 |
"The warm message which Your imperial Majesty condescended to grant us with regard to the second attempt to seal Port Arthur, has not only overwhelmed us with gratitude, but may also influence the patriotic manes of the departed heroes to hover long over the battle-field and give unseen protection to the Imperial forces."... [Translated in the JAPAN TIMES of March 31st, 1904.]
—Such thoughts and hopes about the brave dead might have been uttered by a Greek warrior before the battle of Salamis. The faith and courage which helped the Greeks to repel the Persian invasion were of precisely the same quality as that religious heroism which now helps the Japanese to challenge the power of Russia.]
[**The case of the Japanese officers and men on the transport Kinshu Maru, sank by the Russian warships on the 26th of last April, should have given the enemy matter for reflection. Although allowed an hour's time for consideration, the soldiers refused to surrender, and opened fire with their rifles on the battleships. Then, before the Kinshu Maru was blown in two by a torpedo, a number of the Japanese officers and men performed harakiri.... This strong display of the fierce old feudal spirit suggests how dearly a Russian success would be bought.]
* * *
For countless reasons this terrible war (of which no man can yet see the end) is unspeakably to be regretted; and of these reasons not the least are industrial. War must temporarily check all tendencies towards the development of that healthy individualism without which no modern nation can become prosperous and wealthy. Enterprise is numbed, markets paralyzed, manufactures stopped. Yet, in the extraordinary case of this extraordinary people, it is possible that the social effects of the contest will prove to some degree beneficial. Prior to hostilities, there had been a visible tendency to [465] the premature dissolution of institutions founded upon centuries of experience,—a serious likelihood of moral disintegration. That great changes must hereafter be made,—that the future well-being of the country requires them,—would seem to admit of no argument. But it is necessary that such changes be effected by degrees,—not with such inopportune haste as to imperil the moral constitution of the nation. A war for independence,—a war that obliges the race to stake its all upon the issue,—must bring about a tightening of the old social bonds, a strong quickening of the ancient sentiments of loyalty and duty, a reinforcement of conservatism. This will signify retrogression in some directions; but it will also mean invigoration in others. Before the Russian menace, the Soul of Yamato revives again. Out of the contest Japan will come, if successful, morally stronger than before; and a new sense of self-confidence, a new spirit of independence, might then reveal itself in the national attitude toward foreign policy and foreign pressure.
—There would be, of course, the danger of overconfidence. A people able to defeat Russian power on land and sea might be tempted to believe themselves equally able to cope with foreign capital upon their own territory; and every means would certainly be tried of persuading or bullying the government [466] into some fatal compromise on the question of the right of foreigners to hold land. Efforts in this direction have been carried on persistently and systematically for years; and these efforts seem to have received some support from a class of Japanese politicians, apparently incapable of understanding what enormous tyranny a single privileged syndicate of foreign capital would be capable of exercising in such a country. It appears to me that any person comprehending, even in the vaguest way, the nature of money-power and the average conditions of life throughout Japan, must recognize the certainty that foreign capital, with right of land-tenure, would find means to control legislation, to control government, and to bring about a state of affairs that would result in the practical domination of the empire by alien interests. I cannot resist the conviction that when Japan yields to foreign industry the right to purchase land, she is lost beyond hope. The self-confidence that might tempt to such yielding, in view of immediate advantages, would be fatal. Japan has incomparably more to fear from English or American capital than from Russian battleships and bayonets. Behind her military capacity is the disciplined experience of a thousand years; behind her industrial and commercial power, the experience of half-a-century. But she has been fully warned; and if she chooses hereafter to invite her own ruin, it will not have [467] been for lack of counsel,—since she had the wisest man in the world to advise her.* [*Herbert Spencer.]
To the reader of these pages, at least, the strength and the weakness of the new social organization—its great capacities for offensive or defensive action in military directions, and its comparative feebleness in other directions—should now be evident. All things considered, the marvel is that Japan should have been so well able to hold her own; and it was assuredly no common wisdom that guided her first unsteady efforts in new and perilous ways. Certainly her power to accomplish what she has accomplished was derived from her old religious and social training: she was able to keep strong because, under the new forms of rule and the new conditions of social activity, she could still maintain a great deal of the ancient discipline. But even thus it was only by the firmest and shrewdest policy that she could avert disaster,—could prevent the disruption of her whole social structure under the weight of alien pressure. It was imperative that vast changes should be made, but equally imperative that they should not be of a character to endanger the foundations; and it was above all things necessary, while preparing for immediate necessities, to provide against future perils. Never before, perhaps, in the history of human civilization, did any rulers find themselves [468] obliged to cope with problems so tremendous, so complicated, and so inexorable. And of these problems the most inexorable remains to be solved. It is furnished by the fact that although all the successes of Japan have been so far due to unselfish collective action, sustained by the old Shinto ideals of duty and obedience, her industrial future must depend upon egoistic individual action of a totally opposite kind! * * *
What then will become of the ancient morality?—the ancient cult?
—In this moment the conditions are abnormal. But it seems certain that there will be, under normal conditions, a further gradual loosening of the old family-bonds; and this would bring about a further disintegration. By the testimony of the Japanese themselves, such disintegration was spreading rapidly among the upper and middle classes of the great cities, prior to the present war. Among the people of the agricultural districts, and even in the country towns, the old ethical order of things has yet been little affected. And there are other influences than legislative change or social necessity which are working for disintegration. Old beliefs have been rudely shaken by the introduction of larger knowledge: a new generation is being taught, in twenty-seven thousand primary schools, the rudiments of science and the modern conception of the universe. The [460] Buddhist cosmology, with its fantastic pictures of Mount Meru, has become a nursery-tale; the old Chinese nature-philosophy finds believers only among the little educated, or the survivors of the feudal era; and the youngest schoolboy has learned that the constellations are neither gods nor Buddhas, but far-off groups of suns. No longer can popular fancy picture the Milky Way as the River of Heaven; the legend of the Weaving-Maiden, and her waiting lover, and the Bridge of Birds, is now told only to children; and the young fisherman, though steering, like his fathers, by the light of stars, no longer discerns in the northern sky the form of Mioken Bosatsu.
Yet it were easy to misinterpret the weakening of a certain class of old beliefs, or the visible tendency to social change. Under any circumstances a religion decays slowly; and the most conservative forms of religion are the last to yield to disintegration. It were a grave mistake to suppose that the ancestor-cult has yet been appreciably affected by exterior influences of any kind, or to imagine that it continues to exist merely by force of hallowed custom, and not because the majority still believe. No religion—and least of all the religion of the dead—could thus suddenly lose its hold upon the affections of the race that evolved it. Even in other directions the new scepticism is superficial: it has not spread downwards into the core of things. There is indeed [470] a growing class of young men with whom scepticism of a certain sort is the fashion, and scorn of the past an affectation,—but even among these no word of disrespect concerning the religion of the home is ever heard. Protests against the old obligations of filial piety, complaints of the growing weight of the family yoke, are sometimes uttered; but the domestic cult is never spoken of lightly. As for the communal and other public forms of Shinto, the vigour of the old religion is sufficiently indicated by the continually increasing number of temples. In 1897 there were 191,962 Shinto temples; in 1901 there were 195,256.
It seems probable that such changes as must occur in the near future will be social rather than religious; and there is little reason to believe that these changes—however they may tend to weaken filial piety in sundry directions—will seriously affect the ancestor-cult itself. The weight of the family-bond, aggravated by the increasing difficulty and cost of life, may be more and more lightened for the individual; but no legislation can abolish the sentiment of duty to the dead. When that sentiment utterly fails, the heart of a nation will have ceased to beat. Belief in the old gods, as gods, may slowly pass; but Shinto may live on as the Religion of the Fatherland, a religion of heroes and patriots; and the likelihood of such future modification is indicated by the memorial character of many new temples.
[471]—It has been much asserted of late years (chiefly because of the profound impression made by Mr. Percival Lowell's Soul of the Far East) that Japan is desperately in need of a Gospel of Individualism; and many pious persons assume that the conversion of the country to Christianity would suffice to produce the Individualism. This assumption has nothing to rest on except the old superstition that national customs and habits and modes of feeling, slowly shaped in the course of thousands of years, can be suddenly transformed by a mere act of faith. Those further dissolutions of the old order which would render possible, under normal conditions, a higher social energy, can be safely brought about through industrialism only,—through the working of necessities that enforce competitive enterprise and commercial expansion. A long peace will be required for such healthy transformation; and it is not impossible that an independent and progressive Japan would then consider questions of religious change from the standpoint of political expediency. Observation and study abroad may have unduly impressed Japanese statesmen with the half-truth so forcibly uttered by Michelet,—that "money has a religion,"—that "capital is Protestant,"—that the power and wealth and intellectual energy of the world belong to the races who cast off the yoke of Rome, and freed themselves from the creed of the Middle [472] Ages.* A Japanese statesman is said to have lately declared that his countrymen were "rapidly drifting towards Christianity"! Newspaper reports of eminent utterances are not often trustworthy; but the report in this case is probably accurate, and the utterance intended to suggest possibilities. Since the declaration of the Anglo-Japanese alliance, there has been a remarkable softening in the attitude of safe conservatism which the government formerly maintained toward Western religion.... But as for the question whether the Japanese nation will ever adopt an alien creed under official encouragement, I think that the sociological answer is evident. Any understanding of the fundamental structure of society should make equally obvious the imprudence of attempting hasty transformations, and the impossibility of effecting them. For the present, at least, the religious question in Japan is a question of social integrity; and any efforts to precipitate the natural course of change can result only in provoking reaction and disorder. I believe that the time is far away at which Japan can venture to abandon the policy of [473] caution that has served her so well. I believe that the day on which she adopts a Western creed, her immemorial dynasty is doomed; and I cannot help fearing that whenever she yields to foreign capital the right to hold so much as one rood of her soil, she signs away her birthright beyond hope of recovery.
[*No inferences can be safely drawn from the apparent attitude of the government towards religious bodies in Japan. Of late years the seeming policy has been to encourage the less tolerant forms of Western religion. In curious contrast to this attitude is the non-toleration of Freemasonry. Strictly speaking, Freemasonry is not allowed in Japan—although, since the abolition of exterritoriality, the foreign lodges at the open ports have been permitted (or rather, suffered) to exist upon certain conditions. A Japanese in Europe or America is free to become a Mason; but he cannot become a Mason in Japan, where the proceedings of all societies must remain open to official surveillance.]
* * *
With a few general remarks upon the religion of the Far East, in its relation to Occidental aggressions, this attempt at interpretation may fitly conclude.
—All the societies of the Far East are founded, like that of Japan, upon ancestor-worship. This ancient religion, in various forms, represents their moral experience; and it offers everywhere to the introduction of Christianity, as now intolerantly preached, obstacles of the most serious kind. Attacks upon it must seem, to those whose lives are directed by it, the greatest of outrages and the most unpardonable of crimes. A religion for which every member of a community believes it his duty to die at call, is a religion for which he will fight. His patience with attacks upon it will depend upon the degree of his intelligence and the nature of his training. All the races of the Far East have not the intelligence of the Japanese, nor have they been equally well trained, under ages of military discipline, to adapt their conduct to circumstances. For [474] the Chinese peasant, in especial, attacks upon his religion are intolerable. His cult remains the most precious of his possessions, and his supreme guide in all matters of social right and wrong. The East has been tolerant of all creeds which do not assault the foundations of its societies; and if Western missions had been wise enough to leave those foundations alone,—to deal with the ancestor-cult as Buddhism did, and to show the same spirit of tolerance in other directions,—the introduction of Christianity upon a very extensive scale should have proved a matter of no difficulty. That the result would have been a Christianity differing considerably from Western Christianity is obvious,—the structure of Far-Eastern society not admitting of sudden transformations;—but the essentials of doctrine might have been widely propagated, without exciting social antagonism, much less race-hatred. To-day it is probably impossible to undo what the sterile labour of intolerance has already done. The hatred of Western religion in China and adjacent countries is undoubtedly due to the needless and implacable attacks which have been made upon the ancestor-cult. To demand of a Chinese or an Annamese that he cast away or destroy his ancestral tablets is not less irrational and inhuman than it would be to demand of an Englishman or a Frenchman that he destroy his mother's tombstone in proof of his devotion to Christianity. [475] Nay, it is much more inhuman,—for the European attaches to the funeral monument no such idea of sacredness as that which attaches, in Eastern belief, to the simple tablet inscribed with the name of the dead parent. From old time these attacks upon the domestic faith of docile and peaceful communities have provoked massacres; and, if persisted in, they will continue to provoke massacres while the people have strength left to strike. How foreign religious aggression is answered by native religious aggression; and how Christian military power avenges the foreign victims with tenfold slaughter and strong robbery, need not here be recorded. It has not been in these years only that ancestor-worshipping peoples have been slaughtered, impoverished, or subjugated in revenge for the uprisings that missionary intolerance provokes. But while Western trade and commerce directly gain by these revenges, Western public opinion will suffer no discussion of the right of provocation or the justice of retaliation. The less tolerant religious bodies call it a wickedness even to raise the question of moral right; and against the impartial observer, who dares to lift his voice in protest, fanaticism turns as ferociously as if he were proved an enemy of the human race.
From the sociological point of view the whole missionary system, irrespective of sect and creed, represents the skirmishing-force of Western civilization in its general attack upon all civilizations of the [476] ancient type,—the first line in the forward movement of the strongest and most highly evolved societies upon the weaker and less evolved. The conscious work of these fighters is that of preachers and teachers; their unconscious work is that of sappers and destroyers. The subjugation of weak races has been aided by their work to a degree little imagined; and by no other conceivable means could it have been accomplished so quickly and so surely. For destruction they labour unknowingly, like a force of nature. Yet Christianity does not appreciably expand. They perish; and they really lay down their lives, with more than the courage of soldiers, not, as they hope, to assist the spread of that doctrine which the East must still of necessity refuse, but to help industrial enterprise and Occidental aggrandizement. The real and avowed object of missions is defeated by persistent indifference to sociological truths; and the martyrdoms and sacrifices are utilized by Christian nations for ends essentially opposed to the spirit of Christianity.
Needless to say that the aggressions of race upon race are fully in accord with the universal law of struggle,—that perpetual struggle in which only the more capable survive. Inferior races must become subservient to higher races, or disappear before them; and ancient types of civilization, too rigid for progress, must yield to the pressure of more efficient and [477] more complex civilizations. The law is pitiless and plain: its operations may be mercifully modified, but never prevented, by humane consideration.
Yet for no generous thinker can the ethical questions involved be thus easily settled. We are not justified in holding that the inevitable is morally ordained,—much less that, because the higher races happen to be on the winning side in the world-struggle, might can ever constitute right. Human progress has been achieved by denying the law of the stronger,—by battling against those impulses to crush the weak, to prey upon the helpless, which rule in the world of the brute, and are no less in accord with the natural order than are the courses of the stars. All virtues and restraints making civilization possible have been developed in the teeth of natural law. Those races which lead are the races who first learned that the highest power is acquired by the exercise of forbearance, and that liberty is best maintained by the protection of the weak, and by the strong repression of injustice. Unless we be ready to deny the whole of the moral experience thus gained,—unless we are willing to assert that the religion in which it has been expressed is only the creed of a particular civilization, and not a religion of humanity,—it were difficult to imagine any ethical justification for the aggressions made upon alien peoples in the name of Christianity and enlightenment. Certainly the results in China of such aggression [478] have not been Christianity nor enlightenment, but revolts, massacres, detestable cruelties,—the destruction of cities, the devastation of provinces, the loss of tens of thousands of lives, the extortion of hundreds of millions of money. If all this be right, then might is might indeed; and our professed religion of humanity and justice is proved to be as exclusive as any primitive cult, and intended to regulate conduct only as between members of the same society.
But to the evolutionist, at least, the matter appears in a very different light. The plain teaching of sociology is that the higher races cannot with impunity cast aside their moral experience in dealing with feebler races, and that Western civilization will have to pay, sooner or later, the full penalty of its deeds of oppression. Nations that, while refusing to endure religious intolerance at home, steadily maintain religious intolerance abroad, must eventually lose those rights of intellectual freedom which cost so many centuries of atrocious struggle to win. Perhaps the period of the penalty is not very far away. With the return of all Europe to militant conditions, there has set in a vast ecclesiastical revival of which the menace to human liberty is unmistakable; the spirit of the Middle Ages threatens to prevail again; and anti-semitism has actually become a factor in the politics of three Continental powers....
[479]—It has been well said that no man can estimate the force of a religious conviction until he has tried to oppose it. Probably no man can imagine the wicked side of convention upon the subject of missions until the masked batteries of its malevolence have been trained against him. Yet the question of mission-policy cannot be answered either by secret slander or by public abuse of the person raising it. To-day it has become a question that concerns the peace of the world, the future of commerce, and the interests of civilization. The integrity of China depends upon it; and the present war is not foreign to it. Perhaps this book, in spite of many shortcomings, will not fail to convince some thoughtful persons that the constitution of Far-Eastern society presents insuperable obstacles to the propaganda of Western religion, as hitherto conducted; that these obstacles now demand, more than at any previous epoch, the most careful and humane consideration; and that the further needless maintenance of an uncompromising attitude towards them can result in nothing but evil. Whatever the religion of ancestors may have been thousands of years ago, to-day throughout the Far East it is the religion of family affection and duty; and by inhumanly ignoring this fact, Western zealots can scarcely fail to provoke a few more "Boxer" uprisings. The real power to force upon the world a peril from China (now that the chance seems lost for Russia) should [480] not be suffered to rest with those who demand religious tolerance for the purpose of preaching intolerance. Never will the East turn Christian while dogmatism requires the convert to deny his ancient obligation to the family, the community, and the government,—and further insists that he prove his zeal for an alien creed by destroying the tablets of his ancestors, and outraging the memory of those who gave him life.
[481]
APPENDIX
HERBERT SPENCER'S ADVICE TO JAPAN
Some five years ago I was told by an American professor, then residing in Tokyo, that after Herbert Spencer's death there would be published a letter of advice, which the philosopher had addressed to a Japanese statesman, concerning the policy by which the Empire might be able to preserve its independence. I was not able to obtain any further information; but I felt tolerably sure, remembering the statement regarding Japanese social disintegration in "First Principles" (section 178), that the advice would prove to have been of the most conservative kind. As a matter of fact it was even more conservative than I had imagined.
Herbert Spencer died on the morning of December 8th, 1903 (while this book was in course of preparation); and the letter, addressed to Baron Kaneko Kentaro, under circumstances with which the public have already been made familiar, was published in the London Times of January 18th, 1904.
FAIRFIELD, PEWSEY, WILTS, Aug. 26, 1892.
MY DEAR SIR,—Your proposal to send translations of my two letters* to Count Ito, the newly-appointed Prime Minister, is quite satisfactory. I very willingly give my assent.
[*These letters have not as yet been made public.]
Respecting the further questions you ask, let me, in the first place, answer generally that the Japanese policy should, I think, be that of keeping Americans and Europeans as much as possible at arm's length. In presence of the more powerful races your position is one of chronic danger, and you should take every precaution to give as little foothold as possible to foreigners.
[482] It seems to me that the only forms of intercourse which you may with advantage permit are those which are indispensable for the exchange of commodities—importation and exportation of physical and mental products. No further privileges should be allowed to people of other races, and especially to people of the more powerful races, than is absolutely needful for the achievement of these ends. Apparently you are proposing by revision of the treaty with the Powers of Europe and America "to open the whole Empire to foreigners and foreign capital." I regret this as a fatal policy. If you wish to see what is likely to happen, study the history of India. Once let one of the more powerful races gain a point d'appui and there will inevitably in course of time grow up an aggressive policy which will lead to collisions with the Japanese; these collisions will be represented as attacks by the Japanese which must be avenged, as the case may be; a portion of territory will be seized and required to be made over as a foreign settlement; and from this there will grow eventually subjugation of the entire Japanese Empire. I believe that you will have great difficulty in avoiding this fate in any case, but you will make the process easy if you allow of any privileges to foreigners beyond those which I have indicated.
In pursuance of the advice thus generally indicated, I should say, in answer to your first question, that there should be, not only a prohibition of foreign persons to hold property in land, but also a refusal to give them leases, and a permission only to reside as annual tenants.
To the second question I should say decidedly prohibit to foreigners the working of the mines owned or worked by Government. Here there would be obviously liable to arise grounds of difference between the Europeans or Americans who worked them and the Government, and these grounds of quarrel would be followed by invocations to the English or American Governments or other Powers to send forces to insist on whatever the European workers claimed, for always the habit here and elsewhere among the civilized peoples is to believe what their agents or sellers abroad represent to them.
In the third place, in pursuance of the policy I have indicated, you ought also to keep the coasting trade in your own hands and forbid foreigners to engage in it. This coasting trade is clearly not included in the requirement I have indicated as the sole one to be recognized—a requirement to facilitate exportation and importation [483] of commodities. The distribution of commodities brought to Japan from other places may be properly left to the Japanese themselves, and should be denied to foreigners, for the reason that again the various transactions involved would become so many doors open to quarrels and resulting aggressions.
To your remaining question respecting the intermarriage of foreigners and Japanese, which you say is "now very much agitated among our scholars and politicians" and which you say is "one of the most difficult problems," my reply is that, as rationally answered, there is no difficulty at all. It should be positively forbidden. It is not at root a question of social philosophy. It is at root a question of biology. There is abundant proof, alike furnished by the intermarriages of human races and by the interbreeding of animals, that when the varieties mingled diverge beyond a certain slight degree the result is inevitably a bad one in the long run. I have myself been in the habit of looking at the evidence bearing on this matter for many years past, and my conviction is based on numerous facts derived from numerous sources. This conviction I have within the last half-hour verified, for I happen to be staying in the country with a gentleman who is well known and has had much experience respecting the interbreeding of cattle; and he has just, on inquiry, fully confirmed my belief that when, say of the different varieties of sheep, there is an interbreeding of those which are widely unlike, the result, especially in the second generation, is a bad one—there arise an incalculable mixture of traits, and what may be called a chaotic constitution. And the same thing happens among human beings—the Eurasians in India, the half-breeds in America, show this. The physiological basis of this experience appears to be that any one variety of creature in course of many generations acquires a certain constitutional adaptation to its particular form of life, and every other variety similarly acquires its own special adaptation. The consequence is that, if you mix the constitution of two widely divergent varieties which have severally become adapted to widely divergent modes of life, you get a constitution which is adapted to the mode of life of neither—a constitution which will not work properly, because it is not fitted for any set of conditions whatever. By all means, therefore, peremptorily interdict marriages of Japanese with foreigners.
I have for the reasons indicated entirely approved of the regulations which have been established in America for restraining the Chinese immigration, and had I the power I would restrict them [484] to the smallest possible amount, my reasons for this decision being that one of two things must happen. If the Chinese are allowed to settle extensively in America, they must either, if they remain unmixed, form a subject race standing in the position, if not of slaves, yet of a class approaching to slaves; or if they mix they must form a bad hybrid. In either case, supposing the immigration to be large, immense social mischief must arise, and eventually social disorganization. The same thing will happen if there should be any considerable mixture of European or American races with the Japanese.
You see, therefore, that my advice is strongly conservative in all directions, and I end by saying as I began—keep other races at arm's length as much as possible.
I give this advice in confidence. I wish that it should not transpire publicly, at any rate during my life, for I do not desire to rouse the animosity of my fellow-countrymen.
I am sincerely yours, HERBERT SPENCER.
P.S.—Of course, when I say I wish this advice to be in confidence, I do not interdict the communication of it to Count Ito, but rather wish that he should have the opportunity of taking it into consideration.
How fairly Herbert Spencer understood the prejudices of his countrymen has been shown by the comments of the Times upon this letter,—comments chiefly characterized by that unreasoning quality of abuse with which the English conventional mind commonly resents the pain of a new idea opposed to immediate interests. Yet some knowledge of the real facts in the case should serve to convince even the Times that if Japan is able in this moment to fight for the cause of civilization in general, and for English interests in particular, it is precisely because the Japanese statesmen of a wiser generation maintained a sound conservative policy upon the very lines indicated in that letter—so unjustly called a proof of "colossal egotism."
Whether the advice itself directly served at any time to influence government policy, I do not know. But that it fully accorded with the national instinct of self-preservation, is shown by the history [485] of that fierce opposition which the advocates of the abolition of extra-territoriality had to encounter, and by the nature of the precautionary legislation enacted in regard to those very matters dwelt upon in Herbert Spencer's letter, Though extra-territoriality has been (unavoidably, perhaps) abolished, foreign capital has not been left free to exploit the resources of the country; and foreigners are not allowed to own land. Though marriages between Japanese and foreigners have never been forbidden,* they have never been encouraged, and can take place only under special legal restrictions. If foreigners could have acquired, through marriage, the right to hold Japanese real estate, a considerable amount of such estate would soon have passed into alien hands. But the law has wisely provided that the Japanese woman marrying a foreigner thereby becomes a foreigner, and that the children by such a marriage remain foreigners. On the other hand, any foreigner adopted by marriage into a Japanese family becomes a Japanese; and the children in such event remain Japanese. But they also remain under certain disabilities: they are precluded from holding high offices of state; and they cannot even become officers of the army or navy except by special permission. (This permission appears to have been accorded in one or two cases.) Finally, it is to be observed that Japan has kept her coasting-trade in her own hands.
[*The number of families in Tokyo representing such unions is said to be over one hundred.]
On the whole, then, it may be said that Japanese policy followed, to a considerable extent, the course suggested in Herbert Spencer's letter of advice; and it is much to be regretted, in my humble opinion, that the advice could not have been followed more closely. Could the philosopher have lived to hear of the recent Japanese victories,—the defeat of a powerful Russian fleet without the loss of a single Japanese vessel, and the rout of thirty thousand Russian troops on the Yalu,—I do not think that he would have changed his counsel by a hair's-breadth. Perhaps he would have commended, [486] so far as his humanitarian conscience permitted, the thoroughness of the Japanese study of the new science of war: he might have praised the high courage displayed, and the triumph of the ancient discipline;—his sympathies would have been on the side of the country compelled to choose between the necessities of inviting a protectorate or fighting Russia. But had he been questioned again as to the policy of the future, in case of victory, he would probably have reminded the questioner that military efficiency is a very different thing from industrial power, and have vigorously repeated his warning. Understanding the structure and the history of Japanese society, he could clearly perceive the dangers of foreign contact, and the directions from which attempts to take advantage of the industrial weakness of the country were likely to be made.... In another generation Japan will be able, without peril, to abandon much of her conservatism; but, for the time being, her conservatism is her salvation.
[487]
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES
In the preparation of this essay, I have been much indebted to the "Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan", and especially to the following contributions:—
(ON THE SUBJECT OF SHINTO)
"The Revival of Pure Shinto," by Sir Ernest Satow,—Appendix to Vol. III.
"The Shinto Temples of Ise," by Satow,—Vol. II.
"Ancient Japanese Rituals," by Satow,—Vols. VII and IX.
"Japanese Funeral Rites," by A. H. Lay,—Vol. XIX.
(ON THE SUBJECT OF LAW AND CUSTOM)
"Notes on Land Tenure and Local Institutions in Old Japan," by Dr. D. B. Simmons. Edited by Professor J. H. Wigmore,—Vol. XIX.
"Materials for the Study of Private Law in Old Japan," by Professor J. H. Wigmore,—Vol. XX, Supplements 1, 2, 3, 5.
(ON THE CHRISTIAN EPISODE OF THE SIXTEENTH AND SEVENTEENTH CENTURIES)
"The Church at Yamaguchi from 1550 to 1586," by Satow,—Vol. VII.
"Review of the Introduction of Christianity into China and Japan," by J. H. Gubbins,—Vol. VI.
"Historical Notes on Nagasaki," by W. A. Wooley,—Vol. IX.
"The Arima Rebellion," by Dr. Geertz,—Vol. IX.
[488] (ON JAPANESE HISTORY AND SOCIOLOGY)
"Early Japanese History," by W. G. Aston,—Vol. XVI.
"The Feudal System of Japan under the Tokugawa Shoguns," by J. H. Gubbins,—Vol. XV.
—The extracts quoted from "The Legacy of Iyeyasu" have been taken from the translation made by J. F. Lowder.
—I regret not having been able, in preparing this essay, to avail myself of the very remarkable "History of Japan during the Century of Early Foreign Intercourse (1542-1651),"—by James Murdoch and Isoh Yamagata,—which was published at Kobe last winter. This important work contains much documentary material never before printed, and throws new light upon the religious history of the period. The authors are inclined to believe that, allowing for numerous apostasies, the total number of Christians in Japan at no time much exceeded 300,000; and the reasons given for this opinion, if not conclusive, are at least very strong. Perhaps the most interesting chapters are those dealing with the Machiavellian policy of Hideyoshi in his attitude to the foreign religion and its preachers, but there are few dull pages in the book. Help to a correct understanding of the history of the time is furnished by an excellent set of maps, showing the distribution of the great fiefs and the political partition of the country before and after the establishment of the Tokugawa Shogunate. Not the least merit of the work is its absolute freedom from religious bias of any sort.
INDEX
Ability, slight opportunity for, to rise, 410-411.
Adams, Will, 254, 313; interviewed by Iyeyasu, 314-316, favoured by the Emperor, 316-317; quoted concerning Hideyori's intrigues and fate. 322-323.
Adoption, custom of, in patriarchal family, 59, 64-65; marriage signified merely, 64; modern practices regarding, 386.
Adultery, enactments of Iyeyasu regarding, 345-346.
Affection, limitations placed on, 69 ff.
Age of the Gods, period called the, 259.
Agnosticism, Buddhism is not. 213, 220.
Agriculture, gods of, 126, 153-154; no degradation attached to pursuit of, 245.
Akindo, the commercial class, 246-247. See Commerce.
Alcestis, the Japanese woman might be compared to, 366.
Ancestors, imperial, worship of the, 108-123, 279-280.
Ancestor-worship, introduction to religion of, 21-32; the real religion of Japan, 21; summary of the three forms of, 21-22; the family-cult of, 21-22, 25-26; characteristics of earliest, 24 ff.; stability of, in Japan for two thousand years, 32; summary of beliefs surviving from, 31; three stages of, 33-34; evolution of permanent form from funeral-rites, 34-51: characteristics of religion of, to-day, 51-53; bearing of, on family-organization of, 55 ff. ; marriage under the religion of, 107 ff. ; four classes of, to-day, 123-124; accommodation of Buddhism to, 183-184; toleration of ancient European, by Roman Catholicism, 191; Buddhist theory of rebirths reconciled to, 195 n.; Confucian system founded on, 177-178, 292; needless attacks on, account for smallness of result, of modern missions, 339, 473-475; protection of, by modern laws, 385-388; obstacles presented to Christianity by, 473-475.
"Ancient Japanese Rituals", 43 n. See Satow.
Animals, absence of cruelty to, 12-13; kindness to, taught by Buddhism, 196-197.
Animism, development of, 131-132.
Antigone, comparison of the Japanese woman to, 366.
Apes, images of Koshin's symbolic, 200.
Apprentices, obligation of, to avenge masters, 293; past and present position of, 406.
Architecture, displayed in Buddhist temples, 199-200.
Arima, lord of Shimabara, 324, 325.
Army, birth of modern, 376: pay of officers in, 412.
Art, knowledge of Japanese religion necessary to understanding of, 2-3; introduction by Buddhism, 197-198, 204, 459; forms of, in Buddhist temples, 198-199; expulsion of Jesuits, a fortunate thing for, 341-342; causes which tended to production of a multitude of objects of, 356; effect of modern industrial conditions on, 451.
Artizans, gods of, 124-125; clans of, 235; position of, under quasi-feudal system, 245-246; organizations of, see Guilds.
Arts, developed in Japan under Buddhist teaching, 188; progress of the, under Iyeyasu, 279.
Asada, Lieutenant, suicide of widow of, 289.
Asceticism, Shinto, 149-150.
Ashikaga shogunate, 271-273. Sec undo Iyeyasu.
Aston, W.G., translation of the Nihongi by, cited, 38, 39, 112 n., 151 n., 164 n., 232 n., 234 n.; "Early Japanese History" by, cited, 259 n.
Bambetsu, "Foreign Branch", the mass of people, 235-236.
Banishment, punishment by, 96-99.
Banner-supporters (hatamoto), 243.
Bateren, Roman Catholic priests, 311 n.
Bato-Kwannon, images of, 200.
Behaviour, sumptuary regulations as to, 173-174; proclamation of Shotoku Taishi regarding, 359-360.
Births, regulations as to presents on occasions of, 165; registration of, by Buddhist priests, 203-204.
Black, an Englishman, as a Japanese story-teller, 10-11.
Bon-odori, dances of the festival of the dead, 202.
Boundaries, gods of, 130.
Bow, etiquette of the, 174.
Boys, conduct of, regulated by the community, 89-90; proverb regarding mischievousness of, 421.
Buddhism, Japanese name for (Butsudo), 21; mortuary tablets of, 42-43, 201; the dead according to, and Shinto, 47-48; entry of, into Japan, 183-184; disestablishment of (1871), 107-109; charm of, to Western thinkers, 209-210; summary of teachings of, under Emperor Temmu, 239; obstacles to establishment of religious hierarchy by, 251; military development of, 269-270; violent end to militant, 275-276; jesuitism mistaken for a new kind of, 332-334; no essential of Shinto weakened by, 379-380.
Buke, the military class, 241.
Butsudan, household-shrine, 42.
Butsudo, "The Way of the Buddha", 21.
Capital, danger to Japan from foreign, 465-466, 473.
Carpenters, religious rites preformed by, 125; organizations of, 403-404.
Castes, division of society into, 236.
Cauldron and saucepan, god of the, 129.
Celibacy, forbidden by early religion, 58; condemned by code of Iyeyasu, 349.
Charms, to protect houses, 147 n.
Chastisement, punishment by, 95-96, 421.
Chiara, Giuseppe, 327 n.
Chieftainship, hereditary, 235.
China, date of introduction of spirit-tablet from, 24; religion of filial piety in, 49-50; belief as to the Demon-Gate imported from, 130; penal codes imported from, 176; arts and learning of, taught by Buddhism, 201; civilization of, brought to Japan by Buddhism, 203; harakiri, perhaps introduced from, 286; Jesuit policy in, 331; cause for hatred of Western religion in, 474; integrity of, depends on mission-policy, 479-480.
Chori, pariahs, 247-250.
Chosku, clan of, 367, 368, 372, 374.
"Chronicles of Nihon", see Nihongi.
Christianity, assumption that individualism would be produced by, 471; obstacles to, presented by religion of ancestor-worship, 479-481. See Jesuits and Missions.
Chi-U, the condition of, 191 n.
Circle of Perpetual Hunger for wicked ghosts, 191.
Clan, cult of the, 81-83.
Clans, number of, in ancient Japan, 83; three great classes of, 235-236; early society an aggregation of, 236-237, 252-253; wars between the military, for supremacy, 267 ff.; misery one result of break-up of, 447-449.
Cleanliness exacted by Shinto, 145-146.
Coffins, size regulated by law, 179.
Colour-prints, production of, 357.
Commerce, contempt for, 246; Portuguese, a help to Jesuit missionary work, 334-335; rise to power, 446; dangers resulting from the rise of, 447-452.
Communism not a modern growth, 255.
Competition, undesirability of, 414-416; Government aid to national industrial, 451-452.
Concubines, under patriarchal system, 58, 68-69, 74; remarks of Iyeyasu regarding, 68, 348.
Confucianism, influence of, in Japan, 187-188, 292 ff.
Conscience, doctrine of, admitted by Buddhism, 196.
Coulanges, Fustel de, 52, 264, 449; quoted, 27, 67.
Courtesy, legal regulation of, 173-176.
Craft-gods, 124, 153-154.
Crafts, effect of Buddhism on, 188; guilds connected with, 246, 252, 402-405.
Crucifixion of Christians at Nagasaki, 307.
Cruelty to animals, apparent absence of, 12-13; punishment of, after death, 197.
Daimyo, lords of provinces, 242; conversion of, to Jesuitism, 304; Jesuits work with aid of, 304, 306,308, 339; protection of peasantry against, 396.
Dai-Nihon-Shi, compilation of, 370.
Dances, sacred, 142-143; of the festival of the dead, 202.
Dancing, Japanese, 202 n. 2.
Dan-no-ura, sea-fight of, 267.
Daughter, gradation of terms signifying, 171.
Daughters, sale of, 72, 75 n.
Daughters-in-law, custom as to, 64-65.
Dead, early conceptions of fate of, 25-28; rites in honour of, 34-46; poems in praise of, 35; Buddhist doctrine of, 47; effects of Buddhism on worship of, 191-192.
Death, penalty of, inflicted for slight offences, 178-179; matters relating to, regulated by law, 179.
Debtors, reduction of, to slavery, 234.
Deities, punishments by tutelar, 102-105; lesser Shinto, 108. See Gods and Ujigami.
Demeanour, regulation of, 173-176; cultivation of, as an art, 359-361.
Demon-Gate, the, 130.
Dependants, under the patriarchal system, 76-78, 231-234; conservative attitude of, 400; position of employes in commercial houses, 406; position of maid-servants, 407-409.
Deportment, code of, 173.
Discipline, strength of, in Old Japan, 159-182.
Divination, systems of, 150-152; not used in warfare, 152.
Divorce, in ancient family system, 58, 69-70, 73, 75; the new laws about, 386.
Dominicans in Japan, 307; reckless zeal of, 338.
Drama, introduction by Buddhism, 204; the age of popular, 357; incidents of real tragedy reproduced in, 290-291.
Dress, restrictions as to, 166-168.
Dutch, assistance of, in putting down Shimabara Revolt, 326-327; effect on status of, of Shimabara Revolt, 329-330.
Ear-Monument, the, 277.
Education, effect of Buddhism on, 202-203; introduction of modern system of, 376; of the State, 419-441; the sustaining of, by personal sacrifices, 435-436; of students abroad, 439-441.
Emma (Yama), judge of the dead, 199.
Emperor, application of term, to early rulers, incorrect, 237.
Enactments of the Kumi, 91-94.
Eta, people, the, 98, 247-250.
Etiquette, cultivation of, in Tokugawa period, 359-361.
Evolution, Buddhism a theory of, 210.
Execution, account of an early, 177-178.
Exports, rise in value of, 451.
Expression, etiquette of, 173.
Factory-life, horrors of modern, 452.
Families of the nobility, number of, 241.
Family, definition of Japanese term, 22; basis of the ancient, 55-57; obligation to perpetuate the, 58-59; constitution of the patriarchal, 60-79.
Farmers, the rank of, 244-245; secured against undue oppression, 396-397. See Agriculture.
Father, gradation of terms signifying, 171.
Feast-days, Shinto, 103, 137:
Fencing, Japanese, an example of antipodal action, 7-8.
Festival of the dead, dances of the, 202.
Festival-processions, Shinto, 103.
Festivals of the Ujigami, 84, 137, 140-142; laws as to presents at boys', 165: Shin-Sho-Sai, 245; temple, 84, 459.
Feudalism, Japanese so-called, 230-238, 253.
Flower-arrangement, art of, 358-359.
Flower-daughter, the, 64.
Food, the use by ghosts of, 29-30; offerings of, to the dead, 29-30, 45; offerings to the gods, 53 n., 138, 140, 141; for the dead might not be eaten by children, 51 n.: laws as to, at weddings and funerals, 165; offerings of, to Pretas, 191; decree forbidding use of flesh for, 196; Buddhist offerings of, 201; recent increase in price of, 412 n.
"Forty-seven Ronin", story of the, 295-296: tombs of the, 297 n.
Four Deva Kings, the, 260; temple of, 200.
Franciscans in Japan, 307 ff.
Freedmen, class of, 233, 234-235.
Freemasonry in Japan, 472 n.
Fujiwara clan, rise of the, 260-261; duration of rule of, 260, 266, 281; final degeneration of, 266-267.
Funeral-rites, ancient, 34-46.
Funerals, laws as to food at, 165; laws governing. 179.
Gardening, first development of, under Buddhism, 188; modern, 404.
Gardens, holiness of, 154.
Ghost-house, 36, 56; transformation of, into Shinto temples, 62.
Ghosts, ancestor-worship coeval with belief in, 24; identified in early beliefs with gods, 25, 46-48, 55.
Ghost-ships, Buddhist, 202.
Girl-priestesses in Shinto temples, 142-143.
Girls in service, position of, 407-409.
Go, definition of, 64 n.
Goblins, admitted to exist by Buddhism, 190-191.
Go-Daigo, Mikado, revolt of, against Hojo, 270; later vicissitudes of, 270-271.
Gods, no early difference between ghosts and, 25, 55; development of distinction, between greater and lesser, 25-26; early conceptions of, compared with Greek and Roman, 27-28: the dead and, 46-48; the minor, 108; all Japanese considered as, in one sense, 118: of crookedness, 118-119; of crafts and callings, 118-119; number of Shinto, worshipped, 127-128; of the house, 130-131; the great number of, 133-134; of industry, 153-154; identity of Shinto and Buddhist evil, 190-191.
God-shelves, 124; daily prayers before, 134-136; religious charms on, 147 n.
Go-Kameyama, Emperor, 272.
Go-Komatsu, Emperor, 272.
Goshi yeomanry, 243.
Go-Toba, Emperor, works at sword. making, 245.
Go-Tsuchi-mikado, Emperor, 273.
Government, identity of, with religion, 90-91.
Graves, legal dimensions of, 179; white lanterns at, 202.
Greeks, parallels drawn between Japanese and, 15-16, 27-28, 34, 36, 57, 59, 65, 67, 70, 78, 89, 99, 148, 169, 202 n., 229, 264, 443-444, 446.
Guilds, 246, 252; religious organization of, 124-125; modern workings of, 402-403.
Hachiman, the war god, 83; acknowledgment of, in Buddhism, 190.
Hades, development of belief in, 25.
Hair, class indicated by method of wearing, 233.
Harakiri, custom of, 285-286; instance of, in Russian war, 464.
Harmony, Japanese sense of, in tints and colors. 8.
Heavenly sovereigns, worship of the, 108-109; maintained through years of revolt, 279-280.
Heimin, "common folk", 247.
Hell, according to Buddhism, 195.
Hidetada, son of Iyeyasu, 321-322.
Hideyoshi, career of, 276-277; attitude of, toward Jesuits, 306-307.
Hinin, a wandering pariah, 98; "not-human-beings", 250.
Hirata, great Shinto commentator, 27, 369; quoted, 47, 49, 56, 111, 116, 117, 119, 120-121, 122, 134-135, 145, 161; banishment and death of, 372.
History, scientific knowledge of Japanese, impossible, 1; legendary, 259-260; beginning of authentic, 260.
Hitagaki, the "human hedge", 34.
Hitogata, "mankind-shapes", 147-148.
Hitotsubashi, Shogun, 374.
Hiyei-san, monastery buildings burnt at, 275.
Hizen, clan of, 372.
Hojo, supremacy of the, 268; defeat of and extinction, 270.
Home, gods of the, 129-130.
Honesty, Japanese, 13.
Hongwanji, Shin sect of, 275.
Horyfuji, the temple called, 200.
House, building of, a religious act, 125, 130-131; gods of the, 129.
Houses, size of, prescribed by law, 164, 165, 166; of prostitution, enactment of Iyeyasu regarding, 347; operation of labour-unions when building, 403-404.
Husband, seven terms for, 171.
Husbands, position of adopted, 64-65.
Huxley, T. H., quoted concerning industrial reform, 452-453.
"I", gradations of the pronoun. 171.
Ibuku Mogusa, extract from, 305.
Ihai, "soul-commemoration", Buddhist mortuary tablets, 42, 201.
Images, Buddhist, 459; setting up of, 200-201.
Imperial ancestors, worship of the, 108-109; duration of, 279-280.
Individual, obligations of the, under patriarchal system, 88-99; relation of, to the Ujigami, 120-121; freedom of, did not exist, 158, 253-254; modern recognition of, 376; now free in theory, in practice like his forefathers, 384-387, 391-392; Government official authority over the, 409-416.
Individualism, assumption that Christianity would produce, 471.
Industry, developed in Japan under Buddhist teachings, 188; development of, under Iyeyasu, 279.
Industry, gods of, 124-125, 153-154.
Irregularity, the aesthetie value of, 8.
Ise, shrines of, 122.123-124; every Japanese expected to visit, 123-124; worship at shrines of, 138-139.
Ishijima, suicide of wife of, 290.
Isolation, causes for policy of, 329.
Ito, Marquis, policy of, 390.
Iyemochi, Shogun, 374.
Iyeyasu, Tokugawa, apotheosis of, 127; enactment of, concerning rudeness, 175; powers of daimyo restricted by, 242; Will Adams created a samurai by, 254; sketch of career of, 277-278; decree of, concerning suicide, 285; decree concerning code of vengeance, 293; persecution of Christians by, 307, 308, 320-321; interviews with Will Adams, 314-315; castle of Osaka stormed and burnt by, 322; Legacy of, 68, 319, 345-351, 360.
Izanagi, the legend concerning, 40, 112-117.
Izumo, farming forbidden to samurai in, 244-245.
Izumo temple, the, 122; worship at, 138, 139, 142-143.
Jesuitism, effect of, on Japan, 328: causes of early success of, 330-337; policy of, in China, 331, 337; inability of, to adapt itself to Japanese social conditions, 341.
Jesuits, arrival of, in Japan, 304; favoured by Nobunaga, 304-305; persecutions of, 304-305, 307-308; partial expulsion of, 321; revolt of peasantry managed by, 324-325; final crushing of, 327.
Jigai, method of suicide for women, 287.
Jimmu, Emperor, 259; offerings at tomb of, 37.
Jingo, Emperor, legend of Korean conquest by, 259.
Jinrikisha-men, code of, 401-402.
Jito, Empress, edict of, concerning slavery, 234 n.
Jizo, playmate of infant ghosts, 199; first production of icons of, 200.
Joyousness of existence, Japanese, 12-13.
Junshi, voluntary self-sacrifice, 39-40; decree of Iyeyasu puts stop to, 285-286.
Kami, "gods", 27; significance of, 46-47; devotion to, the first of duties according to Iyeyasu, 350.
Kannushi, office of, 138-140.
Karma, metaphysics of, 220, 221, 222, 224.
Kasuga, the deity of, 83.
Kataki-uchi, custom of, 294-295.
Kiyomasa, Kato, apotheosis of, 127.
Kobetsu, imperial families, 235.
Kobodaishi, 185.
Ko-ji-ki, "Record of Ancient Matters", 110-111, 126, 131; extracts from, 112-114.
Korea, Buddhism brought into Japan from (552 A.D.), 184; Hideyoshi's war against, 277.
Koshin, protector of highways, 200.
Kotoku, Emperor, 39, 265; edict of, concerning slaves, 232 n.
Ko-uji, "lesser families", 60, 230.
Kublai Khan, invasion by, 269.
Kuge, noble families, 241.
Kukai, founder of Shingon sect, 185.
Kumi-enactment's of, 91-92.
Kumi-system, the, 91-94, 168-169.
Kwambaku, "regent", office of the, established, 262.
Kwannon, Goddess of Mercy, 199.
"La Cite Antique", de Coulanges', cited, 27, 34, 67, 443, 449.
Landscape-gardeners, union of the, 404-405.
Language, impossibility of mastering, by adult Occidental, 9; conventional organization of, 170-172; rules governing use of, 171-172.
Law, method and manner of administration, 351-353.
Laws, sumptuary, 164-180.
Laws of Iyeyasu, the, 278.
Laws of Shotoku Taishi, 344-345.
Legacy of Iyeyasu, 68, 319, 345-351, 360.
Libraries under the Tokugawa regime, 357, 370.
Literature, qualifications essential for an understanding of Japanese, 2-3; introduction of Chinese, 187-188; introduction or development by Buddhism, 204; under the patronage of Iyeyasu, 279; development of, in Tokugawa period, 357; the party of, 370-372, 375-376.
Mabuchi, Shinto commentator, 159-160, 260, 369.
Maid-servants, position of, 407-409.
Manners, laws as to, 173-176.
Marriage, obligatory in ancient Japan, 58; in patriarchal family, 58-60, 64-67; signified adoption only, 64; a chief duty of filial piety, 65; ceremony of, 65-67; of servants, 77-78; modern innovations in, 385-386; service by girls merely a preparation for, 407-408.
Masashige, Kusunoki, 50.
Massacre of Shimabara, 325-327.
Massacres, of priests by Nobunaga, 251; caused by Christian attacks on domestic faiths, 475, 479.
Matsuri-goto, "matters of worship", 32.
Matsuri, temple-festivals, 84.
Meat, forbidden for food, 196-197; forbidden as offerings by Buddhism, 201.
Merchants, place of, in social ranking, 246; modern rise of, to power, 446.
Metempsychosis, no doctrine of, in Shinto, 55 ff., 189-190.
Mikado, God of the Living, 122-125; usurpation of powers of, 260-266.
Miko, girl-priestesses, 142-143.
Mimidzuka, "Ear-monument", 277.
Minamoto, regency of the, 267-268.
Mionoseki, Eta settlement at, 249.
Miracle-plays performed by Jesuits, 334.
Missions, Christian, causes of small results of modern, 339, 473-476; consideration of work of foreign 476-478; importance of policy of, in Far East, 479-480. See Jesuits.
Mitama-San-no-tana, "shelf of the august spirits", 42.
Mitama-shiro, "spirit-substitutes", 42.
Mitamaya, "august-spirit-dwelling." 42.
Mitsukuni, Prince of Mito, 370.
Miya, "august house", 36, 42.
Money, first appearance of, 447.
Monism, higher Buddhism a species of, 210, 220-222.
Mother, nine terms signifying, 171.
Motowori, Shinto commentator, 368.
Mourning-houses, 36; Shinto temple, evolve from, 41-42.
Mythology, of the reigning house, 119; summary of the Japanese, 115-116.
Nakatomi, noble family of, 241.
Nature, controlled by ghosts of ancestors, according to Shinto, 106; Buddhist interpretation of, 192-194.
Nihongi, "Chronicles of Nihon", 110, 111, 115-116, 126; cited, 38-39, 112 n., 164 n., 196 n., 232 n., 234 n., 360 n.
Nirvana, not preached to common Japanese people, 189, 194-195.
Nobility, origin of the, 241-242. See Daimyo.
Nobunaga, Oda, massacres of priests by, 251; career of, 274-276; Jesuits favored by, 304-305.
Obedience, rules of, 48-49, 63, 157, (see Filial Piety); modern reversion to law of, 63, 377-378; of individual to the community, 89-99.
Offerings, to the dead, 37; meat forbidden as, 201.
Officers, army pay of, 412.
O-harai, ceremony of purification, 144-147.
Oho-kuni-nushi-no-Kami, 120, 122; Rough and Gentle Spirits of, 126.
Ojin, Emperor, 83; Korean immigration in reign of, 260.
Osaka, Temple of the Four Deva Kings at, 200; military headquarters of the Shin sect at, 275; Iyeyasu storms castle of, 322.
Ostracism, the punishment by, 95-96; student, 423-424.
O-uji, "great families", 60-62, 252.
Outcasts, the class of, 98, 247, 250.
"Outlines of the Mahayana Philosophy", Kuroda's, 214-215, 222.
Painting, effect of Buddhism on, 188; examples of, in temples, 198-199.
Panama railroad, debt of, to religion of filial piety, 50.
Papacy, interference of, in Jesuit missionary system, 337-338.
Parents, rights of, in patriarchal system, 70-72.
Pariahs, class of, 98, 247-250.
Parliament, convocation of, first, 377
Peasants, revolt of, 324-325; security of, against oppression, 395-396; in the quasi-feudal system, 244-245. See Farmers.
Perry, Commodore, advent of, 374.
Poems in praise of the dead, 35.
Poetry, contests in, during Tokugawa period, 358.
Politeness as an art, 359-361.
Politics, modern Japanese, 389.
Pollution, death regarded as, 40-41.
Polygyny, in ancient society, 67-69.
Population, alien elements in, 16-17.
Porcelains, Japanese, 9, 356-357.
Poverty, resulting from modern industrial revolution, 446-451.
Prayer, prescribed by Hirata. 134; daily, 134-137.
Presents, sumptuary laws concerning, 165, 168.
Pretas, wicked ghosts, 191.
Priests, Shinto, office and powers of, 86-87, 101-105, 139-140; Buddhist, as teachers, 203-204; ranked with the samurai, 247; massacres of, in the sixteenth century, 251; Buddhist, as warriors, 269, 275-276. See Jesuits.
Privacy, lack of, in Japan ancient and modern, 100.
Professions, under divine patronage, 153-154.
Pronouns, rules as to use of, 171.
Property, laws of succession to, in Old Japan, 72-73.
Psychology, difference between Eastern and Western, 9.
Punishment of school-children, 421-422.
Punishment, severity of, under ancient system, 94-95, 176-177; by communities, 94-99; by tutelar deities, 102-105; laws as to, 175-177.
Purification, ceremonies of, 144-115; by ascetic practices, 148-150.
Rebirth, doctrine of, inconsistent with early Japanese beliefs, 55; the Buddhist idea of, and ancestor-worship, 193 n.
Reform, agitation for industrial. 452-454.
Regency, growth of the, 262-264; usurpation of power by the, 264-267.
Registrars, Buddhist priests become public, 203-204.
Relationship, gradation of nouns indicating, 171.
Religion, summary of three forms of Shinto, 21-22; of final piety, 48-51, 57, 65, 188, 459; the basis of organization of patriarchal family, 57, 64; marriage a rite of, 65-67: identity of government with, 100, 101; metaphysics of Buddhist, 207-228; origin in, of customs of the vendetta, 295; tolerance of, by Iyeyasu (except Roman Catholicism), 349-350; the life of the Japanese people, 463-464; obstacles to propagation of the Western, in the Far East, 479. See Ancestor-worship and Missions.
Responsibility from above downward, 395-400.
"Review of the Introduction of Christianty into China and Japan", quoted from, 305.
Revolution, modern industrial, 445-449; dangers of a social, 448-451.
Rice-pot, goddess of the, 130.
"Riddle of the Universe", Haeckel's cited, 221.
Roads, under the protection of Buddhist deities, 130.
Romans, ancient, parallels between Japanese and, 27, 29, 34, 57, 65, 67, 70, 78, 99, 148, 169, 229, 234, 264, 443, 444, 446.
Rudeness, Japanese definition of, 175.
Russia, the war with, 462-463.
Ryobu-Shinto, establishment of; 185-186.
Sacrifices, history of all religious, traceable to offerings to ghosts, 30; ancient funeral, 37-38; origin of human, 284; of one's family, 290-291. See Junshi.
Samurai, class of the, 243, 251; obligation of, to perform harakiri, 287; suppression of, 376.
Saris, Captain, account by, of an execution, 177-178; quoted, 318.
Satow, Sir Earnest, quoted, 43 n., 49, 68, 126 n., 141, 142, 160-161, 312 n., 333.
Satsuma, clan of the, 367, 372.
Scarecrows, god of, 130, 135, 153.
Scholarship, advance of, in Tokugawa period, 369-370.
School, training of children in, 421-425.
Schools, connected with Buddhist temples, 203; Government, 424-425.
Sculpture, developed in Japan under Buddhist teachings, 188; displayed in roadside images, 200, 459.
Sekigahara, battle of, 278.
Self-control, legal enforcement of, 173-174.
Seppuku, Chinese term for harakiri, 287.
Servants, in Old Japan, 76-78; conservative attitude of, 400; position of maid, 407-408. See Apprentices and Dependants.
"Shadow-Shogun", the, 268; deposition of, 267.
Shelf of the august spirits, 42.
Shimabara Revolt, the, 324-325.
Shimonoseki, Bombardment of, 374.
Shin, sect of, defeated by Nobunaga, 275-276.
Shinbetsu, "divine branch" of families, 235.
Shin-Shir-Sai, the Ninth Festival, 245.
Shinto, signification, 21; forms of worship, 21-22; the morals of, 100-101; relation to Japanese mythology to, summarized, 115-134; origin of gods of the house in, 129-130; greater gods of, acknowledged by Buddhism, 190; restoration of, 374; no essential of Buddhism weakened by, 379-380. See Ancestor-worship.
Shogun, authority of the, 241, 251-252: significance of term, 267; extension of power of the, 267-268.
Shogunate, beginning of the history of, 267; abolition of the, 374.
Shorei-Hikki, "Record of Ceremonies", 66.
Shoryobune, "ghost-ships;" 202.
Shrines, worship at, 121, 123, 138-139.
Sickness, charms against, 147-148.
Sisters of Charity, comparison of Japanese women to, 366.
Smile, rules and regulations about the, 173-174.
Socialism, not a modern growth, 255.
Societies, secret, 472 n.
Society, organization of Old Japanese, 229-258.
Sociology, difficulties in studying Japanese, 1-2.
Soga brothers, the, apotheosis of, 127.
Sohodo-no-kami, god of scarecrows. 130, 135, 153.
Son, eleven graded terms signifying, 171.
Sons-in-law, significant motto concerning, 64; customs as to, 64-65.
Speech, non-existence of freedom of, 170; regulations of forms of, 171-173.
Spirits, Rough and Gentle, 126.
Story-teller, an Englishman who is a professional Japanese, 10-11.
Strangulation, suicide by, 286.
Student-revolts, significance and results of, 398-399.
Students, private means furnished for education of, 435-436; education of abroad, 437-438. See Education.
Subsidies, Government, to industries, 451.
Succession laws, in Old Japan, 72-73.
Sugiwara-no-Michizane, spirit of, 127.
Suicide, by the sword, 39-40; customs as to, 286-290; modern instances of female, 289; instances of, in Russian war, 464 n. See Harakiri and Junshi.
Sulko, Empress, 260, 261.
Suinin, Emperor, abolishes the "human hedge", 38.
Sun, daily greeting to the, 135-136.
Sun-goddess, worship of, 109-110, 116-117; acknowledged by Buddhism, 190; offerings of first fruits to, by Emperor, 245 n.
Surgeons, efficiency of Japanese, 441.
Sword-making, most sacred of crafts, 125, 154, 245-246.
Swords, wearing of, prohibited, 376.
Tables, mortuary, 42-43; Buddhist mortuary (ihai), 201.
Taira, rise and fall of the, 266-267.
Taishi, Shotoku, proclamation of, regarding politeness, 359-360.
Takatoki, sacrifical suicide by the sword originated by, 39.
Takayama, a Japanese Jesuit, 321.
Take-no-uji-no-Sukune, apotheosis of, 127.
"Tales of Old Japan", Mitford's, 247, 295.
Tattooing of slaves, 232.
Tea-ceremony, in Tokugawa period, 358-359.
Teachers, Buddhist priests as, 202-203; duties to, same as to fathers, 294; salaries of, 412; relation of, to pupils, 422; transformation stages in attitude of, pupils toward, 431-433.
Temmu, Emperor, decree of, forbidding use of meat, 196; reorganization of castes by, 236; reign of, 237.
Temple of the Four Deva Kings at Osaka, 200.
Temples, Shinto, evolved from mourning-houses, 41; Shinto parish dedicated to Uji-gods (Ujigami), 82-84; Shinto, of the first grade, 121; Shinto, classification of, 123; forms of art in Buddhist, 198-199; notable examples of, 200; schools connected with, 203; Buddhist, burned by Jesuits, 306, 308; Shinto, in Formosa, 388; number of Shinto, at present, 470; memorial character of new, 470.
Terakoya, drama of, 291.
Thieves sentenced to slavery, 234.
Togo, Vice-Admiral, reply of, to Imperial message, 463.
Tokugawa, shogunate of, Japanese civilization reaches limit of development under, 343. See Iyeyasu.
Tokyo, widespread poverty in, resulting from industrial revolution, 446.
Tools, surprising shapes of, 7; sacredness of, 153.
Toshogu, Iyeyasu worshipped under name of, 127.
Trade, mean rank of those engaged in, 246. See Commerce.
Tragedy, Japanese, founded on fact, 290-291.
Ujigami, original relation of community to, 81-82; as clan-deities, 82-84; offences against, 88; relation of the individual to, 120-121; cults of, maintained, and not supplanted, by Buddhism, 379.
Uneme-no-kami, Takenaka, 324.
University, students at the, 425-426.
Utensils, domestic, sacredness of, 153; art displayed in, 357.
Uyernon no Hyoge, decree concerning junshi disobeyed by, 285.
Variety to be found in Japanese form of civilization, 256-257.
Vendetta, religious origin for customs of, 295.
Vengeance, the duty of, 292-293; Iyeyasu's decree concerning code of, 293.
Verb, etiquette governing uses of the, 171-172.
Vice, Iyeyasu on suppression of, 346-347.
Village-laws, peasants' 395-396.
Wages of maid-servants, 408.
"Wanderings of Cain", Coleridge's, 122.
War, ten centuries of, following rise of military power, 259-267; against Korea, 277; with peasantry, 324-325; with Russia, 462-463.
Warfare, divination in, 152.
Way of the Buddha, the (Butsudo), 21.
Way of the Gods, the (Shinto), 21, 41.
Weddings, customs as to, 65-67; laws as to food at, 73; presents at, 165-166.
Whipping, infrequency of now, as punishment, 421. See Punishments.
Wife, gradation of terms signifying, 171.
Wine, Buddhist forbids offerings of, 201.
Woman, tribute paid to the Japanese, 361-362.
Women, mourning rites intrusted to, 43; position of, in old Japanese family, 73-74; as priestesses, 143; forms of speech for use of, 172; methods of suicide for, 287; modern instances of suicide by, 289, 290; duty of vengeance performed by, 293.
Worship, three forms of Shinto, 21-22 (See Ancestor-worship); of Imperial ancestors, 108-109; of Sun-goddess, 109-110; at shrines, 119; phallic, 132.
Yama, judge of the dead, 198-199.
Yamaguchi, land granted to Jesuits at. 332-333.
Yamato-damashi, "The Soul of Yamato", 159.
Yedo, obligatory residence of daimyo in, 278; Iyeyasu, the founder of, 279.
Yeizan, Buddhist high priest, 351.
Yuriaku, Emperor, deaths inflicted by, for rudeness, 176.
THE END |
|
