In the daytime signals such as raising a cap or a handkerchief in a prearranged manner may be used by sentinels to communicate with the guard or with each other.

SECTION 12. GUARD PATROLS.

218. A guard patrol consists of one or more men detailed for the performance of some special service connected with guard duty.

219. If the patrol be required to go beyond the chain of sentinels, the officer or noncommissioned officer in charge will be furnished with the countersign and the outposts and sentinels warned.

220. If challenged by a sentinel, the patrol is halted by its commander, and the noncommissioned officer accompanying it advances alone and gives the countersign.

SECTION 13. WATCHMEN.

221. Enlisted men may be detailed as watchmen or as overseers over prisoners, and as such will receive their orders and perform their duties as the commanding officer may direct.

SECTION 14. COMPLIMENTS FROM GUARDS.

222. The compliment from a guard consists in the guard turning out and presenting arms. (See par. 50.) No compliments will be paid between retreat and reveille except as provided in paragraphs 361 and 362, nor will any person other than those named in paragraph 224 receive the compliment.

223. Though a guard does not turn out between retreat and reveille as a matter of compliment it may be turned out for inspection at any time by a person entitled to inspect it.

224. Between reveille and retreat, the following persons are entitled to the compliment: The President; sovereign or chief magistrate of a foreign country and members of a royal-family; Vice President: President and President pro tempore of the Senate; American and foreign ambassadors; members of the Cabinet; Chief Justice; Speaker of the House of Representatives; committees of Congress officially visiting a military post; governors within their respective States and Territories; governors general; Assistant Secretary of War officially visiting a military post; all general officers of the Army; general officers of foreign services visiting a post; naval, marine, volunteer, and militia officers in the service of the United States and holding the rank of general officer; American or foreign envoys or ministers; ministers accredited to the United States; charges d'affaires accredited to the United States; consuls general accredited to the United Suites; commanding officer of the post or camp; officer of the day.

225. The relative rank between officers of the Army and Navy is as follows: General with admiral, lieutenant general with vice admiral, major general with rear admiral, brigadier general with commodore,[13] colonel with captain, lieutenant colonel with commander, major with lieutenant commander, captain with lieutenant, first lieutenant with lieutenant (junior grade), second lieutenant with ensign. (A. R. 12.)

[Footnote 13: The grade of commodore ceased to exist as a grade on the active list of the Navy of the United States on Mar. 3, 1899. By section 7 of the act of Mar. 3. 1899, the nine junior rear admirals are authorized to receive the pay and allowances of a brigadier general of the Army.]

226. Sentinels will not be required to memorize paragraph 224, and, except in the cases of general officers of the Army, the commanding officer and the officer of the day will be advised in each case of the presence in camp or garrison of persons entitled to the compliment.

227. Guards will turn out and present arms when the national or regimental colors or standards, not cased, are carried past by a guard or an armed party. This rule also applies when the party carrying the colors is at drill. If the drill is conducted in the vicinity of the guardhouse, the guard will be turned out when the colors first pass, and not thereafter.

228. In ease the remains of a deceased officer or soldier are carried past, the guard will turn out and present arms.

229. In time of war all guards will turn out under arms when armed parties, except troops at drill and reliefs or detachments of the guard, approach their post. (See par. 53.)

230. The commander of the guard will be notified of the presence in camp or garrison of all persons entitled to the compliment except general officers of the Army, the commanding officer, and the officer of the day. Members of the guard will salute all persons entitled to the compliment and all officers in the military or naval service of foreign powers, officers of the Army, Navy, and Marine Corps, officers of volunteers, and officers of militia when in uniform.

GENERAL RULES CONCERNING GUARD DUTY.

232. _Eighty-fifth_article_of_war_.— Any person subject to military law, except an officer, who is found drunk on duty shall be punished as a court-martial may direct.

233. All material instructions given to a member of the guard by an officer having authority will be promptly communicated to the commander of the guard by the officer giving them.

234. Should the guard be formed, soldiers will fall in ranks under arms. At roll call each man, as his name or number and relief are called, will answer "Here," and come to an ORDER ARMS.

235. Whenever the guard or a relief is dismissed, each member not at once required for duty will place his rifle in the arm racks, if they be provided, and will not remove it therefrom unless he requires it in the performance of some duty.

236. Without permission from the commander of the guard, members of the main guard, except orderlies, will not leave the immediate vicinity of the guardhouse. Permission to leave will not be granted except in cases of necessity.

237. Members of the main guard, except orderlies, will not remove their accouterments or clothing without permission from the commander of the guard. (Par. 66.)

SECTION 15. PRISONERS.

238. Articles of war 69, 70, 71, 72, and 73 have special reference to the confinement of prisoners and should be carefully borne in mind.

239. The commander of the guard will place a civilian in confinement on an order from higher authority only, unless such civilian is arrested while in the act of committing some crime within the limits of the military jurisdiction, in which case the commanding officer will be immediately notified.

240. Except as provided in the sixty-eighth article of war, or when restraint is necessary, no soldier will be confined without the order of an officer, who shall previously inquire into his offense. (A. R. 930.)

241. An officer ordering a soldier into confinement will send, as soon as practicable, a written statement, signed by himself, to the commander of the guard, setting forth the name, company, and regiment of such soldier, and a brief statement of the alleged offense. It is a sufficient statement of the offense to give the number and article of war under which the soldier is charged.

242. A prisoner, after his first day of confinement, and until his sentence has been duly promulgated, is considered as held in confinement by the commanding officer. After due promulgation of his sentence, the prisoner is held in confinement by authority of the officer who reviews the proceedings of the court awarding sentence. The commander of the guard will state in his report, in the proper place, the name of the officer by whom the prisoner was originally confined.

243. Enlisted men against whom charges have been preferred will be designated as "awaiting trial"; enlisted men who have been tried will, prior to the promulgation of the result, be designated as "awaiting result of trial"; enlisted men serving sentences of confinement not involving dishonorable discharge, will be designated as "garrison prisoners." Persons sentenced to dismissal or dishonorable discharge and to terms of confinement at military posts or elsewhere will be designated as "general prisoners." (A. R. 928.)

244. The sentences of prisoners will be read to them when the order promulgating the same is received. The officer of the guard, or the officer of the day if there be no officer of the guard, will lead them unless the commanding officer shall direct otherwise.

245. When the date for the commencement of a term of confinement imposed by sentence of a court-martial is not expressly fixed by sentence, the term of confinement begins on the date of the officer promulgating it. The sentence is continuous until the term expires, except when the person sentenced is absent without authority. (A. R. 969.)

246. When soldiers awaiting trial or the result of trial, or undergoing sentence commit offenses for which they are tried, the second sentence will be executed upon the expiration of the first.

247. Prisoners awaiting trial by, or undergoing sentence of, a general court-martial and those confined for serious offenses will be kept apart, when practicable, from those confined by sentence of an inferior court or for minor offenses. Enlisted men in confinement for minor offenses, or awaiting trial or the result of trial for the same, will ordinarily be sent to work under charge of unarmed overseers instead of armed sentinels and will be required attend drills unless the commanding officer shall direct otherwise.

248. Prisoners, other than general prisoners, will be furnished with food from their respective companies or from the organizations to which they may be temporarily attached.

The food of prisoners will, when practicable, be sent to their places of confinement, but post commanders may arrange to send the prisoners, under proper guard, to their messes for meals.

When there is no special mess for general prisoners, they will be attached for rations to companies.

Enlisted men bringing meals for the prisoners will not be allowed to enter the prison room. (See par. 289.)

249. With the exception of those specially designated by the commanding officer, no prisoners will be allowed to leave the guardhouse unless under charge of a sentinel and passed by an officer or noncommissioned officer of the guard. The commanding officer may authorize certain garrison prisoners and paroled general prisoners to leave the guardhouse, not under the charge of a sentinel, for the purpose of working outside under such surveillance and restrictions as he may impose.

250. Prisoners reporting themselves sick at sick cull, or at the time designated by the commanding officer, will be sent to the hospital under charge of proper guard, with a sick report kept for the purpose. The recommendation of the surgeon will be entered in the guard report.

251. The security of sick prisoners in the hospital devolves upon the post surgeon, who will, if necessary, apply to the post commander for a guard.

252. Prisoners will be paraded with the guard only when directed by the commanding officer or the officer of the day.

253. A prisoner under charge of a sentinel will not salute an officer.

254. All serviceable clothing which belongs to a prisoner, and his blankets, will accompany him to the post designated for his confinement, and will be fully itemized on the clothing list sent to that post. The guard in charge of the prisoner during transfer will be furnished with a duplicate of this list, and will be held responsible for the delivery of all articles itemized therein with the prisoner. At least one serviceable woolen blanket will be sent with every such prisoner so transferred. (A.R. 939.)

255. When mattresses are not supplied, each prisoner in the guardhouse will be allowed a bed sack and 30 pounds of straw per month for bedding. So far as practicable iron bunks will be furnished to all prisoners in post guardhouses and prison room. (A. R. 1084.)

256. If the number of prisoners, including general prisoners, confined at a post justifies it, the commanding officer will detail a commissioned officer as "officer in charge of prisoners." At posts where the average number of prisoners continually in confinement is less than 12, the detail of an officer in charge of prisoners will not be made.

SECTION 16. GUARDING PRISONERS.

299. The sentinel at the post of the guard has charge of the prisoners except when they have been turned over to the prisoner guard or overseers. (Pars. 247 and 300 to 304.)

(a) He will allow none to escape.

(b) He will allow none to cross his post leaving the guardhouse except when passed by an officer or noncommissioned officer of the guard.

(c) He will allow no one to communicate with prisoners without permission from proper authority.

(d) He will promptly report to the corporal of the guard any suspicious noise made by the prisoners.

(e) He will be prepared to tell, whenever asked, how many prisoners are in the guardhouse and how many are out at work or elsewhere.

Whenever prisoners are brought to his post returning from work or elsewhere, he will halt them and call the corporal of the guard, notifying him of the number of prisoners returning. Thus: "Corporal of the guard, (so many). Prisoners."

He will not allow prisoners to pass into the guardhouse until the corporal of the guard has responded to the call and ordered him to do so.

300. Whenever practicable, special guards will be detailed for the particular duty of guarding working parties composed of such prisoners as can not be placed under overseers. (Par. 247.)

301. The prisoner guard and overseers will be commanded by the police officer; if there be no police officer, then by the officer of the day.

302. The provost sergeant is sergeant of the prisoner guard and overseers, and as such receives orders from the commanding officer and the commander of the prisoner guard only.

303. Details for prisoner guard are marched to the guardhouse and mounted by being inspected by the commander of the main guard, who determines whether all of the men are in proper condition to perform their duties and whether their arms and equipments are in proper condition, and rejects any men found unfit.

304. When prisoners have been turned over to the prisoner guard or overseers, such guards or overseers are responsible for them under their commander, and all responsibility and control of the main guard ceases until they are returned to the main guard. (Par. 306.)

305. It a prisoner attempts to escape, the sentinel will call "Halt." If he fails to halt when the sentinel has once repeated his call, and if there be no other possible means of preventing his escape, the sentinel will fire upon him.

The following will more fully explain the important duties of a sentinel in this connection:

(Circular.) WAR DEPARTMENT. ADJUTANT GENERAL'S OFFICE, _Washington,_November_1,_1887._

By direction of the Secretary of War, the following is published for the information of the Army:

UNITED STATES CIRCUIT COURT, EASTERN DISTRICT OF MICHIGAN, AUGUST 1, 1887.

THE UNITED STATES V. JAMES CLARK.

The circuit court has jurisdiction of a homicide committed by one soldier upon another within a military reservation of the United States.

If a homicide be committed by a military guard without malice and in the performance of his supposed duty as a soldier, such homicide is excusable, unless it was manifestly beyond the scope of his authority or was such that a man of ordinary sense and understanding would know that it was illegal.

It seems that the sergeant of the guard has a right to shoot a military convict if there be no other possible means of preventing his escape.

The common-law distinction between felonies and misdemeanors has no application to military offenses.

While the finding of a court of inquiry acquitting the prisoner of all blame is not a legal bar to a prosecution, it is entitled to weight as an expression of the views of the military court of the necessity of using a musket to prevent the escape of the deceased.

* * * * *

By order of the Secretary of War: R. C. DRUM, _Adjutant_General._

The following is taken from Circular No. 3, of 1883, from Headquarters Department of the Columbia:

VANCOUVER BARRACKS, W. T., April20,1883.

To the ASSISTANT ADJUTANT GENERAL, _Department_of_the_Columbia._

SIR:

* * * * *

A sentinel is placed as guard over prisoners to prevent their escape, and, for this purpose, he is furnished a musket, with ammunition. To prevent escape is his first and most important duty.

* * * * *

I suppose the law to be this: That a sentinel shall not use more force or violence to prevent the escape of a prisoner than is necessary to effect that object, but if the prisoner, after being ordered to halt, continues his flight the sentinel may maim or even kill him, and it is his duty to do so.

A sentinel who allows a prisoner to escape without firing upon him, and firing to hit him, is, in my judgment, guilty of a most serious military offense, for which he should and would be severely punished by a general court-martial.

* * * * *

(Signed) HENRY A. MORROW, ColonelTwenty-firstInfantry,CommandingPost.

[Third indorsement.]

OFFICE JUDGE ADVOCATE, MILITARY DIVISION OF THE PACIFIC, May11,1883.

Respectfully returned to the assistant adjutant general, Military Division of the Pacific, concurring fully in the views expressed by Col. Morrow. I was not aware that such a view had ever been questioned. That the period is a time of peace does not affect the authority and duty of the sentinel or guard to fire upon the escaping prisoner, if this escape can not otherwise be prevented. He should, of course, attempt to stop the prisoner before firing by ordering him to halt, and will properly warn him by the words "Halt, or I fire," or words to such effect.

W. WINTHROP, _Judge_Advocate_.

[Fourth indorsement.]

HEADQUARTERS MILITARY DIVISION OF THE PACIFIC, May11,1883.

Respectfully returned to the commanding general, Department of the Columbia, approving the opinion of the commanding officer, Twenty-first Infantry, and of the judge advocate of the division, in respect to the duty of and method to be adopted by sentinels in preventing prisoners from escaping.

* * * * *

By command of Maj. Gen. Schofield: J. C. KELTON, AssistantAdjutantGeneral.

See also Circular No. 53, A. G. O., December 22, 1900.

306. On approaching the post of the sentinel at the guardhouse, a sentinel of the prisoner guard or an overseer in charge of prisoners will halt them and call, "No. 1, (so many) prisoners." He will not allow them to cross the post of the sentinel until so directed by the corporal of the guard.

307. Members of the prisoner guard and overseers placed over prisoners for work will receive specific and explicit instructions covering the required work; they will be held strictly responsible that the prisoners under their care properly and satisfactorily perform the designated work.

SECTION 17. FLAGS.

337. The garrison, post, and storm flags are national flags and shall be of bunting. The union of such is as described in paragraph 216, Army Regulations, and shall be of the following proportions: Width, seven-thirteenths of the hoist of the flag; length, seventy-six one-hundredths of the hoist of the flag.

The garrison flag will have 38 feet fly and 20 feet hoist. It will be furnished only to posts designated in orders from time to time from the War Department, and will be hoisted only on holidays and important occasions.

The post flag will have 19 feet fly and 10 feet hoist. It will be furnished for all garrison posts and will be hoisted in pleasant weather.

The storm flag will have 9 feet 6 inches fly and 5 feet hoist. It will be furnished for all occupied posts for use in stormy and windy weather. It will also be furnished to national cemeteries. (A. R. 223.)

338. At every military post or station the flag will be hoisted at the sounding of the first note of the reveille, or of the first note of the march, if a march be played before the reveille. The flag will be lowered at the sounding of the last note of the retreat, and while the flag is being lowered the band will play "The Star Spangled Banner," or, if there be no band present, the field music will sound "to the color." When "to the color" is sounded by the field music while the flag is being lowered the same respect will be observed as when "The Star-Spangled Banner" is played by the band, and in either case officers and enlisted men out of ranks will face toward the flag, stand at attention, and render the prescribed salute at the last note of the music. (A: R. 437.)

The lowering of the flag will be so regulated as to be completed at the last note of "The Star-Spangled Banner" or "to the color."

339. The national flag will be displayed at a seacoast or lake fort at the beginning of and during an action in which a fort may be engaged, whether by day or by night. (A. R. 437.)

340. The national flag will always be displayed at the time of firing a salute. (A. R. 397.)

341. The flag of a military post will not be dipped by way of salute or compliment. (A. R. 405.)

342. On the death of an officer at a military post the flag is displayed at halfstaff and so remains between reveille and retreat until the last salvo or volley is fired over the grave; or if the remains are not interred at the post until they are removed therefrom. (A. R. 422.)

343. During the funeral of all enlisted man at a military post the flag is displayed at halfstaff. It is hoisted to the top after the final volley or gun is fired or after the remains are taken from the post. The same honors are paid on the occasion of the funeral of a retired enlisted man. (A. R. 423.)

344. When practicable, a detail consisting of a noncommissioned officer and two privates of the guard will raise or lower the flag. This detail wears side arms or if the special equipments do not include side arms then belts only.

The noncommissioned officer, carrying the flag, forms the detail in line, takes his post in the center and marches it to the staff. The flag is then securely attached to the halyards and rapidly hoisted. The halyards are then securely fastened to the cleat on the staff and the detail marched to the guardhouse.

345. When the flag is to be lowered, the halyards are loosened from the staff and made perfectly free. At retreat the flag is lowered at the last note of retreat. It is then neatly folded and the halyards made fast. The detail is then re-formed and marched to the guardhouse, where the flag is turned over to the commander of the guard.

The flag should never be allowed to touch the ground and should always be hoisted or lowered from the leeward side of the staff, the halyards being held by two persons.

SECTION 18. REVEILLE AND RETREAT GUN.

346. The morning and evening gun will be fired by a detachment of the guard, consisting, when practicable, of a corporal and two privates. The morning gun is fired at the first note of reveille, or, if marches be played before the reveille, it is fired at the beginning of the first march. The retreat gun is fired at the last note of retreat.

The corporal marches the detachment to and from the piece, which is fired, sponged out, find secured under his direction.

SECTION 19. GUARD MOUNTING.

347. Guard mounting will be formal or informal as the commanding officer may direct. It will be held as prescribed in the drill regulations of the arm of the service to which the guard belongs. If none is prescribed, then as for infantry. In case the guard is composed wholly of mounted organizations, guard mounting may be held mounted.

348. When infantry and mounted troops dismounted are united for guard mounting, all details form as prescribed for infantry.

SECTION 20. FORMAL GUARD MOUNTING FOR INFANTRY.

349. Formal guard mounting will ordinarily be held only in posts or camps where a band is present.

350. At the assembly, the men designated for the guard fall in on their company parade grounds as prescribed in paragraph 106, I. D. R. The first sergeant then verifies the detail, inspects it, replaces any man unfit to go on guard, turns the detail over to the senior noncommissioned officer, and retires. The band takes its place on the parade ground so that the left of its front rank shall be 12 paces to the right of the front rank of the guard when the latter is formed.

351. At adjutant's call, the adjutant, dismounted and the sergeant major on his left, marches to the parade ground. The adjutant halts and takes post so as to be 12 paces in front of and facing the center of the guard when formed; the sergeant major continues on, moves by the left flank and takes post facing to the left, 12 paces to the left of the front rank of the hand; the band plays in quick or double time; the details are marched to the parade ground by the senior noncommissioned officers; the detail that arrives first is marched to the line so that, upon halting, the breast of the front rank men shall be near to and opposite the left arm of the sergeant major; the commander of the detail halts his detail, places himself in front of and facing the sergeant major, at a distance equal to or a little greater than the front of his detail, and commands: 1. Right, 2. DRESS. The detail dresses up to the line of the sergeant major and its commander, the right front rank man placing his breast against the left arm of the sergeant major; the noncommissioned officers take post two paces in rear of the rear rank of the detail. The detail aligned, the commander of the detail commands: FRONT, salutes, and then reports; "The detail is correct," or "(So many) sergeants, corporals, or privates are absent"; the sergeant major returns the salute with the right hand after the report is made. The commander then passes by the right of the guard and takes post in the line of noncommissioned officers in rear of the right file of his detail.

Should there be more than one detail, it is formed in like manner on the left of the one preceding. The privates, noncommissioned officers, and commander of each detail dress on those of the preceding details in the same rank or line. Each detail commander closes the rear rank to the right and fills blank files as far as practicable with the men from his front rank.

Should the guard from a company not include a noncommissioned officer, one will be detailed to perform the duties of commander of the detail. In this case the commander of the detail, after reporting to the sergeant major, passes around the right flank between the guard and the band and retires.

352. When the last detail has formed, the sergeant major takes a side step to the right, draws sword, verifies the detail, takes post two paces to the right and two paces to the front of the guard, facing to the left, causes the guard to count off, completes the left squad, if necessary, as in the School of the Company, and if there be more than three squads, divides the guard into two platoons, again takes post as described above and commands: 1. _Open_ranks_, 2. MARCH.

At the command march, the rear rank and file closers march backward four steps, halt, and dress to the right. The sergeant major aligns the ranks and file closers and again taking post as described above, commands: FRONT, moves parallel to the front rank until opposite the center, turns to the right, halts midway to the adjutant, salutes and reports: "Sir, the details are correct," or "Sir, (so many) sergeants, corporals, or privates are absent"; the adjutant returns the salute, directs the sergeant major: Take your post, and then draws saber; the sergeant major faces about, approaches to within two paces of the center of the front rank, turns to the right, moves three paces beyond the left of the front rank, turns to the left, halts on the line of the front rank, faces about, and brings his sword to the order. When the sergeant major has reported the officer of the guard takes post, facing to the front three paces in front of the center of the guard, and draws saber.

The adjutant then commands: 1. Officer(orofficer)and noncommissionedofficers, 2. Frontandcenter, 3. MARCH.

At the command center, the officers carry saber. At the command MARCH, the officer advances and halts three paces from the adjutant, remaining at the carry; the noncommissioned officers pass by the flanks, along the front, and form in order of rank from right to left, three paces in rear of the officer, remaining at the right shoulder; if there is no officer of the guard the noncommissioned officers halt on a line three paces from the adjutant; the adjutant then assigns the officers and noncommissioned officers according to rank, as follows: Commander of the guard, leader of first platoon, leader of second platoon, right guide of first platoon, left guide of second platoon, left guide of first platoon, right guide of second platoon, and file closers, or, if the guard is not divided into platoons: Commander of the guard, right guide, left guide, and file closers.

The adjutant then commands: 1. Officer(orofficers)and noncommissionedofficers, 2. POSTS, 3. MARCH.

At the command posts, all, except the officer commanding the guard, face about. At the command MARCH, they take the posts presented in the school of the company with open ranks. The adjutant directs: Inspect your guard, sir; at which the officer commanding the guard faces about, commands: Prepare for inspection, returns saber and inspects the guard.

During the inspection the band plays; the adjutant returns saber, observes the general condition of the guard, and falls out any man who is unfit for guard duty or does not present a creditable appearance. Substitutes will report to the commander of the guard at the guardhouse.

353. The adjutant, when so directed, selects orderlies and color sentinels, as prescribed in paragraphs 140 and 141, and notifies the commander of the guard of his selection.

354. If there be a junior officer of the guard he takes post at the same time as the senior, facing to the front, three paces in front of the center of the first platoon; in going to the front and center he follows and takes position on the left of the senior and is assigned as lender of the first platoon; he may be directed by the commander of the guard to assist in inspecting the guard.

If there be no officer of the guard, the adjutant inspects the guard. A noncommissioned officer commanding the guard takes post on the right of the right guide when the guard is in line, and takes the post of the officer of the guard when in column or passing in review.

355. The inspection ended, the adjutant faces himself about thirty paces in front of and facing the center of the guard and draws saber; the new officer of the day takes post in front of and facing the guard, about thirty paces from the adjutant; the old officer of the day takes post three paces to the right of and one pace to the rear of the new officer of the day; the officer of the guard takes post three paces in front of its center, draws saber with the adjutant, and comes to the order; thereafter he takes the same relative position as a captain of a company.

The adjutant then commands: 1. Parade, 2. REST, 3. SOUND OFF, and comes to the order and parade rest.

The band, playing, passes in front of the officer of the guard to the left of the line and back to its post on the right, when it ceases playing.

The adjutant then comes to attention, carries saber and commands: 1. _Guard_, 2. ATTENTION, 3. _Close_ranks_, 4. MARCH.

The ranks are opened and closed as in paragraph 745, I. D. R.

The adjutant then commands: 1. Present, 2. ARMS, faces toward the new officer of the day, salutes, and then reports: Sir, the guard is formed. The new officer of the day, after the adjutant has reported, returns the salute with the hand and directs the adjutant: March the guard in review, sir.

The adjutant caries saber, faces about, brings the guard to an order, and commands: 1. _At_trail,_platoons_(or_guard)_right_, 2. MARCH, 3. _Guard_, 4. HALT.

The platoons execute the movement; the band turns to the right and places itself 12 paces in front of the first platoon.

The adjutant places himself six paces from the flank and abreast of the commander of the guard; the sergeant major six paces from the left flank of the second platoon.

The adjutant then commands: 1. Passinreview, 2. FORWARD, 3. MARCH.

The guard marches in quick time past the officer of the day, according to the principles of review, and is brought to eyes right at the proper time by the commander of the guard; the adjutant, commander of the guard, leaders of platoons, sergeant major, and drum major salute.

The band, having passed the officer of the day, turns to the left of the column, places itself opposite and facing him, and continues to play until the guard leaves the parade ground. The field music detaches itself from the band when the latter turns out of the column, and, remaining in front of the guard, commences to play when the band ceases.

Having passed 12 paces beyond the officer of the day, the adjutant halts; the sergeant major halts abreast of the adjutant and 1 pace to his left; they then return saber, salute, and retire; the commander of the guard then commands: 1. Platoons,right bysquads, 2. MARCH, and marches the guard to its post.

The officers of the day face toward each other and salute; the old officer of the day turns over the orders to the new officer of the day.

While the band is sounding off, and while the guard is marching in review, the officers of the day stand at parade rest with arms folded. They take this position when the adjutant comes to parade rest, resume the attention with him, again take the parade rest at the first note of the march in review, and resume attention as the head of the column approaches.

The new officer of the day returns the salute of the commander of the guard and the adjutant, making one salute with the hand.

356. If the guard be not divided into platoons, the adjutant commands: 1. _At_trail,_guard_right_, 2. MARCH, 3. _Guard_, 4. HALT, and it passes in review as above; the commander of the guard is 3 paces in front of its center; the adjutant places himself 6 paces front the left flank and abreast of the commander of the guard; the sergeant covers the adjutant on a line with the front rank.

SECTION 21. INFORMAL GUARD MOUNTING FOR INFANTRY.

357. Informal guard mounting will be held on the parade ground of the organization from which the guard is detailed. If it is detailed from more than one organization, then at such place as the commanding officer may direct.

358. At assembly, the detail for guard falls in on the company parade ground. The first sergeant verifies the detail, inspects their dress and general appearance, and replaces any man unfit to march on guard. He then turns the detail over to the commander of the guard and retires.

359. At adjutant's call, the officer of the day takes his place 15 paces in front of the center of the guard and commands: 1. _Officer_(or_officers)_and_noncommissioned_officers_, 2. _Front_and_center_, 3. MARCH; whereupon the officers and noncommissioned officers take their positions, are assigned and sent to their posts as prescribed in formal guard mounting. (Par. 352.)

The officer of the day will then inspect the guard with especial reference for its fitness for the duty for which it is detailed and will select, as prescribed in paragraphs 140 and 141, the necessary orderlies and color sentinels. The men found unfit for guard will be returned to quarters and will be replaced by others found to be suitable, if available in the company. If none are available in the company the fact will be reported to the adjutant immediately after guard mounting.

When the inspection shall have been completed the officer of the day resumes his position and directs the commander of the guard to march the guard to its post.

SECTION 22. RELIEVING THE OLD GUARD.

360. As the new guard approaches the guardhouse, the old guard is formed in line, with its field music three paces to its right; and, when the field music at the head of the new guard arrives opposite its left, the commander of the new guard commands: 1. Eyes, 2. RIGHT; the commander of the old guard commands: 1. Present, 2. ARMS; commanders of both guards salute. The new guard marches in quick time past the old guard.

When the commander of the new guard is opposite the field music of the old guard, he commands: FRONT; the commander of the old guard commands: 1. Order, 2. ARMS, as soon as the new guard shall have cleared the old guard.

The field music having marched three paces beyond the field music of the old guard, changes direction to the right, and, followed by the guard, changes direction to the left when on a line with the old guard; the changes of direction are without command. The commander of the guard halts on the line of the front rank of the old guard, allows his guard to march past him, and, when its rear approaches, forms it in line to the left, establishes the left guide three paces to the right of the field music of the old guard, and on a line with the front rank, and then dresses his guard to the left; the field music of the new guard is three paces to the right of its front rank.

361. The new guard being dressed the commander of each guard, in front of and facing its center, commands: 1. Present, 2. ARMS, resumes his front, salutes, carries saber, faces his guard, and commands: 1. Order, 2. ARMS.

Should a guard be commanded by a noncommissioned officer, he stands on the right or left of the front rank, according as he commands the old or new guard, and executes the rifle salute.

362. After the new guard arrives at its post and has saluted the old guard, each guard is presented by its commander to its officer of the day; if there be but one officer of the day present, or if one officer acts in the capacity of old and new officer of the day, each guard is presented to him by its commander.

363. If other persons entitled to a salute approach, each commander of the guard will bring his own guard to attention if not already at attention. The senior commander of the two guards will then command: "1. Old and new guards, 2. Present, 3. Arms."

The junior will salute at the command "Present Arms" given by the senior. After the salute has been acknowledged, the senior brings both guards to the order.

364. After the salutes have been acknowledged by the officers of the day, each guard is brought to an order by its commander; the commander of the new guard then directs the orderly or orderlies to fall out and report and causes bayonets to be fixed if so ordered by the commanding officer; bayonets will not then be unfixed during the tour except in route marches while the guard is actually marching or when specially directed by the commanding officer.

The commander of the new guard then falls out members of the guard for detached posts, placing them under charge of the proper noncommissioned officers, divides the guard into three reliefs, first, second, and third, from right to left, and directs a list of the guard to be made by reliefs. When the guard consists of troops of different arms combined, the men are assigned to reliefs so as to insure a fair division of duty under rules prescribed by the commanding officer.

365. The sentinels and detachments of the old guard are at once relieved by members of the new guard, the two guards standing at ease or at rest while these changes are being made. The commander of the old transmits to the commander of the new guard all his orders, instructions, and information concerning the guard and its duties. The commander of the new guard then takes possession of the guardhouse and verifies the articles in charge of the guard.

366. If considerable time is required to bring in that portion of the old guard still on post, the commanding officer may direct that as soon as the orders and property are turned over to the new guard the portion of the old guard at the guardhouse may be marched off and dismissed. In such a case the remaining detachment or detachments of the old guard will be inspected by the commander of the new guard when they reach the guardhouse. He will direct the senior noncommissioned officer present to march these detachments off and dismiss them in the prescribed manner.

367. In bad weather, at night, after long marches, or when the guard is very small, the field music may be dispensed with.



CHAPTER X.

MAP READING AND SKETCHING.

SECTION 1. MILITARY MAP READING.

When you pick up a map, the first question is, Where is the north? This can usually be told by an arrow (see fig. 1, section 1) which will be found in one of the corners of the map, and which points to the true north—the north of the north star.

On some maps no arrow is to be found. The chances are a hundred to one that the north is at the top of the map, as it is on almost all printed maps. But you can only assure yourself of that fact by checking the map with the ground it represents. For instance, if you ascertain that the city of Philadelphia is due east of the city of Columbus, then the Philadelphia-Columbus line on the map is a due east-and-west line, and establishes at once all the other map directions.

Now, the map represents the ground as nearly as it can be represented on a flat piece of paper. If you are standing up. facing the north, your right hand will be in the east, your left in the west, and your back to the south. It is the same with a map; if you look across it in the direction of the arrow—that is, toward its north—your right hand will be toward what is east on the map; your left hand to the west; the south will be at the bottom of the map.

There is another kind of an arrow that sometimes appears on a map. It is like the one in figure 2, section 1, and points not to the true north but to the magnetic north, which is the north of the compass. Though the compass needle, and therefore the arrow that represents it on the map, does not point exactly north, the deviation is, from a military point of view, slight, and appreciable error will rarely result through the use of the magnetic instead of the true north in the solution of any military problems.



Should you be curious to know the exact deviation, consult your local surveyor or any civil engineer.

Both arrows may appear on your map. In that case disregard the magnetic arrow unless you are using the map in connection with a compass.

If a map is being used on the ground, the first thing to be done is to put the lines of the map parallel to the real outlines of the ground forms, and roads, fences, railroads, etc., that the map shows; for the making of a map is no more than the drawing on paper of lines parallel to and proportional in length to real directions and distances on the ground.

For instance, the road between two places runs due north and south. Then on the map a line representing the road will be parallel to the arrow showing the north and will be proportional in length to the real road. In this way a map is a picture, or, better, a bare outline sketch; and, as we can make out a picture, though it be upside down, or crooked on the wall, so we call use a map that is upside down or not parallel to the real ground forms. But it is easier to make out both the picture and the map if their lines are parallel to what they represent. So in using a map on the ground we always put the lines parallel to the actual features they show. This is easy if the map has an arrow.

If the map has no arrow, you must locate objects or features on the ground, and on the map, their representations. Draw on the map a line connecting any two of the features; place this line parallel to all imaginary line through the two actual features located, and your map will be correctly placed. Look to it that you do not reverse on the map the positions of the two objects or features, or your map will be exactly upside down.

When the map has been turned into the proper position—that is to say, "oriented"—the next thing is to locate on the map your position. If you are in the village of Easton and there is a place on the map labeled Easton, the answer is apparent. But if you are out in the country, at an unlabeled point that looks like any one of a dozen other similar points, the task is more complicated. In this latter case you must locate and identify, both on the map and on the ground, other points—hills, villages, peculiar bends in rivers, forests—any ground features that have some easily recognizable peculiarity and that you can see from your position.

Suppose, for instance, you were near Leavenworth and wanted to locate your exact position, of which you are uncertain. You have the map shown in this manual, and, looking about, you see southwest from where you stand the United States Penitentiary; also, halfway between the south and the southeast—south-southeast a sailor would say—the reservoir (rectangle west of "O" in "Missouri"). Having oriented your map, draw on it a line from the map position of the reservoir toward its actual position on the ground. Similarly draw a line from the map position of penitentiary toward its actual position. Prolong the two lines until they intersect. The intersection of the lines will mark the place where you stand—south Merritt Hill.

This method consists merely in drawing on the map lines that represent the lines of sight to known and visible places. The lines pass through the map position of the places you see and are parallel to the actual lines of sight; therefore they are the map representations of the lines of sight, and their intersection is the map position of the eye of the observer.

After this orientation and location of position, one can deduce from the map everything there is to know in regard to directions. In this respect, study of the ground itself will show no more than will study of the map.

After "What direction?" comes "How far?" To answer this, one must understand that the map distance between any two points shown bears a fixed and definite relation or proportion to the real distance between the two points.

For instance: We measure on a map and find the distance between two points to be 1 inch. Then we measure the real distance on the ground and find it to be 10,000 inches; hence the relation between the map distance and the real distance is 1 to 10,000, or 1/10000. Now, if the map is properly drawn, the same relation will hold good for all distances, and we can obtain any ground distance by multiplying by 10,000 the corresponding map distance.

This relation need not be 1/10000, but may be anything from 1/100 that an architect might use in making a map or plan of a house up to one over a billion and a half, which is about the proportion between map and real distances in a pocket-atlas representation of the whole world on a 6-inch page. Map makers call this relation the "scale" of the map and put it down in a corner in one of three ways.

First. 1 inch equals 100.

Second. 1/100.

Third. As shown in figure 3 (section 1).

These expressions mean one and the same thing. A variation of the first method on a map of different scale might be: 1 inch equals 1 mile. Since a mile contains 63,360 inches, then the real distance between any two points shown on the map is 63,360 times the map distance.

To find the ground distance by the third kind of scale, copy it on the edge of a slip of paper, apply the slip directly to the map, and read off the distance; and so we answer the question, "How far?"

After direction and distance comes the interpretation of the signs, symbols, and abbreviations on the map. Those authorized are given in section 2 (a reprint of Appendix 4, Field Service Regulations, 1914); but there are a good many other conventional signs in common use. A key to them is published by the War Department, and is called "Conventional Signs, United States Army." From these you read at once the natural and artificial features of the country shown on your map. It should be borne in mind that these conventional signs are not necessarily drawn to scale, as are the distances. They show the position and outline of the features rather than the size. This, for the reason that many of the features shown, if drawn to scale, would be so small that one could not make them out except with a magnifying glass. If the exact dimensions are of any importance, they will be written in figures on the map. For instances, bridges.

In addition to te above conventional signs, we have CONTOURS to show the elevations, depressions, slope, and shape of the ground. Abroad, HACHURES are much used, but they serve only to indicate elevation, and, as compared to contours, are of little value. Contours resemble the lines shown in figure 4 (section 1)

Hachures are shown in figure 5 (section 1), and may be found on any European map. They simply show slopes, and, when carefully drawn, show steeper slopes by heavier shading and gentler slopes by the fainter hachures. The crest of the mountain is within the hachures. (See fig. 5, section 1.)

Contours.—A certain student, when asked by his instructor to define "space," said: "I have it, sir, in my head, but can not put it into words." The Instructor replied: "I suppose that under those circumstances, Mr. ——, the definition really would not help much." And so it is with contours—the definition does not help much if you know a contour when you meet it on a map. For examples of contours, turn to the map in section 2 and, starting at the United States penitentiary, note the smooth, flowing, irregular curved lines marked 880, 860, 840, 840, 860, etc.

The only other lines on the map that at all resemble contours are stream lines, like "Corral Creek," but the stream lines are readily distinguished from contours by the fact that they cross the contours squarely, while the contours run approximately parallel to each other. Note the stream line just to the west of South Merritt Hill.

The contours represent lines on the ground that are horizontal and whose meanderings follow the surface, just as the edge of a flood would follow the irregularities of the hills about it. Those lines that contours stand for are just as level as the water's edge of a lake, but horizontally they wander back and forth to just as great a degree.

The line marked 880, at the penitentiary, passes through on that particular piece of ground every point that is 880 feet above sea level. Should the Missouri River rise in flood to 880 feet, the penitentiary would be on an island, the edge of which is marked by the 880 contour.

Contours show several things; among them the height of the ground they cross. Usually the contour has labeled on it in figures the height above some starting point, called the DATUM PLANE—generally sea level. If, with a surveying instrument, you put in on a piece of ground a lot of stakes, each one of which is exactly the same height above sea level—that is, run a line of levels—then make a map showing the locution of the stakes, a line drawn on the map through all the stake positions is a contour and shows the position of all points of that particular height.

On any given map all contours are equally spaced in a vertical direction, and the map shows the location of a great number of points at certain fixed levels. If you know the vertical interval between any two adjacent contours, you know the vertical interval for all the contours on that map, for these intervals on a given map are all the same.

With reference to a point through which no contour passes, we can only say that the point in question is not higher than the next contour up the hill, nor lower than the next one down the hill. For the purposes of any problem, it is usual to assume that the ground slopes evenly between the two adjacent contours and that the vertical height of the point above the lower contour is proportional to its horizontal distance from the contour, as compared to the whole distance between the two contours. For instance, on the map, find the height of point A. The horizontal measurements are as shown on the map. The vertical distance between the contours is 20 feet. A is about one-quarter of the distance between the 800 and the 820 contours, and we assume its height to be one-quarter of 20 feet (5 feet) higher than 800 feet. So the height of A is 805 feet.

The vertical interval is usually indicated in the corner of the map by the letters "V. I." For instance: V. I.=20 feet.

On maps of very small pieces of ground, the V. I. is usually small—perhaps as small as 1 foot; on maps of large areas on a small scale it may be very great—even 1,000 feet.

Contours also show SLOPES. It has already been explained that from any contour to the next one above it the ground rises a fixed number of feet, according to the vertical interval of that map. From the scale of distances on the map the horizontal distance between any two contours can be found. For example: On the map the horizontal distance between D and E is 90 yards, or 270 feet. The vertical distance is 20 feet the V. I. of the map. The slope then is 20/270 = 1/13.5 = 7-1/2% = 4-1/2 deg., in all of which different ways the slope can be expressed,



On a good many contoured maps a figure like this will be found in one of the corners:



On that particular map contours separated by the distance



on the vertical scale show a slope of 1 deg.: if separated by the distance



they show a 2 deg. slope. etc. A slope of 1 deg. is a rise of 1 foot in 57. To use this scale of slopes copy it on the edge of a piece of paper just as you did the scale of distances and apply it directly to the map.

You will notice that where the contours lie closest the slope is steepest; where they are farthest apart the ground is most nearly flat,

It has already been set forth how contours show height and slope; in addition to this they show the shape of the ground, or GROUND FORMS. Each single contour shows the shape at its particular level of the hill or valley it outlines; for instance, the 880 contour about the penitentiary shows that the hill at that level has a shape somewhat like a horse's head. Similarly, every contour on the map gives us the form of the ground at its particular level, and knowing these ground forms for many levels we can form a fair conception of what the whole surface is like.

A round contour like the letter O outlines a round ground feature; a long narrow one indicates a long narrow ground feature.

Different hills and depressions have different shapes. A good many of them have one shape at one level and another shape at another level, all of which information will be given you by the contours on the map.

One of the ways to see how contours show the shape of the ground is to pour half a bucket of water into a small depression in the ground. The water's edge will be exactly level, and if the depression is approximately round the water's edge will also be approximately round. The outline will look something like figure 6.

Draw roughly on a piece of paper a figure of the same shape and you will have a contour showing the shape of the bit of ground where you poured your water.

Next, with your heel gouge out on one edge of your little pond a small round bay. The water will rush in and the water-mark on the soil will now be shaped something like figure 7.

Alter your drawing accordingly, and the new contour will show the new ground shape.

Again do violence to the face of nature by digging with a stick a narrow inlet opening out of your miniature ocean, and the watermark will now look something like figure 8.

Alter your drawing once more and your contour shows again the new ground form. Drop into your main pond a round clod and you will have a new watermark, like figure 9, to add to your drawing. This new contour, of the same level with the one showing the limit of the depression, shows on the drawing the round island.

Drop in a second clod, this time long and narrow, the watermark will be like figure 10, and the drawing of it, properly placed, will show another island of another shape. Your drawing now will look like figure 11.

It shows a depression approximately round, off which open a round bay and a long narrow bay. There is also a round elevation and a long, narrow one; a long, narrow ridge, jutting out between the two bays, and a short, broad one across the neck of the round bay.



Now flood your lake deeply enough to cover up the features you have introduced. The new water line, about as shown by the dotted line in figure 11, shows the oblong shape of the depression at a higher level; the solid lines show the shape farther down; the horizontal distance between the two contours at different points shows where the bank is steep and where the slope is gentler.

Put together the information that each of these contours gives you, and you will see how contours show the shape of the ground. On the little map you have drawn you have introduced all the varieties of ground forms there are; therefore all the contour forms.

The contours on an ordinary map seem much more complicated, but this is due only to the number of them, their length, and many turns before they finally close on themselves. Or they may close off the paper. But trace each one out, and it will resolve itself into one of the forms shown in figure 11.

Just as the high-tide line round the continents of North and South America runs a long and tortuous course, but finally closes back on itself, so will every contour do likewise. And just as truly as every bend in that high-tide mark turns out around a promontory, or in around a bay, so will every bend in a contour stand for a hill or a valley, pointing to the lowlands if it be a hill, and to the height if it mark a valley.

If the map embrace a whole continent or an island, all the contours will be of closed form, as in figure 11, but if it embrace only it part of the continent or island, some of the contours will be chopped off at the edge of the map, and we have the open form of contours, as we would have if figure 11 were cut into two parts.

The closed form may indicate a hill or a basin; the open form, a ridge or a valley; sometimes a casual glance does not indicate which.

Take up, first, the contour of the open type. If the map shows a stream running down the inside of the contour, there is no difficulty in saying at once that the ground feature is a valley; for instance, V, V, V, and the valley of Corral Creek on the map. But if there is no stream line, does the contour bend show a valley or a ridge?

First of all, there is a radical difference between the bend of a contour round the head of a valley and its bend round the nose of a ridge,

Compare on the map the valleys V and the ridges R. The bend of the contour round the head of the valley is much sharper than the bend of the contour round the nose of the ridge. This is a general truth, not only in regard to maps, but also in regard to ground forms. Study any piece of open ground and note how much wider are the ridges than the valleys. Where you find a "hog back" or "devil's backbone," you have an exception to the rule, but the exceptions are not frequent enough to worry over.

To tell whether a given point is on a ridge or in a valley, start from the nearest stream shown on the map and work across the map to the undetermined point, keeping in mind that in a real trip across the country you start from the stream, go up the hill to the top of a ridge, down the other side of the hill to a water-course, then up a hill to the top of a ridge, down again, up again, etc. That is all traveling is—valley, hill, valley, hill, valley, etc., though you wander till the crack o' doom. And so your map travels must go—valley, hill, valley, hill—till you run off the map or come back to the starting point.

On the map, follow the R-V line, V indicating valley and R ridge or hill. Note first the difference in sharpness in the contour bends; also how the valley contours point to the highland and the ridge contours to the lowland.

The contours go thus:



The streams flow down the valleys, and the sharp angle of the contour points always up stream. Note also how the junction of a stream and its tributary usually makes an angle that points down stream.

"Which way does this stream run?"

Water flows down hill. If you are in the bed of a stream, contours representing higher ground must be to your right and to your left. Get the elevations of these contours. Generally the nearest contour to the bank of the stream will cross the stream and there will be an angle or sharp turn in the contour at this crossing. If the point of the angle or sharp turn is toward you, you are going downstream; if away from you, you are going upstream.

If the contours are numbered, you have only to look at the numbers to say where the low and where the high places are; but to read a map with any speed one must be quite independent of these numbers. In ordinary map reading look, first of all, for the stream lines. The streams are the skeleton upon which the whole map is hung. Then pick out the hilltops and ridges and you have a body to clothe with ail the details that will be revealed by a close and careful study of what the map maker has recorded.

As to closed contours, they may outline a depression or a hill. On the map, "881" or "885" might be hills or ponds, as far as their shape is concerned. But, clearly, they are hills, for on either side are small streams running away from them. If they were ponds, the stream lines would run toward the closed contours. The rest of "hill, valley, hill," will always solve the problem when there are not enough stream lines shown to make evident at once whether a closed contour marks a pond or a hill. Look in the beginning for the stream lines and valleys, and, by contrast, if for no other reason, the hills and ridges at once loom up.

To illustrate the subject of contours to aid those who have difficulty in reading contoured maps the following is suggested:

1. Secure modeling clay and build a mound.

2. Use wire and slice this mound horizontally at equal vertical intervals into zones; then insert vertical dowels through the mound of clay.

3. Remove the top zone, place on paper, and draw outline of the bottom edge. Trim your paper roughly to the outline drawn. Indicate where the holes made by the dowels pierce the paper.

4. Do the above with each zone of your mound.

5. Place these papers in proper order on dowels similarly placed to ones in original mound at, say, 1 inch vertical interval apart. A skeleton mound results.

6. Replace the zones of the clay mound and form the original clay mound along the side of skeleton mound.

7. New force all the paper sheets down the dowels onto the bottom sheet, and we have a map of clay mound with contours.

NOTE.—One-inch or 2-inch planks can be made into any desired form by the use of dowels and similar procedure followed.

People frequently ask, "What should I see when I read a map?" and the answer is given, "The ground as it is." This is not true any more than it is true that the words, "The valley of the Meuse," bring to your mind vine-clad hills, a noble river, and green fields where cattle graze. Nor can any picture ever put into your thought what the Grand Canyon really is. What printed word or painted picture can not do, a map will not. A map says to you, "Here stands a hill," "Here is a valley," "This stream runs so," and gives you a good many facts in regard to them. But you do not have to "see" anything, any more than you have to visualize Liege in order to learn the facts of its geography. A map sets forth cold facts in an alphabet all its own, but an easy alphabet, and one that tells with a few curving lines more than many thousand words could tell.

SECTION 2. SKETCHING.

Noncommissioned officers and selected privates should be able to make simple route sketches. This is particularly useful in patrolling as thereby a patrol leader is able to give his commander a good idea of the country his patrol has traversed. Sketches should be made on a certain scale, which should be indicated on the sketch, such as 3 inches on the sketch equals 1 mile on the ground. The north should be indicated on the sketch by means of an arrow pointing in that direction. Any piece of paper may be used to make the sketch on. The back of the field-message blank is ruled and prepared for this purpose. The abbreviations and conventional signs shown on the following pages should be used in making such simple sketches.

Field Maps and Sketches.

The following abbreviations and signs are authorized for use on field maps and sketches. For more elaborate map work the authorized conventional signs as given in the manual of "Conventional Signs, United States Army Maps," are used.

Abbreviations other than those given should not be used.

ABBREVIATIONS.

A. Arroyo. L. S. S. Life-Saving Station. abut. Abutment. L. H. Lighthouse Ar. Arch. Long. Longitude. b. Brick. Mt. Mountain. B. S. Blacksmith Shop. Mts. Mountains. bot. Bottom. N. North. Br. Branch. n. f. Not fordable. br. Bridge. P. Pier. C. Cape. pk. Plank. cem. Cemetery. P. O. Post Office con. Concrete. Pt. Point. cov. Covered. q.p Queen-post Cr. Creek. R. River. d. Deep. R. H. Roundhouse. cul. Culvert. R. R. Railroad. D. S. Drug Store. S. South. E. East. s. Steel. Est. Estuary. S. H. Schoolhouse. f. Fordable. S. M. Sawmill. Ft. Fort. Sta. Station. G. S General Store. st. Stone. gir. Girder. str. Stream. G. M. Gristmill. T. G. Tollgate. I. Iron. Tres. Trestle. I. Island. tr. Truss. Jc. Junction. W. T. Water Tank. k.p. King-post. W. W. Water Works. L. Lake. W. West. Lat. Latitude. w. Wood. Ldg. Landing. wd. Wide.



MESSAGE BLANKS



The heading "From" is filled in with the name of the detachment sending the information: as "Officer's Patrol, 7th Cav." Messages sent on the same day from the same source to the same person are numbered consecutively. The address is written briefly, thus: "Commanding officer, Outpost, 1st Brigade," In the signature the writer's surname only and rank are given.

This blank is four and a half by six and three quarters-inches, including the margin on the left for binding. The back is ruled in squares, the side of each square representing 100 yards on a scale of 3 inches to one mile, for use in making simple sketches explanatory of the message. It is issued by the Signal Corps in blocks of forty with duplicating sheets. The regulation envelope is three by five and one-fourth inches and is printed as follows:

UNITED STATES ARMY FIELD MESSAGE.

_To_ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._No_ . . . . (For signal operator only.) _When_sent_ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._No_ . . . . _Rate_of_speed_ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _Name_of_messenger_ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _When_and_by_whom_rec'd_ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . This Envelope will be Returned to Bearer.



CHAPTER XII.

SIGNALS AND CODES.

(Extracts from Signal Book, United States Army, 1916.)

General Instructions for Army Signaling.

1. Each signal station will have its call, consisting of one or two letters, as Washington, "W"; and each operator or signalist will also have his personal signal of one or two letters, as Jones, "Jo." These being once adopted will not be changed without due authority.

2. To lessen liability of error, numerals which occur in the body of a message should be spelled out.

3. In receiving a message the man at the telescope should call out each letter as received, and not wait for the completion of a word.

4. A record of the date and time of the receipt or transmission of every message must be kept.

5. The duplicate manuscript of messages received at, or the original sent from, a station should be carefully filed.

6. In receiving messages nothing should be taken for granted, and nothing considered as seen until it has been positively and clearly in view. Do not anticipate what will follow from signals already given. Watch the communicating station until the last signals are made, and be very certain that the signal for the end of the message has been given.

7. Every address must contain at least two words and should be sufficient to secure delivery.

8. All that the sender writes for transmission after the word "To" is counted.

9. Whenever more than one signature is attached to a message count all initials and names as a part of the message.

10. Dictionary words, initial letters, surnames of persons, names of cities, towns, villages, States, and Territories, or names of the Canadian Provinces will be counted each as one word: _e._g._, New York, District of Columbia, East St. Louis should each be counted as one word. The abbreviation of the names of cities, towns, villages, States, Territories, and provinces will be counted the same as if written in full.

11. Abbreviations of weights and measures in common use, figures, decimal points, bars of division, and in ordinal numbers the affixes "st," "d," "nd," "rd," and "th" will be each counted as one word. Letters and groups of letters, when such groups do not form dictionary words and are not combinations of dictionary words, will be counted at the rate of five letters or fraction of five letters to a word. When such groups are made up of combinations of dictionary words, each dictionary word so used will be counted.

12. The following are exceptions to paragraph 55, and are counted as shown:

A. M. 1 word P. M. 1 word O. K. 1 word Per cent 1 word

13. No message will be considered sent until its receipt has been acknowledged by the receiving station.

The International Morse or General Service Code.

18. The International Morse Code is the General Service Code and is prescribed for use by the Army of the United States and between the Army and the Navy of the United States. It will be used on radio systems, submarine cables using siphon recorders, and with the heliograph, flash-lantern, and all visual signaling apparatus using the wigwag.

Alphabet.

A . - N - . B - . . . O - - - C - . - . P . - - . D - . . Q - - . - E . R . - . F . . - . S . . . G - - . T - H . . . . U . . - I . . V . . . - J . - - - W . - - K - . - X - . . - L . - . . Y - . - - M - - Z - - . .

Numerals.

1 . - - - - 6 - . . . . 2 . . - - - 7 - - . . . 3 . . . - - 8 - - - . . 4 . . . . - 9 - - - - . 5 . . . . . 0 - - - - -

Punctuation.

Period . . . . . . Comma . - . - . - Interrogation . . - - . . Hyphen or dash - . . . . - Parentheses (before and after the words) - . - - . - Quotation mark (beginning and ending) . - . . - . Exclamation - - . . - - Apostrophe . - - - - . Semicolon - . - . - . Colon - - - . . . Bar indicating fraction - . . - . Underline (before and after the word or words it is wished to underline) . . - - . - Double dash (between preamble and address, between address and body of message, between body of message and signature, and immediately before a fraction) - . . . - Cross . - . - .

Visual Signaling in General.

21. Methods of visual signaling are divided as follows:

(a) By flag, torch, hand lantern, or beam of searchlight (without shutter). (General Service Code).

(b) By heliograph, flash lantern, or searchlight (with shutter). (General Service Code).

(c) By Ardois. (General Service Code).

(d) By hand flags or by stationary semaphore. (Two-arm semaphore Code.)

(e) By preconcerted signals with Coston lights, rockets, bombs, Very pistols, small arms, guns, etc.

(f) By flag signals by permanent hoists. (International Code.)

22. The following conventional signals, with exceptions noted, will be used in the first four classes.

Exceptions Ardois and semaphore. End of word. Interval. End of sentence. Double interval. End of message. Triple interval. Signal separating preamble from address; address from text; text from signature. - . . . - Double interval, signature preceded also by "Sig." Interval. Acknowledgement. R. Error. . . . . . . . . A. Negative. K. Preparatory. L. Annulling. N. Affirmative. P. Interrogatory. . . - - . . O. Repeat after word. Interrogatory. A (word). Repeat last message. Interrogatory three times Send faster. QRQ Send slower. QRS Cease sending QRT Wait a moment . - . . . None. Execute. IX, IX Move to your right. MR Move to your left. ML Move up. MU Move down. MD Finished . . . - . - None.

Visual Signaling: By Flag (Wig-Wag), Torch, Hand Lantern, or Beam or Searchlight (Without Shutter).

GENERAL SERVICE CODE.

23. For the flag used with the General Service Code there are three motions and one position. The position is with the flag held vertically, the signalman facing directly toward the station with which it is desired to communicate. The first motion (the dot) is to the right of the sender, and will embrace an arc of 90 deg., starting with the vertical and returning to it, and will be made in a plane at right angles to the line connecting the two stations. The second motion (the dash) is a similar motion to the left of the sender. The third motion (front) is downward directly in front of the sender and instantly returned upward to the first position. Front is used to indicate an interval.

24. The beam of the searchlight, though ordinarily used with the shutter like the heliograph, may be used for long-distance signaling, when no shutter is suitable or available, in a similar manner to the flag or torch, the first position being a vertical one. A movement of the beam 90 deg. to the right of the sender indicates a dot, a similar movement to the left indicates a dash; the beam is lowered vertically for front.

25. To use the torch or hand lantern, a foot light must be employed as a point of reference to the motion. The lantern is most conveniently swung out upward to the right of the footlight for a dot, to the left for a dash, and raised vertically for front.

NOTE.—To call a station, make the call letter until acknowledged, at intervals giving the call or signal of the calling station. If the call letter of a station is unknown, wave flag until acknowledged. In using the searchlight without shutter throw the beam in a vertical position and move it through an arc of 180 deg. in a plane at right angles to the line connecting the two stations until acknowledged. To acknowledge a call, signal "Acknowledgment" followed by the call letter of the acknowledging station.

Signaling with Heliograph, Flash Lantern, and Searchlight (With Shutter).

GENERAL SERVICE CODE.

26. The first position is to turn a steady flash on the receiving station. The signals are made by short and long flashes. Use a short flash for dot and a long steady flash for dash. The elements of a letter should be slightly longer than in sound signals.

27. To call a station, make its call letter until acknowledged.

28. If the call letter of a station be unknown, signal A until acknowledged. Each station will then turn on a steady flash and adjust. When adjustment is satisfactory to the called station, it will cut off its flash and the calling station will proceed with its message.

29. If the receiver sees that the sender's mirror or light needs adjustment, he will turn on a steady flash until answered, by a steady flash. When the adjustment is satisfactory the receiver will cut off his flash and the sender will resume his message.



30. To break the sending station for other purposes, turn on a steady flash.

SOUND SIGNALS.

56. Sound signals made by the whistle, foghorn, bugle, trumpet, and drum may well be used in a fog, mist, falling snow, or at night. They may be used with the dot and dash code.

In applying the General Service Code to whistle, foghorn, bugle, or trumpet, one short blast indicates a dot and one long blast a dash. With the drum, one tap indicates a dot and two taps in rapid succession a dash. Although these signals can be used with a dot and dash code, they should be so used in connection with a preconcerted or conventional code.

Signaling by Two-Arm Semaphore.

HAND FLAGS.

43. Signaling by the two-arm semaphore is the most rapid method of sending spelled-out messages. It is, however, very liable to error if the motions are slurred over or run together in an attempt to make speed. Both arms should move rapidly and simultaneously, but there should be a perceptible pause at the end of each letter before making the movements for the next letter. Rapidity is secondary to accuracy. For alphabet see pages following.

NOTE.—In making the interval the flags are crossed downward in front of the body (just above the knees); the double interval is the "chop-chop" signal made twice; the triple interval is "chop-chop" signal made three times. In calling a station face it squarely and make its call. If there is no immediate reply wave the flags over the head to attract attention, making the call at frequent intervals. When the sender makes "end of message" the receiver, if message is understood, extends the flags horizontally and waves them until the sender does the same, when both leave their stations. Care must be taken with hand flags to hold the staffs so as to form a prolongation of the arms.

LETTER CODES.

INFANTRY.

47. For use with General Service Code or semaphore hand flags.

- Letter of If signaled from If signaled from alphabet the rear to the the firing line firing line. to the rear. - AM Ammunition going Ammunition required. forward. CCC Charge (mandatory Am about to charge at all times). if no instructions to the contrary. CF Cease firing. Cease firing. DT Double time or "rush." Double time or "rush." F Commence firing. FB Fix bayonet. FL Artillery fire is causing us losses. G Move forward. Preparing to move forward. HHH Halt. K Negative. Negative. LT Left. Left. O What is the (R. N., What is the (R. N., (Ardois and etc.)? Interrogatory. etc.)? Interrogatory. Semaphore only.) . . - - . . What is the (R. N., What is the (R. N., (All methods etc.)? Interrogatory. etc.)? Interrogatory. but ardois and semaphore.) P Affirmative. Affirmative. RN Range. Range. RT Right. Right. SSS Support going forward. Support needed. SUF Suspend firing. Suspend firing. T Target. Target. -

CAVALRY.

48. For use with General Service Code or semaphore hand flags.

AM—Ammunition going forward (if signaled from the rear to the front). Ammunition required (If signaled from the front). CCC—Charge (if signaled rear the rear to the front). About to charge if no instructions to the contrary (if signaled from the front). CF—Cease firing. DT—Double time, rush, or hurry. F—Commence firing. FL—Artillery fire is causing us losses. G—Move forward (if signaled from the rear to the front). Preparing to move forward (if signaled from the front). HHH—Halt. K—Negative. LT—Left. M—Bring up the horses (if signaled from front to rear). Horses going forward (if signaled from rear to front). O—What is the (R. N., etc.)? Interrogatory. (Ardois and semaphore only.) . . - - . .—What is the (R. N., etc.)? Interrogatory. (All methods but ardois and semaphore.) P—Affirmative. R—Acknowledgment. RN—Range. RT—Right. SSS—Support going forward (if signaled from the rear to the front). Support needed (if signaled from the front). SUF—Suspend firing. T—Target.

FIELD ARTILLERY.

49. For use with General Service Code or semaphore hand flags.

. . . . . . . .—Error. (All methods but ardois and semaphore.) A—Error. (Ardois and semaphore only.) AD—Additional. AKT—Draw ammunition from combat tram. AL—Draw ammunition from limbers. AM—Ammunition going forward. AMC—At my command. AP—Aiming point. B (numerals)—Battery (so many) rounds. BS (numerals)—(Such.) Battalion station. BL—Battery from the left. BR—Battery from the right. CCC—Charge (mandatory at all times). Am about to charge if not instructed to contrary. CF—Cease firing. CS—Close station. CT—Change target. D—Down. DF—Deflection. DT—Double time. Rush. Hurry. F—Commence firing. FCL (numerals)—On 1st piece close by (so much). FL—Artillery fire is causing us losses. FOP (numerals)—On 1st piece open by (so much). G—Move forward. Preparing to move forward. HHH—Halt. Action suspended. IX—Execute. Go ahead. Transmit. JI—Report firing data. K—Negative. No. KR—Corrector. L—Preparatory. Attention. LCL (numerals)—On 4th piece close by (so much). LOP (numerals)—On 4th piece open by (so much). LT—Left. LL—Left from the left. LR—Left from the right. LE (numerals)—Left (so much). MD—Move down. ML—Move to your left. MR—Move to your right. MU—Move up. MO (numerals)—Move (so much). N—Annul, cancel. O—What is the (R. N., etc.)? Interrogatory. (Ardois and semaphore only.) . . - - . .—What is the (R. N.. etc.)? Interrogatory. (All methods but ardois and semaphore.) P—Affirmative. Yes. PS—Percussion. Shrapnel. QRQ—Send faster. QRS—Send slower. QRT—Cease sending. R—Acknowledgment. Received. RS—Regimental station. RL—Right from the left. RR—Right from the right. RN—Range. RT—Right. S—Subtract. SCL (numerals)—On 2d piece close by (so much). SOP (numerals)—On 2d piece open by (so much). SH—Shell. SI—Site. SSS—Support needed. T—Target. TCL (numerals)—On 3d piece close by (so much). TOP (numerals)—On 3d piece open by (so much). U—Up. Y (letter)—Such battery station.



CHAPTER XIII.

FIRST AID RULES.

The bandages and dressings contained in the first-aid packet have been so treated as to destroy any germs thereon. Therefore, when dressing a wound, be careful not to touch or handle that part of the dressing which is to be applied to the wound.

A sick or injured person should always be made to lie down on his back, if practicable, as this is the most comfortable position, and all muscles may be relaxed.

All tight articles of clothing and equipment should be loosened, so as not to interfere with breathing or the circulation of the blood. Belts, collars, and the trousers at the waist should be opened.



Don't let mere onlookers crowd about the patient. They prevent him from getting fresh air and also make him nervous and excited.

In case of injury the heart action is generally weak from shock, and the body, therefore, grows somewhat cold. So don't remove any more clothing than is necessary to expose the injury.

Cut or rip the clothing, but don't pull it. Try to disturb the patient as little as possible.

Don't touch a wound with your fingers or a handkerchief, or with anything else but the first-aid dressing. Don't wash the wound with water, as you may infect it.

Don't administer stimulants (whisky, brandy, wine, etc.) unless ordered to do so by a doctor. While in a few cases stimulants are of benefit, in a great many cases they do positive harm, especially where there has been any bleeding.

The heart may be considered as a pump and the arteries as a rubber hose, which carry the blood from the heart to every part of the body. The veins are the hose which carry the blood back to the heart. Every wound bleeds some, but, unless a large artery or a large vein is cut, the bleeding will stop after a short while if the patient is kept quiet and the first-aid dressing is bound over the wound so as to make pressure on it.



When a large artery is cut the blood gushes out in spurts every time the heart beats. In this case it is necessary to stop the flow of blood by pressing upon the hose somewhere between the heart and the leak.

If the leak is in the arm or hand, apply pressure as in figure 1.

If the leak is in the leg, apply pressure as in figure 2.

If the leak is in the shoulder or armpit, apply pressure as in figure 3.

The reason for this is that at the places indicated the arteries may be pressed against a bone more easily than at any other places.

Another way of applying pressure (by means of a tourniquet) is shown in figure 4. Place a pad of tightly rolled cloth or paper, or any suitable object, over the artery. Tie a bandage loosely about the limb and then insert your bayonet, or a stick, and twist up the bandage until the pressure of the pad on the artery stops the leak. Twist the bandage slowly and stop as soon as the blood ceases to flow, in order not to bruise the flesh or muscles unnecessarily.



A tourniquet may cause pain and swelling of the limb, and it left on too long may cause the limb to die. Therefore, about every half hour or so, loosen the bandage very carefully, but if the bleeding continues pressure must be applied again. In this case apply the pressure with the thumb for five or ten minutes, as this cuts off only the main artery and leaves some of the smaller arteries and the veins free to restore some of the circulation. When a tourniquet is painful, it is too tight and should be carefully loosened a little.

It the leg or arm is held upright, this also helps to reduce the bleeding in these parts, because the heart then has to pump the blood uphill.

A broken bone is called a fracture. The great danger in the case of a fracture is that the sharp, jagged edges of the bones may stick through the flesh and skin, or tear and bruise the arteries, veins, and muscles. If the skin is not broken, a fracture is not so serious, as no germs can get in. Therefore never move a person with a broken bone until the fracture has been so fixed that the broken ends of the bone can not move.



If the leg or arm is broken, straighten the limb gently and if necessary pull upon the end firmly to get the bones in place. Then bind the limb firmly to a splint to hold it in place. A splint may be made of any straight, stiff material—a shingle or piece of board, a bayonet, a rifle, a straight branch of a tree, etc. Whatever material you use must be well padded on the side next to the limb. Be careful never to place the bandages over the fracture, but always above and below. (Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8.)

Many surgeons think that the method of binding a broken leg to the well one, and of binding the arm to the body, is the best plan in the field as being the quickest and one that serves the immediate purpose.



With wounds about the body the chest and abdomen you must not meddle except to protect them when possible without much handling with the materials of the packet.

FAINTING, SHOCK, HEAT EXHAUSTION.

The symptoms of fainting, shock, and heat exhaustion are very similar. The face is pale, the skin cool and moist, the pulse is weak, and generally the patient is unconscious. Keep the patient quiet, resting on his back, with his head low. Loosen the clothing, but keep the patient warm, and give stimulants (whisky, hot coffee, tea, etc.).

SUNSTROKE.

In the case of sunstroke the face is flushed, the skin is dry and very hot, and the pulse is full and strong. In this case place the patient in a cool spot, remove the clothing, and make every effort to lessen the heat in the body by cold applications to the head and surface generally. Do not, under any circumstances, give any stimulants or hot drinks.



FREEZING AND FROSTBITE.

The part frozen, which looks white or bluish white, and is cold, should be very slowly raised in temperature by brisk but careful rubbing in a cool place and never near a fire. Stimulants are to be given cautiously when the patient can swallow, and followed by small amounts of warm liquid nourishment. The object is to restore the circulation of the blood and the natural warmth gradually and not violently. Care and patience are necessary to do this.

RESUSITATION OF THE APPARENTLY DROWNED.

In the instruction of the Army in First Aid the method of resuscitation of the apparently drowned, as described by "Schaefer," will be taught instead of the "Sylvester Method," heretofore used. The Schaefer method of artificial respiration is also applicable in cases of electric shock, asphyxiation by gas, and of the failure of respiration following concussion of the brain.

Being under water for four of five minutes is generally fatal, but an effort to revive the apparently drowned should always be made, unless it is known that the body has been under water for a very long time. The attempt to revive the patient should not be delayed for the purpose of removing his clothes or placing him in the ambulance. Begin the procedure as soon as he is out of the water, on the shore or in the boat. The first and most important thing is to start artificial respiration without delay.

The Schaefer method is preferred because it can be carried out by one person without assistance, and because its procedure is not exhausting to the operator, thus permitting him, if required, to continue it for one or two hours. When it is known that a person has been under water for but a few minutes continue the artificial respiration for at least one and a half to two hours before considering the case hopeless. Once the patient has begun to breathe watch carefully to see that he does not stop again. Should the breathing be very faint, or should he stop breathing, assist him again with artificial respiration. After he starts breathing do not lift him nor permit him to stand until the breathing has become full and regular.