxes, so that they will be in advance of the weeds when they are set out.



The flower-beds.

We must remember to distinguish two uses of flowers,—their part in a landscape design or picture, and their part in a bed or separate garden for bloom. We now consider the flower-bed proper; and we include in the flower-bed such "foliage" plants as coleus, celosia, croton, and canna, although the main object of the flower-bed is to produce an abundance of flowers.

In making a flower-bed, see that the ground is well drained; that the subsoil is deep; that the land is in a mellow and friable condition, and that it is fertile. Each fall it may have a mulch of rotted manure or of leafmold, which may be spaded under deeply in the spring; or the land may be spaded and left rough in the fall, which is a good practice when the soil has much clay. Make the flower-beds as broad as possible, so that the roots of the grass running in from either side will not meet beneath the flowers and rob the beds of food and moisture. It is well to add a little commercial fertilizer each fall or spring.

Although it is well to emphasize making the ground fertile, it must be remembered (as indicated at the close of Chap. IV) that it can easily be made too rich for such plants as we desire to keep within certain stature and for those from which we wish an abundance of bloom in a short season. In over-rich ground, nasturtiums and some other plants not only "run to vine," but the bloom lacks brilliancy. When it is the leaf and vegetation that is wanted, there is little danger of making the ground too rich, although it is possible to make the plant so succulent and sappy that it becomes sprawly or breaks down; and other plants may be crippled and crowded out.

There are various styles of flower-planting. The mixed border, planted with various hardy plants, and extending along either side of the garden-walk, was popular years ago; and, with modifications in position, form, and extent, has been a popular attachment to home grounds during the past few years. To produce the best effects the plants should be set close enough to cover the ground; and the selection should be such as to afford a continuity of bloom.

The mixed flower-bed may contain only tender summer-blooming plants, in which case the bed, made up mostly of annuals, does not purport to express the entire season.

In distinction from the mixed or non-homogeneous flowerbed are the various forms of "bedding," in which plants are massed for the purpose of making a connected and homogeneous bold display of form or color. The bedding may be for the purpose of producing a strong effect of white, of blue, or of red; or of ribbon-like lines and edgings; or of luxurious and tropical expression; or to display boldly the features of a particular plant, as the tulip, the hyacinth, the chrysanthemum.

In ribbon-bedding, flowering or foliage plants are arranged in ribbon-like lines of harmoniously contrasting colors, commonly accompanying walks or drives, but also suitable for marking limits, or for the side borders. In such beds, as well as the others, the tallest plants will be placed at the back, if the bed is to be seen from one side only, and the lowest at the front. If it is to be seen from both sides, then the tallest will stand in the center.

A modification of the ribbon-line, bringing the contrasting colors together into masses forming circles or other patterns, is known as "massing," or "massing in color," and sometimes is spoken of as "carpet-bedding."

Carpet-bedding, however, belongs more properly to a style of bedding in which plants of dense, low, spreading habit—chiefly foliage plants, with leaves of different forms and colors—are planted in patterns not unlike carpets or rugs. It is often necessary to keep the plants sheared into limits. Carpet-bedding is such a specialized form of plant-growing that we shall treat of it separately.

Beds containing the large foliage plants, for producing tropical effects, are composed, in the main, of subjects that are allowed to develop naturally. In the lower and more orderly massing, the plants are arranged not only in circles and patterns according to habit and height, but the selection is such that some or all may be kept within proper limits by pinching or trimming. Circles or masses composed of flowering plants usually cannot be cut back at the top, so that the habit of the plants must be known before planting; and the plants must be placed in parts of the bed where trimming will not be necessary. They may be clipped at the sides, however, in case the branches or leaves of one mass or line in the pattern grow beyond their proper bounds.

The numbers of good annuals and perennials that may be used in flower-beds are now very large, and one may have a wide choice. Various lists from which one may choose are given at the end of this chapter; but special comment may be made on those most suitable for bedding, and in its modification in ribbon-work and sub-tropical massing.

Bedding effects.

Bedding is ordinarily a temporary species of planting; that is, the bed is filled anew each year. However, the term may be used to designate a permanent plantation in which the plants are heavily massed so as to give one continuous or emphatic display of form or color. Some of the best permanent bedding masses are made of the various hardy ornamental grasses, as eulalias, arundo, and the like. The color effects in bedding may be secured with flowers or with foliage.

Summer bedding is often made by perennial plants that are carried over from the preceding year, or better, that are propagated for that particular purpose in February and March. Such plants as geranium, coleus, alyssum, scarlet salvia, ageratum, and heliotrope may be used for these beds. It is a common practice to use geranium plants which are in bloom during the winter for bedding out during the summer, but such plants are tall and ungainly in form and have expended the greater part of their energies. It is better to propagate new plants by taking cuttings or slips late in the winter and setting out young fresh vigorous subjects. (Page 30.)

Some bedding is very temporary in its effect. Especially is this true of spring bedding, in which the subjects are tulips, hyacinths, crocuses, or other early-flowering bulbous plants. In this case, the ground is usually occupied later in the season by other plants. These later plants are commonly annuals, the seeds of which are sown amongst the bulbs as soon as the season is far enough advanced; or the annuals may be started in boxes and the plants transplanted amongst the bulbs as soon as the weather is fit.

Many of the low-growing and compact continuous-flowering annuals are excellent for summer bedding effects. There is a list of some useful material for this purpose on page 249.

Plants for subtropical effects (Plates IV and V).

The number of plants suitable to produce a semitropical mass or for the center or back of a group, which may be readily grown from seed, is limited. Some of the best kinds, are included below.

It will often be worth while to supplement these with others, to be had at the florists, such as caladiums, screw pines, Ficus elastica, araucarias, Musa Ensete, palms, dracenas, crotons, and others. Dahlias and tuberous begonias are also useful. About a pond the papyrus and lotus may be used.

Practically all the plants used for this style of gardening are liable to injury from winds, and therefore the beds should be placed in a protected situation. The palms and some other greenhouse stuff do better if partially shaded.

In the use of such plants, there are opportunities for the exercise of the nicest taste. A gross feeder, as the ricinus, in the midst of a bed of delicate annuals, is quite out of place; and a stately, royal-looking plant among humbler kinds often makes the latter look common, when if headed with a chief of their own rank all would appear to the best advantage.

Some of the plants much used for subtropical bedding, and often started for that purpose in a greenhouse or coldframe, are:—

Acalypha.

Amarantus.

Aralia Sieboldii (properly Fatsia Japonica).

Bamboos.

Caladium and colocasia.

Canna.

Coxcomb, particularly the new "foliage" kinds.

Grasses, as eulalias, pampas-grass, pennisetums.

Gunnera.

Maize, the striped form.

Ricinus or castor bean.

Scarlet sage.

Wigandia.

Aquatic and bog plants.

Some of the most interesting and ornamental of all plants grow in water and in wet places. It is possible to make an aquatic flower-garden, and also to use water and bog plants as a part of the landscape work.

The essential consideration in the growing of aquatics is the making of the pond. It is possible to grow water-lilies in tubs and half barrels; but this does not provide sufficient room, and the plant-food is likely soon to be exhausted and the plants to fail. The small quantity of water is likely also to become foul.

The best ponds are those made by good mason work, for the water does not become muddy by working among the plants. In cement ponds it is best to plant the roots of water-lilies in shallow boxes of earth (1 foot deep and 3 or 4 feet square), or to hold the earth in mason-work compartments.



Usually the ponds or tanks are not cement lined. In some soils a simple excavation will hold water, but it is usually necessary to give the tank some kind of lining. Clay is often used. The bottom and sides of the tank are pounded firm, and then covered with 3 to 6 in. of clay, which has been kneaded in the hands, or pounded and worked in a box. Handfuls or shovelfuls of the material are thrown forcibly upon the earth, the operator being careful not to walk upon the work. The clay is smoothed by means of a spade or maul, and it is then sanded.

The water for the lily pond may be derived from a brook, spring, well, or a city water supply. The plants will thrive in any water that is used for domestic purposes. It is important that the water does not become stagnant and a breeding place for mosquitoes. There should be an outlet in the nature of a stand-pipe, that will control the depth of water. It is not necessary that the water run through the pond or tank rapidly, but only that a slow change take place. Sometimes the water is allowed to enter through a fountain-vase, in which water plants (such as parrot's feather) may be grown (Plate X).

In all ponds, a foot or 15 in. is sufficient depth of water to stand above the crowns of the plants; and the greatest depth of water should not be more than 3 ft. for all kinds of water-lilies. Half this depth is often sufficient. The soil should be 1 to 2 ft. deep, and very rich. Old cow manure may be mixed with rich loam. For the nympheas or water-lilies, 9 to 12 in. of soil is sufficient. Most of the foreign water-lilies are not hardy, but some of them may be grown with ease if the pond is covered in winter.

Roots of hardy water-lilies may be planted as soon as the pond is clear of frost, but the tender kinds (which are also to be taken up in the fall) should not be planted till it is time to plant out geraniums. Sink the roots into the mud so that they are just buried, and weight them down with a stone or clod. The nelumbium, or so-called Egyptian lotus, should not be transplanted till growth begins to show in the roots in the spring. The roots are cleaned of decayed parts and covered with about 3 in. of soil. A foot or so of water is sufficient for lotus ponds. The roots of Egyptian lotus must not freeze. The roots of all water-lily-like plants should be frequently divided and renewed.

With hardy aquatics, the water and roots are allowed to remain naturally over winter. In very cold climates, the pond is protected by throwing boards over it and covering with hay, straw, or evergreen boughs. It is well to supply an additional depth of water as a further protection.

As a landscape feature, the pond should have a background, or setting, and its edges should be relieved, at least on sides and back, by plantings of bog plants. In permanent ponds of large size, plantings of willows, osiers, and other shrubbery may set off the area to advantage. Many of the wild marsh and pond plants are excellent for marginal plantings, as sedges, cat-tail, sweet-flag (there is a striped-leaved form), and some of the marsh grasses. Japanese iris makes an excellent effect in such places. For summer planting in or near ponds, caladium, umbrella-plant, and papyrus are good.

If there is a stream, "branch," or "run" through the place, it may often be made one of the most attractive parts of the premises by colonizing bog plants along it.

Rockeries, and alpine plants.

A rockery is a part of the place in which plants are grown in pockets between rocks. It is a flower-garden conception rather than a landscape feature, and therefore should be at one side or in the rear of the premises. Primarily, the object of using the rocks is to provide better conditions in which certain plants may grow; sometimes the rocks are employed to hold a springy or sloughing bank and the plants are used to cover the rocks; now and then a person wants a rock or a pile of stones in his yard, as another person would want a piece of statuary or a sheared evergreen. Sometimes the rocks are natural to the place and cannot well be removed; in this case the planning and planting should be such as to make them part of the picture.

The real rock-garden, however, is a place in which to grow plants. The rocks are secondary. The rocks should not appear to be placed for display. If one is making a collection of rocks, he is pursuing geology rather than gardening.

Yet many of the so-called rock-gardens are mere heaps of stones, placed where it seems to be convenient to pile stones rather than where the stones may improve conditions for the growing of plants.

The plants that will naturally grow in rock pockets are those requiring a continuous supply of root moisture and a cool atmosphere. To place a rockery on a sand bank in the burning sun is therefore entirely out of character.

Rock-garden plants are those of cool woods, of bogs, and particularly of high mountains and alpine regions. It is generally understood that a rock-garden is an alpine-garden, although this is not necessarily so.

In this country alpine-gardening is little known, largely because of our hot dry summers and falls. But if one has a rather cool exposure and an unfailing water supply, he may succeed fairly well with many of the alpines, or at least with the semi-alpines.

Most of the alpines are low and often tufted plants, and bloom in a spring temperature. In our long hot seasons, the alpine-garden may be expected to be dormant during much of the summer, unless other rock-loving plants are colonized in it. Alpine plants are of many kinds. They are specially to be found in the genera arenaria, silene, diapensia, primula, saxifraga, arabis, aubrietia, veronica, campanula, gentiana. They comprise a good number of ferns and many little heaths.

A good rock-garden of any kind does not have the stones piled merely on the surface; they are sunken well into the ground and are so placed that there are deep chambers or channels that hold moisture and into which roots may penetrate. The pockets are filled with good fibrous moisture-holding earth, and often a little sphagnum or other moss is added. It must then be arranged so that the pockets never dry out.

Rock-gardens are usually failures, because they violate these very simple elementary principles; but even when the soil conditions and moisture conditions are good, the habits of the rock plants must be learned, and this requires thoughtful experience. Rock-gardens cannot be generally recommended.

1. PLANTS FOR CARPET-BEDS

(By Ernest Walker)

The beauty of the carpet-bed lies largely in its unity, sharp contrast and harmony of color, elegance—often simplicity—of design, nicety of execution, and the continued distinctness of outline due to scrupulous care. A generous allowance of green-sward on all sides contributes greatly to the general effect,—in fact it is indispensable.

Whatever place is chosen for the bed, it should be in a sunny exposure. This, nor any kind of bed, should not be planted near large trees, as their greedy roots will rob the soil not only of its food, but of moisture. The shade also will be a menace. As the plants stand so thick, the soil should be well enriched, and spaded at least a foot deep. In planting, a space of at least six inches must be left between the outer row of plants and the edge of the grass. The very style of the bed requires that lines be straight, the curves uniform, and that they be kept so by the frequent and careful use of the shears. During dry periods watering will be necessary. The beds, however, should not be watered in the hot sunshine. Foliage plants are most in use, and are the ones which will prove the most satisfactory in the hands of the inexperienced, as they submit to severe clipping and are thus more easily managed.

The following list will be helpful to the beginner. It embraces a number of the plants in common use for carpet-bedding, although not all of them. The usual heights are given in inches. This, of course, in different soils and under different treatment is more or less a variable quantity. The figures in parentheses suggest in inches suitable distances for planting in the row when immediate effects are expected. A verbena in rich soil will in time cover a circle three feet or more in diameter; other plants mentioned spread considerably; but when used in the carpet-bed, they must be planted close. One cannot wait for them to grow. The aim is to cover the ground at once. Although planted thick in the row, it will be desirable to leave more room between the rows in case of spreading plants like the verbena. Most of them, however, need little if any more space between the rows than is indicated by the figures given. In the list those plants that bear free clipping are marked with an asterisk (A):

Lists for carpet-beds.

The figure immediately following the name of plant indicates its height, the figures in parentheses the distance for planting, in inches.

1. LOW-GROWING PLANTS

A. FOLIAGE PLANTS.

Crimson.—(A)Alternanthera amoena spectabilis, 6 (4-6). Alternanthera paronychioides major, 5 (3-6). Alternanthera versicolor, 5 (3-6).

Yellow.—Alternanthera aurea nana, 6 (4-6).

Gray, or whitish.—Echeveria secunda, glauca, 1-1/2 (3-4). Echeveria metallica, 9 (6-8). Cineraria maritima, 15 (9-12). Sempervivum Californicum, 1-1/2 (3-4). Thymus argenteus, 6 (4-6).

Bronze brown.—Oxalis tropaeoloides, 3 (3-4).

Variegated (white and green).—Geranium Mme. Salleroi, 6 (6-8). (A)Sweet alyssum, variegated, 6 (6-9).

B. FLOWERING PLANTS.

Scarlet.—Phlox Drummondii, Dwarf, 6 (4-6). Cuphea platycentra, Cigar Plant, 6 (4-6).

White.—Sweet alyssum, Little Gem, 4 (4-6). Sweet alyssum, common, 6 (6-8). Phlox Drummondii, Dwarf, 6 (4-6).

Blue.—Lobelia, Crystal Palace, 6 (4-6). Ageratum, Dwarf Blue, 6 (6-8).

2. PLANTS OF TALLER GROWTH

A. FOLIAGE PLANTS.

Crimson.—(A)Coleus Verschaffeltii, 24 (9-12). (A)Achyranthes Lindeni, 18 (8-12). (A)Achyranthes Gilsoni, 12 (8-12). (A)Achyranthes Verschaffeltii, 12 (8-12). (A)Acalypha tricolor, 12-18 (12).

Yellow.—(A)Coleus, Golden Bedder, 24 (9-12). (A)Achyranthes, aurea reticulata, 12 (8-12). Golden feverfew (Pyrethrum parthenifolium aureum), (6-8). Bronze geranium, 12 (9).

Silvery white.—Dusty miller (Centaurea gymnocarpa), 12 (8-12). (A)Santolina Chamaecyparissus incana, 6-12 (6-8). Geranium, Mountain of Snow, 12 (6-9).

Variegated (white and green).—(A)Stevia serrata var., 12-18 (8-12). Phalaris arundinaeca var., (grass), 24 (4-8). Cyperus alternifolius var., 24-30 (8-12).

Bronze.—(A)Acalypha marginata, 24 (12).

B. FLOWERING PLANTS.

Scarlet.—Salvia splendens, 36 (12-18). Geraniums, 24 (12). Cuphea tricolor (C. Llavae), 18 (8-12). Dwarf nasturtium (Tropaeolum), 12-18 (12-18). Begonia, Vernon, 12 (6-8). Verbenas, 12 (6-12). Phlox Drummondii, Dwarf, 6 (4-6).

White.—Salvia splendens, White-flowered, 36 (12-18). Geraniums, 18-24 (12). Lantana, Innocence, 18-24 (8-12). Lantana, Queen Victoria, 24 (8-12). Verbena, Snow Queen, 12 (6-12). Ageratum, White, 9 (6-9). Phlox Drummondii, Dwarf, 6 (4-6).

Pink.—Petunia, Countess of Ellesmere, 18 (8-12). Lantana, 24 (8-12). Verbena, Beauty of Oxford, 6 (8-12). Phlox Drummondii, Dwarf, 6 (4-6).

Yellow.—Dwarf nasturtium, 12 (12-18). Anthemis coronaria fl. pl., 12 (6-8).

Blue.—Ageratum Mexicanum, 12 (6-8). Verbenas, 6 (6-12). Heliotrope, Queen of Violets, 18 (12-18).

In Fig. 240 are shown a few designs suitable for carpet-beds. They are intended merely to be suggestive, not to be copied precisely. The simple forms and component parts of the more elaborate beds may be arranged into other designs. Likewise the arrangement of plants, which will be mentioned as suitable for making a given pattern, is only one of many possible combinations. The idea is merely to bring out the design distinctly. To accomplish this it is only necessary to use plants of contrasting color or growth. To illustrate how varied are the arrangements that may be used, and how easily different effects are produced with a single design, several different combinations of color for the bed No. 1 will be mentioned:



No. 1.—Arrangement A: Outside, Alternanthera amoena spectabilis; inside, Stevia serrata variegata. B: lobelia, Crystal Palace; Mme. Salleroi geranium. C: lobelia, Crystal Palace; scarlet dwarf phlox. D: sweet alyssum; petunia, Countess of Ellesmere. E: coleus, Golden Bedder; Coleus Verschaffeltii. F: Achyranthes Lindeni; yellow dwarf nasturtium.

No. 2.—Outside, red alternanthera; middle, dusty miller; center, pink geranium.

No. 3.—Outside, Alternanthera aurea nana; middle, Alternanthera amoena spectabilis; center, Anthemis coronaria.

No. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 12 may each be filled with a single color, or given a border of suitable plants if the planter so chooses.

No. 9.—Ground, Alternanthera aurea nana; center, Acalypha tricolor; black dots, scarlet geranium.

No. 10.—Ground of Centaurea gymnocarpa; circle, Achyranthes Lindeni; cross, Golden coleus.

No. 11.—Border, Oxalis tropaeoloides; center, blue heliotrope, blue ageratum, or Acalypha marginata; cross about the center, Thymus argenteus, or centaurea; scallop outside the cross, blue lobelia; corners, inside border, santolina.

Designs 13 and 14 are, in character, somewhat in the style of a parterre; but instead of the intervening spaces in the bed being ordinary walks they are of grass. Such beds are of a useful type, because they may be made large and yet be executed with a comparatively small number of plants. They are especially suitable for the center of an open plot of lawn with definite formal boundaries on all sides, such as walks or drives. Whether they are to be composed of tall-growing or of low-growing plants will depend upon the distance they are to be from the observer. For a moderate-sized plot the following plants might be used:—

No. 13.—Border, red alternanthera; second row, dwarf orange or yellow nasturtium; third row, Achyranthes Gilsoni, or Acalypha tricolor; central square, scarlet geraniums, with a border of Centaurea gymnocarpa; intervening spaces, grass. Instead of the square of geraniums, a vase might be substituted, or a clump of Salvia splendens.

No. 14.—Composite beds like this and the former are always suggestive. They contain various features which may readily be recombined into other patterns. Sometimes it may be convenient to use only portions of the design. The reader should feel that no arrangement is arbitrary, but merely a suggestion that he may use with the utmost freedom, only keeping harmony in view. For No. 14, the following may be an acceptable planting arrangement: Border, Mme. Salleroi geranium; small dots, dwarf scarlet tropeolum; diamonds, blue lobelia; crescents, Stevia serrata variegata; inner border, crimson achyranthes or coleus; loops, Centaurea gymnocarpa; wedge-shaped portions, scarlet geranium.

No. 15.—Suitable for a corner. Border, red alternanthera; second row, Alternanthera aurea nana; third row, red alternanthera; center, Echeveria Californica.



No. 16—Border, crimson alternanthera (another border of yellow alternanthera might be placed inside of this); ground, Echeveria secunda glauca; inner border, Oxalis tropaeoloides; center, Alternanthera aurea nana. Or, inner border, Echeveria Californica; center, crimson alternanthera.



No. 17.—Another bed intended to fill an angle. Its curved side will also fit it for use with a circular design. Border, dwarf blue ageratum; circle, blue lobelia; ground (3 parts), crimson alternanthera.

Other carpet or mosaic beds (after Long), with the plants indicated, are shown in Figs. 241, 242.

2. THE ANNUAL PLANTS

The annual flowers of the seedsmen are those that give their best bloom in the very year in which the seeds are sown. True annuals are those plants that complete their entire life-cycle in one season. Some of the so-called annual flowers will continue to bloom the second and third years, but the bloom is so poor and sparse after the first season that it does not pay to keep them. Some perennials may be treated as annuals by starting the seeds early; Chinese pink, pansy and snapdragon are examples.

The regular biennials may be treated practically as annuals; that is, seeds may be sown every year, and after the first year, therefore, a seasonal succession of bloom may be had. Of such are adlumia, Canterbury bell, lunaria, ipomopsis, oenothera Lamarckiana; and foxglove, valerian, and some other perennials would better be treated as biennials.

Most annuals will bloom in central New York if the seeds are sown in the open ground when the weather becomes thoroughly settled. But there are some kinds, as the late cosmos and moon-flowers, for which the northern season is commonly too short to give good bloom unless they are started very early indoors.

If flowers of any annual are wanted extra early, the seeds should be started under cover. A greenhouse is not necessary for this purpose, although best results are to be expected with such a building. The seed may be sown in boxes, and these boxes then placed in a sheltered position on the warm side of a building. At night they may be covered with boards or matting. In very cold "spells" the boxes should be brought inside. In this simple way seeds may often be started one to three weeks ahead of the time when they can be sown in the open garden. Moreover, the plants are likely to receive better care in these boxes, and therefore to grow more rapidly. Of course, if still earlier results are desired, the seed should be sown in the kitchen, hotbed, coldframe, or in a greenhouse. In starting plants ahead of the season, be careful not to use too deep boxes. The gardener's "flat" may be taken as a suggestion. Three inches of earth is sufficient, and in some cases (as when the plants are started late) half this depth is enough.

The difficulty with early sown seedlings is "drawing up," and weakness from crowding and want of light. This is most liable to occur with window-grown plants. Vigorous June-sown plants are better than such weaklings. It must be remembered that very early bloom usually means the shortening of the season at the other end; this may be remedied to some extent by making sowings at different times.

The "hardy" annuals are such as develop readily without the aid of artificial heat. They are commonly sown in May or earlier, directly in the open ground where they are to grow. Florists often sow certain kinds in the fall, and winter the young plants in coldframes. They may also be wintered under a covering of leaves or evergreen boughs. Some of the hardy annuals (as sweet pea) withstand considerable frost. The "half-hardy" and "tender" annuals are alike in that they require more warmth for their germination and growth. The tender kinds are very quickly sensitive to frost. Both these, like the hardy kinds, may be sown in the open ground, but not until the weather has become settled and warm, which for the tender kinds will not commonly be before the first of June; but the tender kinds, at least, are preferably started in the house and transplanted to their outdoor beds. Of course, these terms are wholly relative. What may be a tender annual in Massachusetts may be a hardy annual or even a perennial in Louisiana.

These terms as ordinarily used in this country refer to the northern states, or not farther south than middle Atlantic states.