[884] H. Webster, Primitive Secret Societies, p. 164 ff.

[885] Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, i, 495 ff.

[886] Frazer, loc. cit. Cf. A. Lang, Secret of the Totem, p. 138.

[887] Jesup North Pacific Expedition, vi, i, 32 ff., 43 ff.

[888] So worship was offered to the Roman genius (Horace, Carm. iii, 17; Epist. i, 7, 94).

[889] A. B. Ellis, Eẃe, p. 105; Tshi, p. 156; Yoruba, chap. vii.

[890] Turner, Samoa, p. 78 f. So the [Greek: kourotrophos] (Farnell, in Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tylor).

[891] W. H. Dall, Alaska and its Resources, p. 145, cited by Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, iii, 442 f.

[892] The acquisition of a supernatural inspirer by a shaman is analogous to this custom, but belongs in a somewhat different category: see below, Sec. 540.

[893] Miss Alice Fletcher, "Indian Ceremonies" (in Report of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University, 1883).

[894] F. Boas, The Kwakiutl, p. 393 f.

[895] Cf. Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, iii, 450 ff.

[896] This process is similar to the gradual reduction of the European independent barons to the position of royal officers.

[897] See below, Sec. 633 f.

[898] As, for example, by the Marathas of the Bombay Presidency (Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, ii, 276 ff.).

[899] Lord Avebury (Sir John Lubbock), Prehistoric Times, 2d ed., p. 598, and 6th ed., p. 610; id., Origin of Civilisation (1902), p. 275 ff.; and his Marriage, Totemism, and Religion.

[900] Herbert Spencer, Fortnightly Review, 1870, and Principles of Sociology i, Sec. 171.

[901] This view is provisionally indorsed by E. B. Tylor, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxviii.

[902] One such case is mentioned in Codrington's Melanesians, p. 33.

[903] Frazer, Golden Bough (1890), ii, 332 ff. This theory has since been abandoned by Frazer (Totemism and Exogamy, iv, 54 f.).

[904] Frazer, Fortnightly Review, July and September, 1905, pp. 154-172 (reprinted in Totemism and Exogamy, i); Totemism and Exogamy, ii, 89 ff.; iv, 57 ff.

[905] Rivers, "Totemism in Polynesia and Melanesia" (in Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, xxxix [1909], 172); Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, iv, 59 ff.

[906] This is the theory adopted by Frazer in his latest work on the subject.

[907] The widespread belief that birth may be independent of the union of the sexes does not, of course, carry with it an explanation of totemism.

[908] Lippert, Die Religionen der europaeischen Culturvoelker, p. 12; G. A. Wilken, "Het Animisme bij de Volken van den Indischen Archipel," in De Indische Gids, 1884 (cf. Tylor, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxviii, 1899); G. M. Theal, Records of South-eastern Africa, vii, and History and Ethnography of South Africa, i. 90.

[909] F. B. Jevons, Introduction to the History Of Religion, 1st ed., p. 101.

[910] F. M. Mueller, Anthropological Religion, p. 121 ff.; Pikler and Somlo, Ursprung des Totemismu, p. 7 ff.; A. K. Keane, Ethnology, p. 10; cf. G. M. Theal, History and Ethnography Of South Africa, i, 17.

[911] A. C. Haddon, in Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, 1902.

[912] A. Lang, The Secret of the Totem, chap. vi.

[913] Lists are given in Frazer's Totemism and Exogamy.

[914] Lang, The Secret of the Totem, loc. cit.; Theal, History and Ethnography of South Africa, i, 92.

[915] Cf. A. W. Howitt, Native Tribes of South-East Australia, p. 154.

[916] Frazer, in Fortnightly Review, 1899 (this theory was afterwards abandoned by him); B. Spencer, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxviii (1899).

[917] Cf. Durkheim, in Annee sociologique, v.

[918] Durkheim, in Annee sociologique, v.

[919] See below, Sec. 577.

[920] Frazer, in his Totemism (this view is now given up by him); F. B. Jevons, Introduction to the History of Religion, Index; S. Reinach, Cultes, mythes et religions, i, 86 ff.; Hahn, Die Haustiere, pp. 28 ff., 42, and his Demeter und Baubo, p. 19 ff. (domestication of cattle and use of milk as food connected with moon-cult). Cf. H. Ling Roth, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xvi, 102 ff.

[921] The totem belongs not to a tribe (Jevons, Introduction to the History of Religion, p. 114 f.) but to a clan.

[922] Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, iv, 19.

[923] W. E. Roth, quoted in Frazer's Totemism and Exogamy, i, 532.

[924] See above, Sec. 529 ff.

[925] W. E. Roth, North Queensland Ethnography; Spencer and Gillen, Northern Tribes of Central Australia, p. 226 ff.

[926] See below, Sec. 635 ff.; cf. A. Lang, Myth, Ritual, and Religion, ii, 197, etc.; S. Relnach, Orpheus (Eng. tr.), p. 81 ff.; Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, iv, 30 ff.

[927] Haddon, in Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tyler, 183 ff.

[928] Rivers, in Man, viii (1908).

[929] Cf. Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, iv, 31 ff. The Bushman god Cagn, who has the form of a mantis, and the Hindu monkey-god Hanuman seem to have no connection with totemism.

[930] Cf. the remarks of Haddon, op. cit.

[931] So Zeus and other Greek gods.

[932] See below, Sec. 1041 ff.

[933] See below, Sec. 635.

[934] The moral perfection of the individual is an ideal that has arisen out of social relations; it is demanded by the deity because the moral standard of a deity is that of his human society.

[935] In international relations this tendency appears in the demand for arbitration.

[936] N. W. Thomas, article "Taboo" in Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th ed.; Codrington, The Melanesians; Thomson, Story of New Zealand; A. van Gennep, Tabou et totemisme a Madagascar; Wallace, Malay Archipelago, p. 149 f.; J. G. Frazer, Early History of the Kingship; Marett, "Is Taboo a Negative Magic?" (in Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tylor).

[937] Cf. the Chickasa hullo, said to mean 'mysterious' (Speck, in Journal of American Folklore, xx, 57).

[938] The danger from such objects is referred to a supernatural presence, whose attitude toward human beings may be doubtful; only, when the phenomenon observed is thought to be nonnatural and is afflictive (as in the case of death, for example), this attitude is judged to be hostile.

[939] Purely economic and other social considerations are sometimes combined with the mana conception.

[940] The physical unity produced by contact may be brought about, according to savage philosophy, in other ways.

[941] Ploss-Bartels, Das Weib, i, 591; cf. E. S. Hartland, Primitive Paternity; Avesta, Vendidad, xv, 8.

[942] Article "Birth" in Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics.

[943] Ploss-Bartels, Das Weib, ii, 345 ff.

[944] Lev. xii. In the modern Parsi usage a woman after giving birth is secluded forty days.

[945] On the relation between birth customs and systems of relationship (patrilineal and matrilineal) see the references in Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, ii, 636.

[946] Numb. xix, 11 ff. For the Mazdean rules see Tiele-Gehrich, Geschichte der Religion im Altertum, ii, 340 ff.

[947] Sanitary purposes may have entered into such customs.

[948] Seligmann, The Melanesians of British New Guinea, chap. xxiii, p. 138, etc.; Turner, Samoa, p. 145 f.; Kidd, The Essential Kafir, p. 253.

[949] Ellis, The Eẃe-speaking Peoples, p. 160.

[950] Cicero, De Legibus, ii, 26 (Athens); Roman Digests, xlvii, 12; Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum, i, 13 (Phoenician); and so among many savage and half-civilized peoples.

[951] Crawley, The Mystic Rose, chap. iii.

[952] Seligmann, The Melanesians of British New Guinea, p. 140.

[953] Ploss-Bartels, Das Weib, i, 296, 302, 374, 618.

[954] Frazer, article "Taboo" in Encyclopaedia Britannica, 9th ed.

[955] Seligmann, The Melanesians of British New Guinea, p. 466; Crawley, The Mystic Rose, p. 52 ff.

[956] G. Brown, Melanesians and Polynesians, p. 241; W. H. Furness, 3d, The Island of Stone-Money, p. 38 f.

[957] Crawley, The Mystic Rose, p. 399 ff.

[958] A physiological basis for this view seems to lie outside the resources of savage observation, but prohibition of intercourse just after childbirth may have a humanitarian basis.

[959] G. Brown, Melanesians and Polynesians, pp. 68, 80, 200; Seligmann, The Melanesians of British New Guinea, p. 292; W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, additional note C.

[960] Cf. Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, ii, 406 ff.; Hobhouse, Morals in Evolution, Index, s.v. Chastity.

[961] See below, Sec. 895 ff.; Westermarck, op. cit., i, 620 ff.

[962] Ezek. xliv, 19. The term "sanctify" of the English Version means 'make ritually sacred,' not to be touched. Cf. Shortland, Southern Districts of New Zealand, p. 293 f.; Wellhausen, Reste arabischen Heidentumes, p. 106 f.

[963] For Jewish rules see Lev. xxi. The onerous restrictions on the Roman flamen dialis and his wife are given in Frazer's Golden Bough (see Index, s.v. Flamen dialis) and the authorities cited by him.

[964] The prohibition of the products of the grapevine to the Nazirite (Numb. vi, 3 f.) seems to have been originally part of the attempt to follow the old pastoral life, in contrast with the Canaanite agricultural life; later it received a religious coloring. The prohibition might begin at the moment of the child's conception (Judg. xiii, 4, 14).

[965] Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., i, 299 ff.

[966] Turner, Samoa.

[967] Alexander, Short History of the Hawaiian People.

[968] R. Taylor, New Zealand, chap. viii.

[969] Furness, Home Life of the Borneo Head-hunters, p. 160 ff.

[970] C. S. Hurgronje, The Achehnese, p. 262 ff.

[971] T. C. Hodson, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxvi.

[972] Codrington, The Melanesians, p. 215 ff.

[973] Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion, pp. 50, 96 ff.; Fowler, Roman Festivals, p. 106 ff.

[974] Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., iii, 76 f.

[975] Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxii; Frazer, op. cit., iii, 80.

[976] T. C. Hodson, "The Genna amongst the Tribes of Assam" (in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxvi).

[977] Lev. xxiii; Numb. xxviii f.

[978] Stengel and Oehmichen, Griechische Sakralaltertuemer, p. 170.

[979] Wissowa, Religion der Roemer, p. 365 ff.

[980] Numb. xxviii, 26.

[981] The Thargelia; Harrison, op. cit., chap. iii.

[982] Mariner, Tonga, p. 483

[983] W. Ellis, Polynesian Researches, iv, 388, etc.

[984] Cf. Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 448 ff.

[985] Cf. W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, additional note C.

[986] Rivers, The Todas, p. 405 ff.

[987] Tylor, Primitive Culture, i, 288, 354.

[988] For details see Frazer, Adonis Attis Osiris, bk. iii, chap. viii f.

[989] Hollis, The Nandi p. 95 f.

[990] Rhys Davids, Buddhism (in Non-Christian Religious Systems), p. 140 f. Thus, as the author remarks, uposatha is a weekly festival; and there is an approach to a true seven-day week.

[991] Alexander, Short History of the Hawaiian People.

[992] Details of the week are given in the article "Calendar" in Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, with references to authorities.

[993] Hollis, The Nandi, p. 79; Frazer, Adonis Attis Osiris, pp. 370 ff., 375.

[994] See the noteworthy Yoruban rest day, the first day of the five-day week (A. B. Ellis, Yoruba).

[995] For the literature on the sabbath see Herzog-Hauck, Real-Encyklopaedie; Jastrow, in American Journal of Theology for 1898; Cheyne, Encyclopaedia Biblica; Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible; Jewish Encyclopedia; F. Bohn, Der Sabbat im Alten Testament; Benzinger, Hebraeische Archaeologie; Nowack, Hebraesche Archaeologie; C. H. Toy, "The Earliest Form of the Sabbath," in Journal of Biblical Literature for 1899 (in which, so far as appears, the view that the Hebrew sabbath is a taboo day is stated for the first time).

[996] Any taboo day might be the occasion of placative ceremonies; but this is not a distinctive feature of the day.

[997] T. G. Pinches, in Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaeology, xxvi, 51 ff.; Zimmern, in Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenlaendischen Gesellschaft, lviii, 199 ff., 458 ff.; J. Meinhold, Sabbat und Woche im Alten Testament. There is no good reason to doubt that this Babylonian term is formally identical with Hebrew shabat.

[998] 2 Kings iv, 23; Amos viii, 5; Isa. i, 13.

[999] Exod. xxiii, 6.

[1000] Deut. v, 12 ff.; Exod. xx, 8 ff.; the term 'holy' here means set apart ritually, that is, taboo.

[1001] Ezek. xx, 12 f., 16, 20 f., 24; Isa. lviii, 13 f.; cf. article "Sabbath" in Jewish Encyclopedia.

[1002] The Hebrew stem shabat means 'to cease,' a signification that accords well with the character of a taboo day. But this sense has not been certainly found for the Babylonian stem, and the original force of the term sabbath may be left undecided.

[1003] Exod. xxiii, 12.

[1004] Chabas, Le calendrier des jours fastes et nefastes; Maspero, Etudes egyptiennes, i, 28 ff.; Wiedemann, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians, chap. x.

[1005] IV Rawlinson, plates, 32 f.; Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 373 ff.

[1006] Hesiod, Works and Days, 763 ff.

[1007] Wissowa, Religion der Roemer, p. 365 ff.; Fowler, Roman Festivals, Index. The Romans, with their thoroughness where public religion was concerned, divided all the days of the year into the three classes, dies festi (festive, for worship), dies profesti (for ordinary business), and dies intercisi (mixed, partly for religion, partly for ordinary affairs).

[1008] Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, iii, 29 (Burma).

[1009] J. H. King, The Supernatural, Index, s.v. Luck.

[1010] Many examples are given in Westermarck's Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, chap. xxxvii f.; cf. above, Sec. 204 ff., on fasting.

[1011] Howitt, Native Tribes of South-East Australia, p. 630 ff.

[1012] E. A. Gait, article "Caste" in Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics.

[1013] Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., i, 321.

[1014] Taboo thus helps the growth of civil law (especially of penal codes) by its collection of offenses, though only on condition of retiring from the field. Cf. Frazer, Psyche's Task, p. 17 ff.

[1015] Lev. xiv, 48-53.

[1016] Lev. xii.

[1017] So in many popular festivals; see Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia; Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 453 ff.; Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, chap. xlii.

[1018] Examples are given in Crawley's Mystic Rose, pp. 223, 480 ff., chap. x ff.

[1019] Tylor, Early History of Mankind, 3d ed., p. 129 ff.; Hubert and Mauss, in Annee sociologique, vii; Frazer, Early History of the Kingship, lecture ii, especially p. 52 ff. (he defines taboo as "negative magic," magic, that is, employed to avoid malefic influences); cf. Crawley, The Mystic Rose, chap. ix, for the transmission of sex characteristics.

[1020] Cf. R. R. Marett, "Is Taboo a Negative Magic?" (reply to Frazer), in Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tylor.

[1021] Cf. Marett, op. cit.

[1022] R. Taylor, New Zealand, chap. viii; Alexander, Short History of the Hawaiian People.

[1023] Shortland, Maori Religion.

[1024] Exod. xxiii, 10 f.

[1025] Livy, i, 31.

[1026] Codrington, The Melanesians, p. 215 ff.; George Brown, Melanesians and Polynesians, p. 273 ff.

[1027] Seligmann, The Melanesians of British New Guinea, Index, s.v. Taboo.

[1028] H. Ling Roth, The Natives of Sarawak and British North Borneo, i, 98.

[1029] On permontong see W. H. Furness, 3d, Home Life of the Borneo Head-hunters, p. 160 ff.

[1030] Manu, v, 62.

[1031] Miss Alice Fletcher, Indian Ceremonies, p. 297 f.

[1032] Miss Mary Kingsley, Travels, Index.

[1033] T. C. Hodson, "Genna amongst the Tribes of Assam," in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxvi (1906).

[1034] Kidd, The Essential Kafir, Index.

[1035] Boas, in Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, and Bulletin XV, American Museum of Natural History.

[1036] Lev. xii-xv.

[1037] Deut. xiv; Lev. xi; Diogenes Laertius, Pythagoras, xvii.

[1038] On tabu (or tapu) see E. Tregear, Maori-Polynesian Comparative Dictionary; W. Ellis, Polynesian Researches, iv, 385.

[1039] Codrington, The Melanesians, p. 215.

[1040] A. van Gennep, Tabou et totemisme a Madagascar.

[1041] R. H. Nassau, Fetichism in West Africa, p. 211.

[1042] The taboo sense proper is not found in [Greek: agios (agos), enages], and Latin sacer which rather mean what is accursed, detestable on account of wrong committed.

[1043] Sacred books "defile the hands."

[1044] Cf. articles "Taboo" in Encyclopaedia Britannica, 9th ed. (by Frazer) and 11th ed. (by Thomas).

[1045] The relation between totemism and man's attitude toward beasts and plants is discussed above, Sec.Sec. 524 ff., 564 ff.

[1046] A. B. Ellis, Yoruba, p. 167.

[1047] Alexander, Short History of the Hawaiian People, chap. xxii.

[1048] On the question whether a germinal sense of moral obligation is found in the lower animals see above, Sec. 12.

[1049] Naturally, the origin of all the particular taboos escapes us; it depends in most cases on unknown conditions.

[1050] 1 Cor. xi, 27-30.

[1051] On the social organization of law cf. Darwin, Descent of Man, p. 108; article "Aryan Religion" in Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics.

[1052] See above, Sec. 240 ff.

[1053] In a cannibal community, for example, the gods will be cannibal; see A. Lang, Myth, Ritual, and Religion, new ed., i, 6, 263 f.

[1054] Rawlinson, History of Ancient Egypt, i, 414 f.; ff., 85, 506; Breasted, History of Egypt, pp. 46, 575; Hopkins, Religions of India, pp. 368, 502; ibid., p. 538 f.

[1055] They sometimes coalesce in functions with ghosts and spirits.

[1056] Teit, Thompson River Indians, p. 19 ff.

[1057] L. Farrand, "Traditions of the Chilcotin Indians" in Jesup North Pacific Expedition (vol. ii of Memoirs of the American Museum of Natural History), i, 14 ff.; Farrand and Kahnweiler, "Traditions of the Quinault Indians," ibid., iii, 111; Boas, Indianische Sagen, p. 194 ff.; C. Hill-Tout, articles in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, vols. xxxiv, xxxv, xxxvii.

[1058] Boas, Introduction to Teit's Thompson River Indians, p. 16, and "Reports on the Indians of British Columbia" in Reports of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, vols. lix, lx, lxi, lxiv, lxv. A tricksy character is ascribed to Loki in some of the Norse stories (Saussaye, Religion of the Teutons, p. 263). Loki, however, as he appears in the literature, is a highly complex figure.

[1059] See Boas's Introduction in Teit's Thompson River Indians.

[1060] R. B. Dixon, The Northern Maidu, p. 263.

[1061] A. C. Hollis, The Masai, p. 264 f.; Lang, Myth, Ritual, and Religion, 1st ed., ii, 4 f.

[1062] Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, p. 123 ff.

[1063] W. Matthews, Navaho Legends, pp. 69 ff., 73 ff.

[1064] See Brinton, Myth of the New World and American Hero-Myths; Journal of American Folklore, passim. On the 'Hiawatha' myth see Hale, Iroquois Book of Rites, p. 180 ff., and Beauchamp, in Journal of American Folklore, October, 1891.

[1065] Codrington, The Melanesians, pp. 28, 167, and Index, s.v. Qat.

[1066] He is called also the "Big Raven," belonging under this title in the cycle of raven myths of the North Pacific Ocean (both in Asia and in America); see Jochelson, in Jesup North Pacific Expedition, vi, i, 17 f.

[1067] Hollis, The Nandi, p. 98 f.; Callaway, The Amazulu, p. 1 ff.; cf. the Japanese mythical emperor Jimmu (Knox, Development of Religion in Japan, pp. 46, 63).

[1068] Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, Index, s.v.; Gen. iv; articles in Roscher's Lexikon, s.vv.; Gruppe, Griechische Mythologie, Index, s.vv.

[1069] It is noteworthy that among the numerous aetiological myths there seems to be no attempt to account for the origin of language. Language was thought of as so simple and natural a thing that no explanation of its beginnings was necessary. Adam, in Gen. ii, is able, as a matter of course, to give names to the animals. In early myths beasts have the power of speech. In a Nandi folk-story (Hollis, The Nandi, p. 113) what excites the wonder of the thunder and the elephant is not man's capacity of speech, but the fact that he can turn over when asleep without first getting up.

[1070] For female deities the title "grandmother" occurs (Batchelor, The Ainu [1901], p. 578). The devil's grandmother figures in Teutonic folk-stories; see Journal of American Folklore, xiii, 278 ff.; Frazer, Golden Bough, 1st ed., i, 336.

[1071] Attempts to prove a primitive monotheism usually fail to take this distinction into account.

[1072] Howitt, Native Tribes of South-East Australia, p. 488 ff.

[1073] Boas, Introduction to Teit's Thompson River Indians, p. 7.

[1074] Callaway, The Amazulu, p. 1 ff.

[1075] Kidd, The Essential Kafir, p. 101 ff.

[1076] A. B. Ellis, Tshi, chaps. v-vii; Eẃe, chap. v; Yoruba, chap. iii. Cf. C. Partridge, Cross River Natives (South Nigeria), p. 282 ff.

[1077] W. Crooke, The Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India (1907), chap. ii.

[1078] Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 537 f.

[1079] Rivers, The Todas, chap. xix.

[1080] Matthews, Navaho Legends, p. 35 ff.

[1081] Jochelson, in Jesup North Pacific Expedition, vi, i, 36-43.

[1082] Aston, Shinto, Index, s.v. Kami; Knox, Religion in Japan, p. 27 ff.

[1083] Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii, 255; cf. ii, 337.

[1084] Dorsey, The Skidi Pawnee, p. xix; Matthews, Navaho Legends, p. 34 f.

[1085] Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 532.

[1086] Spence, in Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, ii, 835.

[1087] A. B. Ellis, Eẃe (Dahomi), p. 104.

[1088] On the ascription of divinity to men in great civilized religious systems see above, Sec. 351 ff.

[1089] Maspero, Dawn of Civilization, p. 120 ff.; Ed. Meyer, Geschichte des Alten Aegyptens, p. 31 ff.; Wiedemann, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians, p. 109; Erman, Handbook of Egyptian Religion, pp. 21 f., 39.

[1090] Cf. W. von Baudissin, Studien zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte, i, 28 f.

[1091] R. Smend, Alttestamentliche Religionsgeschichte, p. 33 f. In regard to the original home of Yahweh and the diffusion of his cult among other peoples than the Hebrews exact information is lacking.

[1092] Pietschmann, Phoenizier, pp. 170 f., 182 ff.

[1093] Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, i, 664.

[1094] Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, Index, s.vv.; articles in Roscher's Lexikon; "Eshmun" in Orientalische Studien Noeldeke gewidmet.

[1095] See, for example, Pausanias, i, 37, 3 (Zeus Meilichios); ii, 19, 3 (Apollo Lykios); iii, 13, 2 (Kore Soteira—Persephone, the protectress); v, 25, 6 f. (Heracles); viii, 12, 1 (Zeus Charmon).

[1096] Macdonell, Vedic Mythology, p. 15 ff.; Bloomfield, Religion of the Veda, p. 90.

[1097] Sir C. R. Markham, The Incas of Peru, p. 104.

[1098] L. Spence, The Mythologies of Ancient Mexico and Peru, p. 24 f.

[1099] See above, Sec. 647.

[1100] Roscher, Lexikon, article "Heros," col. 2473 ff.

[1101] Works and Days, 155 ff.

[1102] He appears to be usually beneficent; but, like all the dead, he might sometimes be maleficent.

[1103] But these origins, going far back into prehistoric times, are obscure.

[1104] Codrington, The Melanesians, p. 132.

[1105] Tregear, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xix, 97 ff.; Grey, Polynesian Mythology, p. 164.

[1106] Alexander, Short History of the Hawaiian People.

[1107] E. H. Gomes, Southern Departments of Borneo.

[1108] Skeat, Malay Magic, chap. iv; Skeat and Blagden, Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula, ii, 245 ff.

[1109] Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 529 f.; Crooke, Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India, i, chap. ii.

[1110] Hollis, The Masai, p. 264. The related Nandi worship the sun (Asista) mainly, but have also a thunder-god (Hollis, The Nandi, p. 40 f.).

[1111] Hollis, op. cit., p. 279.

[1112] With them, as everywhere else, there is occasional discrimination in the functions of magicians, different men healing or inflicting different sicknesses; cf. article "Bantu" in Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics.

[1113] A. B. Ellis, Eẃe, chap. v; Tshi, chap. v; Yoruba, p. 45.

[1114] Jochelson, in Jesup North Pacific Expedition, vi, i, 33 ff., 27 ff.

[1115] Batchelor, The Ainu, chap. li.

[1116] Herodotus, iv, 94.

[1117] Demetrius Klementz, article "Buriats" in Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics.

[1118] Brinton, The Lenape, p. 65 ff.; Dorsey, The Skidi Pawnee, p. xviii ff. On gods of air and winds see J. H. Keane, in article "Air and Gods of the Air" in Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics.

[1119] Hastings, op. cit., i, 382 ff., and ii, 837.

[1120] Brinton, American Hero-Myths, chap. iv; A. M. Tozzer, Comparative Study of the Mayas and the Lacandones (of Yucatan), pp. 80, 93 ff.; H. H. Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific States of North America, ii, chap. xx ff.

[1121] J. G. Mueller, Geschichte der amerikanischen Urreligionen, p. 577 ff.; Lang, Myth, Ritual, and Religion, chap. xiv; L. Spence, Mythologies of Ancient Mexico and Peru; E. Seler, Gesammelte Abhandlungen. For earlier authorities see Winsor, Narrative and Critical History Of America, vol. i, chaps. iii, iv.

[1122] J. G. Mueller, Geschichte der amerikanischen Urreligionen, p. 313 ff.; Prescott, Peru, i, 91 ff.; C. R. Markham, The Incas of Peru, chap. viii; and see preceding note.

[1123] Maspero, Dawn of Civilization, ii, 81, note 2; p. 82, notes 1 and 2.

[1124] Usener, Goetternamen p. 122 ff.; L. R. Farnell, "The Place of the 'Sonder-Goetter' in Greek Polytheism" (in Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tylor).

[1125] Farnell, op. cit.; cf. T. R. Glover, Conflict of Religions in the Early Roman Empire, p. 12.

[1126] Roscher, Lexikon, s.v.

[1127] Augustine, De Civitate Dei, vii, 22; cf. bks. vi, vii, passim.

[1128] Cf. Wissowa, Religion der Roemer, pp. 15, 145 ff.

[1129] Judg. viii, 33.

[1130] The name occurs only once, in 2 Kings, i, 2. It is incorrectly adopted in the English Version of the New Testament.

[1131] Found only in the Synoptic Gospels, Mk. iii, 22; Matt. x, 25; xii, 24, 27; Luke xi, 15, 18, 19.

[1132] Isa. lxiii, 15.

[1133] On these Semitic titles see articles "Baal" and "Baalzebub" in Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics; article "Beelzebul" in Cheyne, Encyclopaedia Biblica; various articles in Brown, Driver, Briggs, Hebrew and English Lexicons.

[1134] Batchelor, The Ainu, chap. x; Furness, Home life of the Borneo Head-hunters, p. 64 f.; Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 530, note 2; De Groot, Religion of the Chinese, p. 129 f.

[1135] Turner, Samoa, p. 18 f.; Nassau, Fetichism in West Africa, pp. 67, 163 ff.

[1136] On "manitu" see Handbook of American Indians, s.v. (and cf. article "Wakonda"); W. Jones, in Journal of American Folklore, xviii, 183 ff. On "nagual" see Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific States of North America, iii, 458; Brinton, in Journal of American Folklore, viii, 249.

[1137] Journal of American Folklore, viii, 115.

[1138] Cf. M. H. Kingsley, West African Studies, p. 132 f.

[1139] Roscher, Lexikon, i, 2, col. 1616.

[1140] Cf. article "Daimon" in Roscher, op. cit.

[1141] Spiegel, Eranische Alterthumskunde, ii, 91 ff.; Dan. x, 20; xi, 1; xii, 1; Matt. xviii, 10.

[1142] Examples are given above, Sec. 255 f.

[1143] Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, chap. x.

[1144] Codrington, The Melanesians, pp. 150 f., 158 f., 168 f.; Turner, Samoa, pp. 7, 52.

[1145] Here again a distinction must be made between animals simply sacred and those that are specifically totemic.

[1146] Codrington, The Melanesians, pp. 248 f., 253 ff.

[1147] Lang, Myth, Ritual, and Religion, chaps. xii f.

[1148] So the Samoan Tangaloa (Tylor, Primitive Culture, 3d ed., ii, 344 f.).

[1149] St. John, The Far East, i, 180.

[1150] Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 528 ff.

[1151] A. B. Ellis, Yoruba, pp. 38 ff., 56 ff.; cf. M. H. Kingsley, West African Studies, p. 117 ff.

[1152] Lang, Myth, Ritual, and Religion, preface to new edition.

[1153] Matthews, Navaho Legends, p. 34.

[1154] Article "Brazil" in Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics.

[1155] G. Grey, Polynesian Mythology, p. 1 ff.; Taylor, New Zealand, chap. vi; cf., for Polynesia, W. Ellis, Polynesian Researches, chap. xiii. The abstract ideas reported by Taylor are remarkable: from conception came increase, from this came swelling, then, in order, thought, remembrance, desire; or, from nothing came increase and so forth; or, the word brought forth night, the night ending in death. The significance of this scheme (supposing it to be correctly stated) has not been explained. The role assigned to "desire" in the Rig-Veda creation-hymn (x, 129) is the product of learned reflection (cf. Schopenhauer's "blind will"), and sounds strange in the mouth of New Zealand savages.

[1156] Cf. Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii, 308 ff.

[1157] Williams and Calvert, Fiji, p. 193 f.

[1158] Grey, Polynesian Mythology, p. 15; Castren, Finnische Mythologie, p. 1.

[1159] Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria (English and German editions), Index, s.vv. Allatu, Nergal; id., Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in Babylonia and Assyria, p. 368 ff.; Wiedemann, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians, p. 217; Erman, Handbook of Egyptian Religion, p. 94 ff.; Macdonell, Vedic Mythology, pp. 171 ff., 169 ff.; Bloomfield, Religion of the Veda, p. 144 f.; Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 128 ff.; Spiegel, Eranische Alterthianskunde, ii, 163 (but the old Persian god of the Underworld, if there was one, was absorbed, in Zoroastrianism, by Ahura Mazda); Jackson, in Geiger and Kuhn's Grundriss der iranischen Philologie, ii, 652, Sec. 52; Farnell, Cults of the Greek States, ii, 513 ff.; iii, chap. v; Wissowa, Religion der Roemer, p. 187 ff.; Aust, Religion der Roemer, p. 52; Rohde, Psyche, 3d ed. i, 205, ff.; articles on Hades, Plutos, Hermes, Dionysos, Nergal, and related deities, in Roscher's Lexikon.

[1160] Cf. Jastrow, Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 356 f., 372 f.; F. Schwally, Das Leben nach dem Tode, p. 65 ff.; R. H. Charles, Eschatology, p. 18 f. For the Arabs see Wellhausen, Reste arabischen Heidentumes, iii, 22 ff., 42 ff.; Noeldeke, article "Arabs (Ancient)" in Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics; for the Phoenicians, Pietschmann, Phoenizier, p. 191 f.

[1161] Ps. cxxxix.

[1162] See article "Celts" in Hastings, op. cit.; Saussaye, Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte, 2d ed.; Usener, Goetternamen; article "Aryan Religion" in Hastings, op. cit., p. 38 f. and passim.

[1163] Hollis, The Masai, p. 264. The neighboring Nandi, according to Hollis (The Nandi, p. 41), have a similar pair.

[1164] A. C. Dixon, The Northern Maidu (Bulletin of the American Museum Of Natural History, xviii, iii), p. 263. For other such conceptions see Tylor's discussion in Primitive Culture, ii, 320 ff.

[1165] Brinton, Myths of the New World, p. 63; H. Hale, Iroquois Book of Rites, p. 74.

[1166] A possible exception is the Khond myth of the struggle between the sun-god (Boora Pennu), the giver of all good things, and the earth-goddess (Tari), the author of evil things (Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 529 f.; Macpherson, India, p. 84); but the origin of this myth is uncertain.

[1167] 1 Kings xxii, 19-23.

[1168] Ed. Meyer, Geschichte des Alten Aegyptens, p. 71 f.; Maspero, Dawn of Civilization, pp. 172, 177.

[1169] R. Taylor, New Zealand, pp. 114 ff., 132; Jean A. Owen, The Story of Hawaii, p. 70 f.

[1170] Mills, in Journal of the American Oriental Society, xx, 31 ff.; Bloomfield, Religion of the Veda, p. 123 ff.

[1171] Spiegel, Eranische Alterthumskunde, ii, 21 ff., 121 ff.

[1172] Zech. iii, 1-3; Job i, ii.

[1173] 1 Chr. xxi, 1.

[1174] 2 Cor. iv, 4.

[1175] The Greek daimon, properly simply a deity, received its opprobrious sense when Jews and Christians identified foreign deities with the enemies of the supreme God.

[1176] Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii, 318 ff.

[1177] Great gods also send suffering, but only when they are angered by men's acts, as by disrespect to a priest (Apollo, in Iliad, i) or to a sacred thing (Yahweh, 1 Sam. vi, 19; 2 Sam. vi, 7). In the high spiritual religions suffering is treated as educative, or is accepted as involving some good purpose unknown to men.

[1178] W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, 2d ed., p. 126 f.

[1179] Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 260 ff.; O. Weber, Daemonenbeschwoerung bei den Babyloniern und Assyriern (in Der Alte Orient, 1906).

[1180] The Ethiopic Book of Enoch (ed. R. H. Charles), chaps. liii, vi-x; the Slavonic Enoch, or Secrets of Enoch (ed. R. H. Charles), chap. xxxi. For the later Jewish view (in Talmud and Midrash) see Jewish Encyclopedia, article "Satan."

[1181] The "demons" of 1 Cor. x, 20 (King James version, "devils") are foreign deities.

[1182] Hopkins, Religions of India, pp. 416, 492 ff.

[1183] Herzog-Hauck, Real-Encyklopaedie, articles "Ophiten," "Kainiten."

[1184] J. Menant, Les Yesidis (in Annales du Musee Guimet); Isya Joseph, Yesidi Texts (reprinted from American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, xxv (1909), no. 2 f.). Cf. the idea of restoration in Col. i, 20.

[1185] So the Christian Satan.

[1186] When, in the reports of travelers and other observers, demons are said to be placated, examination shows that these beings are gods who happen to be mischievous. Of this character, for example, appear to be the "demons" mentioned in Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, ii, 122.

[1187] Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., iii, 39 ff.

[1188] But see below, Sec. 704.

[1189] Baethgen, Beitraege zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte; Wellhausen, Skissen, iii, 25; Noeldeke, in Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenlaendischen Gesellschaft, 1886, 1888, and article "Arabs (Ancient)" in Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics; Pinches, article "Gad," and Driver, article "Meni," in Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible; Cheyne, article "Fortune" in Encyclopaedia Biblica; Commentaries of Delitzsch, Duhm, Marti, Skinner, and Box on Isa. lxv, 11.

[1190] Lane, Arabic-English Lexicon, s.v. The Old Testament title "Rock" given to Yahweh (Deut. xxxii, 18, "the Rock that begat thee") is figurative, but may go back to a divine rock.

[1191] On the Hebrew place-name (Job i, 1) and perhaps personal name (Gen. xxxvi, 28) Uṣ (Uz), which seems to be formally identical with 'Auḍ, see W. R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia, 1st ed., p. 260 f., and his Religion of the Semites, p. 43; Wellhausen, Skissen, iii; Noeldeke, in Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenlaendischen Gesellschaft, xl, 183 f.

[1192] Maniya, plural manayā.

[1193] Isa. lxv, 11; III Rawlinson, 66.

[1194] Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 420, 428 (the tablets of fate given to Kingu and snatched from him by Marduk); R. F. Harper, Assyrian and Babylonian Literature, p. 304 f. (Marduk seizes the tablets of fate from Zu); Ps. cxxxix, 16; Dan. vii, 10; Rev. v, 1, and other passages.

[1195] As far as the forms are concerned, a concrete sense for manāt, manu, meni, seems possible; cf. Wright, Arabic Grammar, 2d ed., i, Sec. 231; Barth, Semitische Nominalbuedungen, p. 163 ff.; Delitzsch, Assyrian Grammar, p. 158 ff.

[1196] The etymologies in Gen. xxx, 11 ff. are popular. In "Baal-Gad" (Josh. xi, 17) Gad may be the name of a place; cf. Stade, Geschichte des Volkes Israel, i, 271, note.

[1197] Erman, Handbook of Egyptian Religion, chap. iii. For a list of other Egyptian gods of abstractions, such as eternity, life, Joy, see Wiedemann, "Religion of Egypt," in Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible, v, 191.

[1198] Boissier, La religion romaine, i, 4 ff.; Wissowa, Religion der Roemer, p. 46 ff.; Usener, Goetternamen, p. 364 ff. (cf. Farnell, in Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tylor); Fowler, Roman Festivals, pp. 190 f., 341; Frazer, Adonis Attis Osiris, p. 169 ff.

[1199] Cf. above, Sec. 679, note.

[1200] Not all of these had public cults.

[1201] See articles in Roscher's Lexicon ("Eros," "Moira," and similar terms); on Phoibos, cf. L. Deubner, in Athenische Mittheilungen, 1903.

[1202] Cicero, De Natura Deorum, ii, 25.

[1203] Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 135 f.; Bloomfield, Religion of the Veda, pp. 191, 243 ff.; Macdonell, Vedic Mythology, p. 115 ff.

[1204] Spiegel, Eranische Alterthumskunde, ii, 34 ff.; A. V. Williams Jackson, Iranische Religion (in Geiger and Kuhn's Grundriss der iranischen Philologie, ii, 637).

[1205] The six are: Vohumanah (Good Thought or Good Mind), Khshathra Vairya (Best or Wished-for Righteous Realm or Law), Spenta Armaiti (Holy Harmony), Asha Vahista (Perfect Righteousness or Piety), Haurvatat (Well-being), Ameretat (Immortality).

[1206] On these and certain minor divinized conceptions of time see Spiegel, op. cit., ii, 4-17. On the Hindu personification of time see Bloomfield, Religion of the Veda, p. 244 ff. In these and similar cases time, containing all things, is conceived of as the producer of all things, and the line between personification and hypostatization is not always clearly defined. For the influence of astrology on the deification of time, see Cumont, Les religions orientates parmi les peuples romains, chap. vii (on astrology and magic), p. 212 f., paragraph on new deities, and notes thereto. Hubert, "La representation du temps dans la religion et la magie" (in Melanges de l'histoire des religions), p. 190, distinguishes between the notation of favorable and unfavorable times (and the nonchronological character of mythical histories) and the calendar, which counts moments continuously.

[1207] On a supposed relation between the Amesha-spentas and the Vedic Adityas see Roth, in Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenlaendischen Gesellschaft, vi, 69 f.; Macdonell, Vedic Mythology, p. 44; Bloomfield, Religion of the Veda, p. 134 f. Cf. also L. H. Gray (on the derivation of the Amshaspands from material gods), in Archiv fuer Religionswissenschaft, vii (1904), 345.

[1208] Cf. J. B. Carter, De Deorum Romanorum Cognominibus.

[1209] Cf. Boissier, La religion romaine, i, 9.

[1210] Cf. Farnell, Cults of the Greek States, v, 442 ff.

[1211] They survive in later times to some extent in the form of patron and other local saints, Christian and Moslem.

[1212] Cf. Bloomfield's classification of deities (Religion of the Veda, p. 96) partly according to the degree of clearness with which characters belonging to physical nature appear: "translucent" gods are those whose origin in nature is obvious; "transparent" gods are half-personified nature objects.

[1213] Cf. Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii, 285 ff.

[1214] See above, Sec. 328 ff.

[1215] Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, p. 561 ff., and Northern Tribes of Central Australia, p. 182; Codrington, The Melanesians, p. 348; Roth, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxi, 125; Boas, The Kwakiutl, p. 410 f.

[1216] Cf. Batchelor, The Ainu (1901), p. 63 f.

[1217] Cf. Aston, Shinto, p. 35.

[1218] J. G. Mueller, Amerikanische Urreligionen, p. 58, and Index, s.v. Sonnendienst; Matthews, Navaho Legends, p. 33; Brinton, The Lenape, p. 65 (cf. his American Hero-Myths, p. 230); Gatschet, Migration Legend of the Creeks, p. 216 f.

[1219] Prescott, Mexico, i, 57 ff.; id., Peru, i, 92 ff.; E. J. Payne, History of the New World called America, i, 463, 550 ff.; C. R. Markham, The Incas of Peru, pp. 63, 67, 104 ff.

[1220] Records of the Past, first series, ii, 129 ff.; viii, 105 ff.

[1221] Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 71.

[1222] A. B. Ellis, Eẃe, p. 65.

[1223] Macdonell, Vedic Mythology, pp. 30, 32, 29, cf. p. 23; Bloomfield, Religion of the Veda, p. 86; Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 40 ff.

[1224] Yashi, x, 67.

[1225] Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 529 f.

[1226] Sec. 710.

[1227] W. Crooke, Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India, i, 12 ff.; Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, xviii, 373 ff. (the Lurka Coles); Hopkins, Religions of India (Dravidians, Kolarians); and for a modern, more civilized cult see Hopkins, op. cit., p. 480, note 3; Payne, History of the New World called America, i, 546 ff.

[1228] Turner, Samoa, Index, s.v. Moon; Matthews, Navaho Legends, pp. 86, 226.

[1229] See above, Sec. 328 ff.; cf. Tylor, Primitive Culture, i, 290 f.

[1230] Erman, Handbook of Egyptian Religion, pp. 88, 91.

[1231] Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 356 ff., 457.

[1232] De Groot, Religion of the Chinese, p. 5 (cf. J. Edkins, Religion in China, p. 105 ff.).

[1233] Hopkins, Religions of India, pp. 204, 266, 526.

[1234] Judg. v, 20; Isa. xxiv, 21 ff.; Job xxxviii, 7; Enoch xviii, 12; xxi, 1 (cf. Rev. ix, 1); cf. Neh. ix, 6. See Baudissin, Semitische Religionsgeschichte, i, 118 ff.; article "Astronomy and Astrology" in Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible.

[1235] 2 Kings xxiii, 5.

[1236] The corrupt and obscure passage Amos v, 26, cannot be cited as proving a cult of a deity Kaiwan (Masoretic text Kiyyun, Eng. R.V. "shrine") identical with Assyrian kaiwan or kaiman, the planet Saturn; there is no evidence that this planet was worshiped in Assyria.

[1237] Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, i, 660.

[1238] Cf. W. R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia, chap. vi, note 8; Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, loc. cit.

[1239] Spiegel, Eranische Alterthumskunde, ii, 70 ff.

[1240] Cf. Gruppe, Griechische Mythologie, Index, s.vv. Stern and Sternbilder.

[1241] Cumont, Les religions orientales parmi les peuples romains, chap. vii.

[1242] The Franciscan Fathers, Ethnologic Dictionary of the Navaho Language, Index, s.v.; Tylor, Primitive Culture, i, 293 f.

[1243] This is the full development of what had doubtless been felt vaguely from the beginning of religious history.

[1244] On Kronos and the Titans cf. article "Kronos" in Roscher's Lexikon.

[1245] Caelus (or Caelum) was sometimes called the son of AEther and Dies (Cicero, De Natura Deorum, iii, 17, 24).

[1246] Ed. Meyer, Geschichte des Alten Aegyptens (and cf. his Geschichte des Altertums, 2d ed.); Maspero, Dawn of Civilisation; Wiedemann, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians, and article "Religion of Egypt" in Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible, vol. v; Erman, Handbook of Egyptian Religion; Breasted, History of Egypt.

[1247] Breasted, op. cit., pp. 36, 46; id., Ancient Records of Egypt, under the various kings.

[1248] So Ed. Meyer, in article "Horos" in Roscher's Lexikon.

[1249] So Steindorff, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians, p. 26 f.

[1250] Cf. Steindorff, op. cit., p. 30 f.

[1251] Records of the Past, vi, 105 ff.; Steindorff, op. cit., p. 107 ff.

[1252] See, for example, the hymn in Records of the Past, viii, 105 ff.

[1253] He was, therefore, doubtless a god of fertility.

[1254] Records of the Past, ii, 129 ff. The names of other deities also were combined with that of Ra.

[1255] Egyptian civilization, as appears from recent explorations, began far back of Menes; cf. Ed. Meyer, Geschichte des Altertums, 2d ed., vol. i, part ii, Sec. 169.

[1256] Cf. Breasted, History of Egypt, p. 58; Frazer, Adonis Attis Osiris, bk. iii, chap. v.

[1257] Plutarch, Isis and Osiris, 18; Frazer, loc. cit.; Breasted, op. cit., p. 171 f.

[1258] His identification by some ancient theologians with the sun (Frazer, op. cit., p. 351 f.) or with the moon (Plutarch, op. cit., 41) is an illustration of the late tendency to identify any great god with a heavenly body.

[1259] Such is the wording given by Proclus. The form in Plutarch (Isis and Osiris, 9) is substantially the same: "I am all that has been and that is and that shall be, and my veil no mortal has lifted." See Roscher, Lexikon, article "Nit," col. 436. Doubts have been cast on the reality of the alleged inscription.

[1260] Maspero, Dawn of Civilization, p. 131.

[1261] So Ed. Meyer, in Roscher, Lexikon, article "Isis," col. 360.

[1262] Steindorff, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians, p. 107 ff.

[1263] See Drexler, in Roscher, Lexikon, article "Isis," col. 424 ff.

[1264] Barth, The Religions of India (Eng. tr.); Hopkins, Religions of India; Hillebrandt, Vedische Mythologie; Macdonell, Vedic Mythology, Bloomfield, Religion of the Veda. See the bibliography in Hopkins, op. cit., p. 573 ff.

[1265] Rig-Veda, viii, 41, 1. 7; i, 23, 5 (ṛta, 'order').

[1266] Rig-Veda, x, 121.

[1267] Early imagination apparently connected the future social life of gods and men not with the calm sky, but with the upper region that was the scene of constant and awful movements. But the ground of the choice of Indra as lord of heaven rests in the obscurity of primeval times.

[1268] For economic reasons a rain-god must generally be prominent and popular.

[1269] Sec. 703.

[1270] The history of this distinction between Dyaus and Varuna is lost in the obscurity of the beginnings.

[1271] This conception appears in germinal form in Rig-Veda, v, 84, vi, 515, but is not there or elsewhere developed.

[1272] Macdonell, Vedic Mythology, Sec. 20.

[1273] Cf. Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, article "Bengal," p. 491 ff., and the references there given to authorities.

[1274] One form of Caktism is described (in Hastings, loc. cit.) as being the general worship of the Mothers of the universe represented as the wives of the gods.

[1275] Rig-Veda, x, 64, 92, 135, 21, 52, 14.

[1276] Ibid., x, 14; ix, 113. However, this title is given to Varuna also (x, 14): Yama and Varuna are the two kings whom the dead man sees when he reaches heaven.

[1277] Ibid., x, 10, 13, 14 (cf. Atharva-Veda, xviii, 13).

[1278] Hillebrandt, Vedische Mythologie, i, 394 ff., but only for the Indo-Iranian period.

[1279] Rig-Veda, x, 64.

[1280] Cf. Mueller, Lectures on the Science of Language, second series, p. 534 f.; Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii, 314; Bergaigne, La religion vedique, ii, 94, note 3; Frobenius, Childhood of Man, chap. xxii. Cf. the Egyptian conception of Osiris (Maspero, Dawn of Civilisation, p. 195).

[1281] Matthews, Navaho Legends, p. 80; other examples are given in W. Ellis's Polynesian Researches, i, chap. v, and Tylor, op. cit., ii, 312 ff.

[1282] Ellis, loc. cit.; Dorsey, The Skidi Pawnee, p. 6.

[1283] Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 128 ff.; Macdonell, Vedic Mythology, Sec. 77; Bloomfield, Religion of the Veda, Index, s.v. Yama; and see the references in these works to other authors.

[1284] Jewish Encyclopaedia, articles "Adam" and "Adam Kadmon"; Koran, ii, 29 ff.; cf. 1 Cor. xv, 45 ff.

[1285] See above. Sec.Sec. 67 ff., 82.

[1286] On the relation between the two "first ancestors," Yama and Manu, cf. Bloomfield, op. cit., p. 140 f.

[1287] Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 379 ff.

[1288] Tiele-Gehrich, Geschichte der Religion im Altertum, vol. ii, part i.

[1289] See above, Sec. 703. Cf. articles by L. H. Mills in Journal of the American Oriental Society, vols. xx and xxi; L. H. Gray, in Archiv fuer Religionswissenschaft, vii (1904), p. 345.

[1290] Records of the Past, vols. v, ix.

[1291] Many lesser divine beings are mentioned by Spiegel (in Eranische Alterthumskunde, ii, 66 ff.); the advance to a real monotheistic cult was not achieved in Persia without many generations of struggle.

[1292] Cf. the similar process in the Arabian treatment of the jinn (W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, new ed., p. 122 f.).

[1293] Cf. A. V. Williams Jackson, Zoroaster, and his sketch in Geiger and Kuhn's Grundriss der iranischen Philologie; D. Menant, Zoroaster d'apres la tradition parsie, in Annales du Musee Guimet, vol xxx.

[1294] De Groot, Religion of the Chinese, chaps. i and iii; pp. 62 ff., 112 f., 129 f.

[1295] With this conception we may compare the similar principles in the Vedic and Mazdean systems.

[1296] The all-controlling order, as is remarked above, is that of the universe, which furnishes the norm for human life; but in the universe the grandest object is heaven.

[1297] Legge, in Sacred Books of the East, xxxix, xl; De Groot, Religious System of China, and his smaller works, Religion of the Chinese and Development of Religion in China.

[1298] W. E. Griffis, Religions of Japan; E. Buckley, in Saussaye, Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte, 2d ed.; Aston, Shinto; Knox, Development of Religion in Japan; Longford, The Story of Old Japan, chap. ii.

[1299] Whether the worship of ancestors, now so important an element of the national life, is native or borrowed is uncertain.

[1300] W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, new ed., p. 13 ff.

[1301] Compare Baethgen, Beitraege sur semitischen Religionsgeschichte, p. 262 f.

[1302] Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria; id., Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in Babylonia and Assyria; Jeremias, in Saussaye, Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte; Zimmern, article "Babylonians and Assyrians" in Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics; Ed. Meyer, Geschichte des Altertums, i, part ii, 2d book. In our survey of Babylonian deities the question of Sumerian influence may be left out of the account.

[1303] Compare Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 481; id., Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 23, 45, 121.

[1304] Ezek. viii, 16.

[1305] Jastrow, Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in Babylonia and Assyria, p. 82. The Babylonian and Assyrian triads were loosely constructed, and had, apparently, no significance for the local and royal cults. In this regard they differed from the Egyptian triads and enneads, which were highly elaborated and organised (Maspero, Dawn of Civilisation, p. 104 ff.; Breasted, History of Egypt, p. 56.; Steindorff, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians, p. 29).

[1306] Cf. article "Astarte" (by Ed. Meyer) in Roscher, Lexikon.

[1307] For the cuneiform material see Delitzsch, Assyrisches Handwoerterbuch, and, for various etymologies proposed for the name, Barton, Semitic Origins, p. 102 ff.; Haupt, in Journal of the American Oriental Society, xxviii, 112 ff.; Barton, ibid., xxxi, 355 ff. The frequent expression ilani u ishtarati, 'gods and goddesses,' suggests that the original sense of ishtar is simply 'a deity'; it is not probable that a proper name would become a common noun and have a plural; cf. the treatment of the title ilu, 'a god.'

[1308] As the title bel, 'lord,' became the proper name of a particular god, so the title ishtar, 'mistress,' 'lady,' might become the proper name of a particular goddess; in neither case is the detailed history of the process known to us.

[1309] They were probably local "lords"; in Moab Ashtar was combined with a deity called Kemosh, of whom nothing is known except that he was a Moabite national god (cf. G. F. Moore, article "Chemosh" in Encyclopaedia Biblica). For a different view of Ashtar and Athtar see Barton, Semitic Origins, Index, s.vv. Chemosh, Athtar; he regards these deities as transformations of the mother-goddess Ashtart.

[1310] Baethgen, Beitraege zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte, p. 66 ff.; Jeremias, "Syrien und Phoenizien" (in Saussaye's Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte).

[1311] Rawlinson, History of Phoenicia; Pietschmann, Geschichte der Phoenizier; Jeremias, op. cit.

[1312] Article "Esmun" in Roscher's Lexikon; article in Orientalische Studien Noeldeke gewidmet. Of the vague group known as the Kabiri (the 'great ones,' seven in number, with Eshmun as eighth) we have little information; on the diffusion of their cult in Grecian lands see Roscher, op. cit., article "Megaloi Theoi."

[1313] Wellhausen, Reste arabischen Heidentumes, pp. 21 ff., 45 ff.; W. R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia, chap. vi, note 8; chap. viii, note 2; article "Dusares" in the Anthropological Essays presented to F. W. Putnam.

[1314] Mordmann, Himyarische Inschriften; Mordmann and Mueller, Sabaeische Denkmaeler; Barton, Semitic Origins, p. 127 ff.

[1315] His original seat is uncertain; by some scholars he is regarded as an old North Semitic deity, but the grounds for this view are not convincing. The occurrences of the name outside of the Hebrew region throw little or no light on his origin. Cf. Delitzsch, Paradies; Baudissin, Studien sur semitischen Religionsgeschichte; Barton, Semitic Origins, chap. vii.

[1316] On his position in the seventh century cf. W. F. Bade, in Transactions of the American Philological Association, 1908.

[1317] For the Old Testament statements see C. G. Montefiore, Origin and Growth of Religion as illustrated by the Religion of the Ancient Hebrews (Hibbert Lectures, 1892), Index, s.v. Yahweh.

[1318] He was thus supreme for the particular tribe, though not universal; cf. article "Arabs (Ancient)" in Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics.

[1319] Farnell, Cults of the Greek States; Gruppe, Griechische Mythologie; articles on the various deities in Roscher's Lexikon.

[1320] Formally the names Dyaus, Zeus, and Ju (in Jupiter) are identical; and to these may probably be added the Teutonic Tiu (Tyr).

[1321] In early thought the sky (like the earth) is in itself a powerful thing, a personality, and the god who is later supposed to inhabit and control it is a definite figure, like, for example, a tree-god.

[1322] From the ancient notices of Kronos it is hardly possible to fix definitely the relation between him and Zeus. It is probable that he represents an older cult that was largely displaced by that of Zeus. The custom of human sacrifice in his cult led to the identification of him with the Phoenician (Carthaginian) Melek (Moloch), and his name has been interpreted (from [Greek: kraino]) as meaning 'king' (= melek); but this resemblance does not prove a Semitic origin for him. Whether his role as king of the Age of Gold was anything more than a late construction is not clear.

[1323] The etymology of his name is doubtful.

[1324] On his titles "earth-shaker" and "earth-upholder" cf. Gruppe, Griechische Mythologie p. 1139, note 2.

[1325] Possibly he was originally the ocean itself conceived of as a living and powerful thing, as Zeus (and so Varuna and Ahura Mazda) was originally the physical sky; Okeanos is a great god (Iliad, xiv, 201; Hesiod, Theogony, 133).

[1326] By many writers he is considered to have been originally a wind-god; but wind, though it might suggest swiftness (and, with some forcing, thievishness), cannot account for his other endowments.

[1327] Gen. xxx, 37 ff.; xxxi, 9; Wellhausen, Reste arabischen Heidentumes, p. 196; Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, ii, 17-19.

[1328] Odyssey, xv, 319 f. Lang lays too much stress on this fact (Myth, Ritual, and Religion, 1st ed., ii, 257).

[1329] Gruppe (Griechische Mythologie, p. 1384) thinks (on grounds not clear) that he was originally of Crete.

[1330] So Gruppe, op. cit.

[1331] Homeric Hymn to Pan.

[1332] Servius on Vergil, Eclogue ii, 31.

[1333] Roscher, in Lexikon, article "Pan," col. 1405, and in Festschrift fuer Joh. Overbeck, p. 56 ff. On the influence of the Egyptian cult of the goat-god of Mendes on the conception of Pan see Roscher, Lexikon, article "Pan," cols. 1373, 1382.

[1334] Mannhardt, Antike Wald und Feldkulte, p. 135 f.; Roscher, op. cit., col. 1406; Farnell, Cults of the Greek States, v, 431, and many others. To this etymology Gruppe (op. cit., p. 1385) objects that such a name for a deity is not probable for primitive savage times; he offers nothing in its place.

[1335] Plutarch, De Defectu Oraculorum, 17; Reinach, Orpheus (Eng. tr.), p. 41.

[1336] Pindar, ed. W. Christ, Fragments, 95 ff.

[1337] Theogony, 922 f.

[1338] Euripides, Bacchae, 131 f. (cf. AEschylus, The Seven against Thebes, 541; Porphyry, De Abstinentia, Sec. 13).

[1339] Nili Opera, p. 27; Smith, Religion of the Semites, 2d ed., p., 338 f.; Spencer, Principles of Sociology, i, 288.

[1340] See above, Sec. 384 ff.

[1341] Iliad, xiv, 325.

[1342] Perhaps the description of him in the Iliad (loc. cit.) as "a joy to mortals" refers to wine; cf. Hesiod, Theogony, 941, where he is called the "bright joyous one."

[1343] As, for example, the Arabian clan god Dusares (Dhu ash-Shara), carried by the Nabateans northward, was brought into relation with the viticulture of that region. Cf. above, Sec. 764.

[1344] On this point cf. Miss J. Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion, p. 366.

[1345] See above, Sec. 680 f.

[1346] Iliad, xv, 184 ff.; Hesiod, Theogony, 453 ff.

[1347] He is not always in mythological constructions distinct from Zeus—in Iliad, ix, 457, it is Zeus Katachthonios who is lord below.

[1348] AEschylus, Prometheus Bound, 806.

[1349] Cf. the development of Osiris (above, Sec. 728).

[1350] Cf. Greek Horkos, and the oath by the Styx.

[1351] Cf. Miss Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion, chap. vi.

[1352] Cf. Roscher, Lexikon, s.v.; Miss Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion, p. 271 ff.

[1353] Compare Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, p. 320 ff.; Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., ii, 176 ff.

[1354] Compare Miss Harrison, op. cit., p. 271 ff.

[1355] By her name she is identified with the hearth, as similarly Zeus is identified with the sky. The hearth was the center of the home, and had wide cultic significance. The name Hestia embodies not the divinization of a concrete object, but the recognition of the divine person presiding over the object in question.

[1356] Roscher, Lexikon; Farnell, Cults of the Greek States.

[1357] Odyssey, xx, 71.

[1358] The representation of her as the slayer of women with her "kindly arrows" (Odyssey, xx, 67), that is, by an easy death, is in keeping with the early idea that death was caused by some supernatural Power; so Apollo slays (Iliad, xxiv, 759).

[1359] Leto is a Titaness (Hesiod, Theogony, 404 ff.), an old local goddess, naturally a patron of children, and so of similar nature with Artemis, with whom she was often joined in worship. Her connection with Apollo arose possibly from a collocation of her cult with his in some place; in such collocations the goddess would become, in mythological constructions, the mother, sister, or wife of the god. This relation once established, stories explaining it would spring up as a matter of course. The fact that she was later identified with the Asian Great Mother indicates that she also had a universal character.

[1360] Hesiod, Theogony, 411 ff.

[1361] She was, perhaps, an underground deity, or the product of the fusion of two deities, one of whom was chthonic.

[1362] Farnell, Cults of the Greek States; Roscher, Lexikon.

[1363] Thus the Greeks endeavored to embody in divine figures all sides of family life. The division of functions between Hera, Hestia, and Athene is clear.

[1364] As, for example, 'fragile' and 'frail,' 'intension' and 'intention,' 'providential' and 'prudential,' and many other groups of this sort.

[1365] For the view that she was a native AEgean deity see Farnell, Greece and Babylon, p. 97. Later Semitic influences, in any case, must be assumed.

[1366] No satisfactory explanation of the name Aphrodite has as yet been offered.

[1367] See above, Sec. 762.

[1368] Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite; Euripides, Medea, 835 ff.; Lucretius. Ishtar also is the mother of all things, but the idea is not developed by the Semites.

[1369] Compare the details given in J. Rosenbaum's Geschichte der Lustseuche im Alterume.

[1370] Aust, Religion der Roemer; Fowler, Roman Festivals; id. The Religious Experience of the Roman People; articles in Roscher's Lexikon; Mommsen, History of Rome (Eng. tr.), bk. i, chap. xii.

[1371] Sec. 702 ff.

[1372] Hence a confusion of names that appears even to-day, and in books otherwise careful, as, for example, in the Bohn translations of Greek works, in which the Greek deities are throughout called by Latin names.

[1373] So written in good manuscripts. The "piter" probably denotes fatherly protection, though it may have meant originally physical paternity. On this point cf. W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, lecture ii, and the various stories of the birth of Jupiter's children.

[1374] On the significance of the doublefaced Janus (Janus Geminus) and of the ancient usage of opening the gates of his temple in time of war and closing them in time of peace, see article "Janus" in Roscher's Lexikon, col. 18 ff.

[1375] With his function as door-god compare the functions of other Roman door-gods, of Vesta, and of Hindu and other house-deities.

[1376] Varro, De Lingua Latina, v, 85; Cato, De Agri Cultura, 141.

[1377] So Roscher and others.

[1378] Cf. Fowler, Roman Festivals, p. 35.

[1379] The cult of Mars was widely diffused in Italy and, later, elsewhere. His original seat is uncertain. He was, perhaps, the tribal god of a conquering people.

[1380] Cf. also the Ancillarum Feriae (July 7).

[1381] See above, Sec. 217 ff.

[1382] Vergil, Eclogues, iv, 6. Cf. above, Sec. 768, note (Kronos).

[1383] Aust, Religion der Roemer; Farnell, Cults of the Greek States; Fowler, Roman Festivals; articles in Roscher's Lexikon.

[1384] She appears to have been a Greek deity adopted by the Romans.

[1385] See above, Sec. 43.

[1386] Compare the Greek Hestia and the Hindu house-goddess (Hopkins, Religions of India, pp. 374, 530).

[1387] On the Arician Diana see Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., i, 230 f.

[1388] Or, better, from deiā.

[1389] The prevailing view is that the grove is an opened place into which light enters, and it is thus distinguished from the dark and gloomy forest. The verbs nitere, nitescere, virere, are used by Ovid and other writers to describe this gleaming of leaves, plants, trees, groves, and of the earth.

[1390] An early divine name expressive of intellectual power is not probable.

[1391] On her origin cf. Wissowa, Religion der Roemer, p. 203 ff.

[1392] Varro, De Re Rustica, i, 1.

[1393] See above, Sec. 803.

[1394] In favor of Ardea, twenty miles south of Rome, as her original seat, cf. Wissowa, Religion der Roemer, p. 235.

[1395] Her identification with the Greek goddess was perhaps furthered by a supposed relation between her name and the noun venustas, 'grace, beauty,' the special quality of Aphrodite. If that was the original sense of 'Venus,' it could hardly have indicated an aesthetic perception of nature (Wissowa, op. cit.); such a designation would be foreign to early ways of naming deities. Whether the stem van might mean 'general excellence' (here agricultural) is uncertain; on the Greek epithets 'Kallisto,' 'Kalliste,' and so forth, cf. Gruppe, Griechische Mythologie, p. 1270 f. The name 'Venus,' if connected with the root of venerari, might mean simply 'a revered object,' a deity; cf. Bona Dea and Ceres (creator).

[1396] Roscher's Lexikon, s.v. "Fortuna," col. 1518; Fowler, Roman Festivals, p. 68. On licentious cults of Venus cf. J. Rosenbaum, Geschichte der Lustseuche im Altertume.

[1397] See above, Sec. 671.

[1398] Articles in Roscher, Lexikon, and in Orientalische Studien Noeldeke gewidmet.

[1399] Inscriptions of Rammannirari and Nebuchadrezzar (Birs Nimrud); Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, Index, s.v.; id., Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in Babylonia and Assyria, Index, s.v. Adad.

[1400] There is no separate god of Sheol in the Old Testament. On Eve as such a deity see Lidzbarski, Ephmeris, i, 26; cf. Cook, North Semitic Inscriptions, 135.

[1401] Gen. vi, 4, cf. Ezek. xxxii, 27; Philo of Byblos; Harper, Assyrian and Babylonian Literature.

[1402] Isa. lxiii, 16 ("God is our father, though Abraham and Israel do not acknowledge us") is regarded by some commentators as pointing to ancestor-worship. It seems, however, to be nothing more than the complaint of persons who were disowned by the community or by the leaders.

[1403] Sec. 341 ff.

[1404] Jastrow, Religions of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 168: "a pantheon of demons."

[1405] Isa. xxxiv, 14.

[1406] Satan is one of the Elohim-beings, old gods subordinated to Yahweh, and Azazel, if his name contains the divine title el, must be put into this class.

[1407] Wisdom of Solomon, ii, 24.

[1408] Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion, chap. v. On Hindu demons see Hopkins, Religions of India, Index, s.v. Devils.

[1409] Sec.Sec. 698 ff., 398 ff.

[1410] See below, Chapter vii. Here, again, Mazdaism forms an exception, resembling the Semitic scheme rather than the Hindu.

[1411] A partial exception is found in the comparatively late movement from the south of Arabia over into Africa (Abessinia, Ethiopia).

[1412] On the characteristics of the various great religions see Hegel, Religionsphilosphe; Santayana, Reason in Religion (vol. iii of The Life of Reason); E. Caird, Evolution of Religion; R. B. Perry, Approach to Philosophy; S. Johnson, Oriental Religions; J. F. Clarke, Ten Great Religions; S. Reinach, Orpheus. See below, Chapter ix.

[1413] But a certain substratum is usually assumed, no attempt being made to account for its existence.

[1414] Cf. Tylor, Primitive Culture, chaps. viii-x; Jastrow, Study of Religion, Index, s.vv. Myth, Mythology; Lang, Custom and Myth, and Myth, Ritual, and Religion; articles "Mythologie" in La Grande Encyclopedie, and "Mythology" in Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th ed.

[1415] Belief in miracles, which is found in some higher religions, may here be left out of the account as belonging in a separate category.

[1416] Lang, Myth, Ritual, and Religion, chaps. ii-iv.

[1417] So with the theory of universal borrowing from one center advocated by Stucken (Astralmythen), Winckler (Himmels- und Weltensbild der Babylonier als Grundlage der Weltanschauung und Mythologle aller Voelker), Jeremias (Das Alte Testament im Lichte des Alten Orients), Jensen (Das Gilgamesch Epos), and others.

[1418] Cf. article "Cosmogony and Cosmology" in Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics.

[1419] Sec. 225 ff.

[1420] Catapatha Brahmana, xi, 1, 6, 1.

[1421] R. B. Dixon, The Northern Maidu, p. 335 f.

[1422] Spiegel (Eranische Alterthumskunde, ii, 144) ascribes to the Eranians the conception of creation out of nothing. See also the Hawaiian representation of the origin of all things from the primeval void, and the orderly sequence of the various forms of life.

[1423] A. Lang, Myth, Ritual, and Religion chap. vi ff.

[1424] See, for example, the two accounts of creation in the Book of Genesis. In the earlier account (chap. ii) the procedure of Yahweh is mechanical, and things do not turn out as he intended; in the later account (chap. i) there is no mention of a process—it is the divine word that calls the world into being.

[1425] Dixon, The Northern Maidu, p. 263.

[1426] See R. Andree, Die Flutsagen; article "Flood" in Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible.

[1427] Matthews, Navaho Legends, p. 37; cf. Dorsey, The Skidi Pawnee, p. 14 ff.

[1428] Grey, Polynesian Mythology, p. 57 f.; cf. Tylor, Primitive Culture, i, 335.

[1429] Callaway, The Amazulu, pp. 3, 4, 100, 138.

[1430] Gen. v; vi, 4; Herodotus, iii, 23; Roscher, Lexikon, s.v. Giganten; cf. Tylor, op. cit., i, 385 ff.; Brinton, American Hero-Myths, p. 88.

[1431] Brinton, Religions of Primitive Peoples, p. 126 f.; Maspero, Dawn, p. 158; Gen. ii, iii; Avesta, Vendidad, Fargard ii; Spiegel, Eranische Alterthumskunde, i, 463 ff.; Windischmann, Zoroastrische Studien, p. 19 ff.; Hopkins, in Journal of the American Oriental Society (September, 1910), pp. 362, 366; article "Hesperiden" in Roscher's Lexikon; commentaries of Kalisch, Dillmann, Driver, Skinner, and others on Gen. ii, iii; Jewish Encyclopaedia, s.v. Paradise; Delitzsch, Wo lag das Paradies? On the character of the abode of the Babylonian Parnapishtim see Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 488, 496.

[1432] 2 Pet. iii, 7, contrast with the old destruction by water; Hindu eschatology.

[1433] The Norse myth of "the twilight of the gods" has perhaps been colored, in its latest form, by Christian eschatology.

[1434] Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 421; Spiegel, Eranische Alterthumskunde, ii, 161; H. Warren, Buddhism in Translations, p. 315 ff.

[1435] Matthews, Navaho Legends, p. 63 ff.

[1436] Hartland, Primitive Paternity, chap. i.

[1437] Grey, Polynesian Mythology, chap. i.

[1438] Maspero, Dawn, p. 128 f.

[1439] Aitareya Brahmana, iv, 27.

[1440] Hollis, The Masai, p. 279; cf. Turner, Samoa, p. 198.

[1441] Gruppe, Griechische Culte und Mythen. Cf. the birth-myth in Matthews, Navaho Legends, p. 71.

[1442] So Heracles, Achilles, AEneas, and the heroes mentioned in Gen. vi, 4.

[1443] Gen. ii, 7.

[1444] So in Polynesia, North America, China, ancient Greece, and among the Hebrews.

[1445] As, for example, the Hebrews (Deut. xxxii, 8 f.)

[1446] Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, p. 119 ff.; Taylor, New Zealand, chap. xiv and p. 325; Turner, Samoa, p. 3 ff.; J. G. Mueller, Geschichte der amerikanischen Urreligionen, pp. 33 ff., 179 ff., Sec. 61.

[1447] So the Hindu Manu (man), or Father Manu (Rig-Veda, ii, 33, 13), is the progenitor of the human race. Cf. the "first man," Yama. For the Old-Persian genealogical scheme see Spiegel, Eranische Alterthumskunde, i, 473, 500 ff.

[1448] Deut. xxxii.

[1449] Codrington, The Melanesians, p. 156 ff.; Reville, Native Religions of Mexico and Peru, p. 64; Brinton, Myths of the New World, p. 264, and American Hero-Myths, pp. 186 f., 195 ff.; cf. R. B. Brehm, Das Inka-Reich, p. 24 ff.

[1450] Jastrow, Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in Babylonia and Assyria, p. 89.

[1451] Gen. iv, 16 ff.

[1452] Gen. vi, 1, 2, 4 (verse 3 is an interpolation).

[1453] Herodotus, v, 57 f.; Roscher, Lexikon, s.v. Kadmos.

[1454] Rig-Veda, i, 93, 6.

[1455] Hesiod, Works and Days, 49 ff.

[1456] In the story in Genesis (ii, 17; iii, 5, 22-24) there is a trace of such jealousy; and it is by violation of the command of the deity that man attains the knowledge of good and evil.

[1457] L. Frobenius, Childhood of Man, chap. xxv (and cf. chap. xxvi).

[1458] Chapter iii.

[1459] Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, p. 394 ff.

[1460] See above, Sec. 153 ff.

[1461] Gen. xvii.

[1462] Ex. iv, 24-26; Josh. v, 2 ff.

[1463] W. Matthews, Navaho Legends, p. 40 ff.; J. W. Fewkes, The Winter Solstice Ceremony at Walpi.

[1464] Reville, Native Religions of Mexico and Peru (Hibbert Lectures), pp. 94 f., 110 (cf. ib., p. 224 f., on Peruvian dances). See above, Sec. 109, note 6.

[1465] Gen. xxxii, 24 ff.

[1466] Fowler, Roman Festivals, p. 38.

[1467] Fowler, op. cit., p. 99 ff.; for another view see Roscher, Lexikon, article "Maia II"; cf. Wissowa, Religion der Roemer, p. 185.

[1468] Augustine, De Civitate Dei, 18, 9.

[1469] Judg. xi, 30 ff.

[1470] Plutarch, Theseus, 27.

[1471] F. B. Jevons, Introduction to the History of Religion, chap. xxiii f.; Miss J. E. Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion, chap. x; K. H. E. de Jong, Das antike Mysterienwesen, pp. 14, 16, 18; Preller, "Eleusinia" in Pauly's Realencyclopaedie; Reitzenstein, Hellenistische Mysterienreligion.

[1472] In Babylonia such roles are ascribed to Ea and Marduk (Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 137, 139, 276).

[1473] See above, Sec. 844 f.; W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, 2d ed., pp. 18, 173 ff., Records of the Past, vi, 108.

[1474] The myths connected with Quetzalcoatl (see Brinton, American Hero-Myths, and L. Spence, Mythologies of Ancient Mexico and Peru) do not relate mostly to the movements and deeds of the sun or the winds, but arose from his character as local deity with universal powers. Social and political events were woven into them. His contest with Tezcatlipoca seems to reflect the struggle between two tribes; his defeat signifies the victory of the conquering tribe, and the expectation of his return (by which the invading Spaniards, it is said, profited) was based on the political hope of his people. Cf. similar expectations among other peoples.

[1475] Gen. xxii.

[1476] B. Beer, Leben Abraham's nach Auffassung der juedischen Sage, p. 5 and note 34; p. 102, note 30.

[1477] Turner, Samoa, Index.

[1478] Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, chap. xviii.

[1479] Pausanias, Description of Greece, passim.

[1480] Semitic and other examples are given in W. R. Smith's Religion of the Semites, p. 173 ff.

[1481] On the complicated myth of Phaethon see the article in Roscher's Lexikon.

[1482] Isa. xxiv, 21; Tylor, Primitive Culture, i, 356 ff.

[1483] The Babylonians were the great astronomers and astrologers of antiquity, but their eminence in this regard belongs to their later period. After the fall of the later Babylonian empire (B.C. 539) the term 'Chaldean' became a synonym of 'astrologer' (so in the Book of Daniel, B.C. 165-164); cf. Jastrow, Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in Babylonia and Assyria, p. 259 f.

[1484] Brinton, Myths of the New World, passim; Hartland, Primitive Paternity, i, 149 f.; Grey, Polynesian Mythology, p. 1 ff.; Hickson, Northern Celebes; Lane, Arabian Nights, i, 30 ff.; Saussaye, Religion of the Teutons, p. 216 f.; Iliad, xxiii, 198 ff.; Tylor, Primitive Culture, i, 360 ff.; Ratzel, History of Mankind (Eng. tr.), passim.

[1485] Iliad, xxiii, 200 f. For some wind-myths see Roscher, Lexikon, articles "Boreaden," "Boreas," "Harpyia." Cf. the Maori myths given in R. Taylor's New Zealand, chap. vi, and for Navaho winds see Matthews, Navaho Legends, p. 226, note 75.

[1486] As in Goldziher's Hebrew Mythology (Eng. tr.), a view later abandoned by the author.

[1487] By Mannhardt, in Mythologische Forschungen, p. 224 ff.; Frazer, in Golden Bough, 2d ed. (see Index, s.v. Corn); and others.

[1488] Cf. Frazer, op. cit., chap. iii, Sec. 16 f.; Roscher, Lexikon, articles "Kybele," "Attis," "Persephone," "Ceres"; and Farnell, Cults of the Greek States.

[1489] See above, Sec. 678.

[1490] Gen. i, 2 f.

[1491] Dan. ii, 22; Rev. xxi, 23.

[1492] This is true even in the case of abstract deities; see above, Sec.Sec. 696, 702 ff.

[1493] A myth is a purely imaginative explanation of phenomena; a legend rests on facts, but the facts are distorted. The two terms are often confused the one with the other.

[1494] Some peculiar combinations appear in the figures of Semiramis and the Kuretes and the Korybantes; see the articles in Roscher's Lexikon under these headings.

[1495] Cf. Gomme, Folklore as an Historical Science; Van Gennep, La formation des legendes.

[1496] See the various folk-lore journals; W. W. Newell, article "Folk-lore" in Johnson's Universal Cyclopaedia; cf. Gomme, op. cit., and Sec. 881 below.

[1497] So in the cases of the Australian ancestors, the Polynesian, Teutonic, Finnic, Slavic, Greek, Phrygian, and other heroes and gods, the Hebrew patriarchs, and many other such figures.

[1498] See above, Sec. 859.

[1499] See above, Sec. 649.

[1500] Such were the Greek rhapsodists (Mueller and Donaldson, History of the Literature of Ancient Greece, i, 33 ff.), and probably the Hebrew mashalists (Numb. xxi, 27, Eng. tr., "they that speak in proverbs"). Such reciters are found in India at the present day.

[1501] On the value of myths for religious instruction cf. Schultz, Old Testament Theology, Eng. tr. (of 4th German ed.), i, chap. ii.

[1502] Geffcken, article "Allegory" in Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics.

[1503] Phaedrus, 229; Cratylus, 406 f.; Republic 378.

[1504] Cf. Mueller and Donaldson, History of the Literature of Ancient Greece, chap. xxvi.

[1505] 1 Cor. ix, 9 f.; x, 1-4; Gal. iv, 24 ff.; Heb. vii, 2; Origen, Augustine, Thomas Aquinas, and commentators generally up to the sixteenth century and later.

[1506] Origine de tous les cultes ou religion universelle (1794).

[1507] Science of Language, 2d series; cf. his Hibbert and Gifford lectures.

[1508] It is elaborated in G. W. Cox's Mythology of the Aryan Nations.

[1509] Op. cit. Sec. 864. Cf. article "Panbabylonianism" in Harvard Theological Review for January, 1910.

[1510] Astralmythen der Hebraeer, Babylonier und Aegypter (1896-1907).

[1511] So in folk-tales the same motif appears in a hundred different settings; but this is not necessarily a sign of borrowing.

[1512] Op. cit., p. 190.

[1513] See above, Sec. 826, note.

[1514] No well-defined Arabian myths are known.

[1515] Most of the Old Testament mythical material has been worked over by Hebrew monotheistic editors.

[1516] P. Jensen, Das Gilgamesch Epos in der Weltliteratur.

[1517] Cf. article "Panbabylonianism" cited in Sec. 866, note.

[1518] As, for example, those of New Zealand, Babylonia, and Greece.

[1519] Cf. Keightley, Fairy Mythology, 2d ed., p. 14 f.

[1520] Bacon, Wisdom of the Ancients; in Biblical exposition many recent writers.

[1521] See above, Sec. 864 ff.; cf. Jastrow, Study of Religion, p. 28 ff.

[1522] Symbolik und Mythologie der alten Voelker (1810-1812).

[1523] Antisymbolik (1824-1826).

[1524] Buttmann, Welcker, Lobeck, and others.

[1525] Prolegomena zu einer wissenschaftlichen Mythologie (1825).

[1526] See above, Sec. 865.

[1527] See above, Sec. 359. Cf. Grant Allen, The Evolution of the Idea of God.

[1528] Darwin and Spencer (evolution), Bastian (ethnology), and others.

[1529] In his Early History of Mankind and Primitive Culture. Cf. C. de Brosses (Du culte des dieux fetiches, 1760), who expressed a similar view.

[1530] A. Lang, Custom and Myth and Myth, Ritual, and Religion, and other works; Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d and 3d edd.; W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites; and others.

[1531] Mannhardt, Wald- und Feldkulte and Mythologische Forschungen.

[1532] See the bibliography at the end of this book.

[1533] Beginnings for such a survey have been made in the Teutonic, American, and some other areas.

[1534] Confucianism, if it can be called a religion, is an exception.

[1535] See the bibliographies in Johnson's Universal Cyclopaedia, article "Fairy-lore," and La Grande Encyclopedie, article "Fee"; Maury, Croyances et legendes du moyen age, new ed.; Hartland, The Science of Fairy-tales.

[1536] Tylor, Primitive Culture, Index, s.v. Magic; Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., Index, do.; id., Early History of the Kingship, Index, do.; Hobhouse, Morals in Evolution, Index, do.; Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, Index, do.; S. Reinach, Orpheus, Index, do.; Hubert and Mauss, in Annee sociologique, vii; Marett, Threshold of Religion; articles "Magie" in La Grande Encyclopedie and "Magic" in Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th ed.; article "Magia" in Daremberg and Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiquites grecques et romaines.

[1537] Examples are cited in the works mentioned above.

[1538] On the view that many quasi-magical acts are spontaneous reactions of the man to his environment see I. King, Development of Religion, chap. vii. According to this view the thought suggests the act. The warrior, thinking of his enemy, instinctively makes the motion of hurling something at him (as a modern man shakes his fist at an absent foe), and such an act, a part of the excitation to combat, is believed to be efficacious.

[1539] Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, s.v. The Evil Eye.

[1540] On mana see above, Sec. 231 ff. Though the theory of mana was necessarily vague, the thing itself was quite definite.

[1541] Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 85.

[1542] Isis and Osiris, 73.

[1543] Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., i, 154 ff.

[1544] Sec. 6 f.

[1545] Cf. Lord Avebury, Marriage, Totemism, and Religion, p. 135.

[1546] Alexander, Short History of the Hawaiian People.

[1547] Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 263.

[1548] Matthews, Navaho Legends, p. 36.

[1549] Cf. W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, lecture iii.

[1550] Teit, Thompson River Indians, p. 53 f.

[1551] 1 Cor. x, 20 f.

[1552] Certain ceremonies of the higher religions produce effects that must be regarded as magical.

[1553] Lubbock, Origin of Civilization, p. 188. Similar logic appears in the story of the origin of Goodwin Sands, told by Bishop Latimer (in a sermon preached before Edward VI). An old man, being asked what he thought was the cause of the Sands, replied that he had lived near there, man and boy, fourscore years, and before the neighboring steeple was built there was no Sands, and therefore his opinion was that the steeple was the cause of the Sands.

[1554] So among the old Hebrews, according to 1 Sam. xxviii, 9. For Rome cf. Fowler, Religious Experience of the Roman People, lecture iii.

[1555] Cf. above, Sec. 889.

[1556] In some cases the priest is a magician (Grey, Polynesian Mythology, p. 114 ff.)—he acts as the mouthpiece of a god, and in sympathy with the god. Cf. Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, ii, 658. On a connection between the magician and the poet see Goldziher, in Proceedings of the Tenth International Congress of Orientalists.

[1557] Cf. above, Sec. 889.

[1558] Dixon, The Northern Maidu, p. 267 f.; id., The Shasta, 471 ff.

[1559] Ellis, Tshi, p. 120.

[1560] Dixon, The Shasta, loc. cit.; Miss Fletcher, Indian Ceremonies, p. 280.

[1561] M. Kingsley, Studies, p. 136.

[1562] Grey, Polynesian Mythology, p. 278.

[1563] Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 267 f.

[1564] 1 Sam. xxviii.

[1565] Apuleius, Metamorphoses, bk. ii f.

[1566] Sura cxiii.

[1567] Women, however, are sometimes shamans in such tribes, as in the California Shasta (while in the neighboring Maidu they are commonly men). See Dixon, The Shasta, p. 471; The Northern Maidu, p. 267 f.

[1568] Tiele, Elements of the Science of Religion, ii, 140; cf. Spiegel, Eranische Alterthumskunde, iii, 564 f., 587 f.; Jackson, in Geiger and Kuhn's Grundriss der iranischen Philologie, ii, 630, 671, 692.

[1569] Sophocles, OEdipus Tyrannus, 387; Euripides, Orestes, 1498. Hence the term 'magic' as the designation of a certain form of procedure.

[1570] So in the Thousand and One Nights, passim.

[1571] Tylor, Primitive Culture, i, 113 ff.; Castren, Finnische Mythologie, pp. 186 ff., 229; Skeat, Malay Magic, p. 162; Rivers, The Todas, p. 263; Crooke, Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India, ii, 283 ff. For modern usages see Wuttke, Der deutsche Volksaberglaube der Gegenwart, 2d ed., pp. 131, 241.

[1572] A magician, as a man of special social prominence and of extraordinary power over the forces of the world, becomes, in some cases, the political head of his community (as a priest sometimes has a like position). Where the divinization of men is practiced, the magician may be recognized as a god. But no general rule can be laid down. The office of king had its own political development, and a god was the natural product of the reflection of a community. The elevation of the magician to high political or ecclesiastical position was dependent on peculiar circumstances and may be called sporadic. Cf. Frazer, Early History of the Kingship, p. 107 ff. and lecture v.

[1573] Cf. Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., Index, s.v. Kings.

[1574] See Lord Avebury, Marriage, Totemism, and Religion, chap. iv.

[1575] The plant or animal may be a totem, but its magical power is not derived from its totemic character. Magical potency may dwell in nontotemic objects; in magical ceremonies connected with totems (as in Australia) it is the ceremony rather than the totem that is efficacious. Cf. Marett, Threshold of Religion, p. 22 f.

[1576] Cf. Marett, "From spell to prayer," in his Threshold of Religion, p. 33 ff.

[1577] Cf. J. H. King, The Supernatural, Index, s.v. Charm; Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii, 148; article "Charms and Amulets" in Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics.

[1578] Eng. tr. by Bloomfield, in Sacred Books of the East.

[1579] L. W. King, Babylonian Magic and Sorcery.

[1580] Records of the Past, first series, vols. ii, vi; Griffith, article "Egyptian Literature" in Library of the World's Best Literature; Maspero, Dawn of Civilization, p. 212 ff.; Breasted, History of Egypt, Index, s.v. Magic.

[1581] Cf. Macdonald, Religious Attitude and Life in Islam, Index, s.v. Magic.

[1582] Daremberg and Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiquites grecques et romaines, article "Magia"; cf. articles "Medeia" and "Kirke" in Roscher's Lexikon.

[1583] Apuleius, Metamorphoses; Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, ii, 535 ff.; Friedlaender, Roman Life and Manners under the Early Empire (Eng. tr.), i, 260 f.; Fowler, The Religious Experience of the Roman People, p. 57 ff.; cf. Cumont, Astrology and Religion among the Greeks and Romans, Index, s.v. Magic.

[1584] 1 Sam. xxviii; Isa. viii, 19.

[1585] In the later Judaism Solomon is the great master of magic; see the story of the Queen of Sheba in the Second Esther Targum; Baring-Gould, Legends of Old Testament Characters. For the Arabian legends of Solomon (borrowed from the Jews) see Koran, sura xxxviii; History of Bilkis, Queen of Sheba, compiled from various Arabic sources, in Socin's Arabic Grammar (Eng. tr., 1885).

[1586] Lecky, History of the Rise and Influence of the Spirit of Rationalism in Europe; Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, Index, s.vv. Magic and Witches.

[1587] These Powers, including mana, may all be called "divine" as distinguished from the purely "human."

[1588] A superhuman phenomenon, if produced by a deity, is called a "miracle," and is held to be beneficent; if produced by a nontheistic process, it is called "magical," and is looked at doubtfully.

[1589] Cf. Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, ii, 696; Hobhouse, Morals in Evolution, Index, s.v. Magic and Morals.

[1590] Ultimately, in early religious theory, all objects are divine or abodes or incarnations of divine beings and capable of independent action; sometimes, doubtless, the recognition of the natural character of a thing (as of courage and other qualities in animals) coalesces with the belief in its guiding power.

[1591] Cf. article "Magia" in Daremberg and Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiquites grecques et romaines, p. 1496.

[1592] Rivers, The Todas, p. 254.

[1593] Cf. article "Bantu" in Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, p. 358.

[1594] 1 Sam. x, 5; xix, 24.

[1595] Breasted, History of Egypt, p. 513 f. The envoy not only failed to procure cedar for the sacred barge of Amon but was ordered by the prince to leave the city; the youth intervened successfully (ca. 1100 B.C.).

[1596] So Teiresias (Odyssey, x, 492 ff.; OEdipus Tyrannus, 92) and Samuel (1 Sam. ix).

[1597] Mic. i, 8; cf. 2 Kings iii, 15 (music as a preliminary condition of inspiration).

[1598] As among the Hebrews, the Greeks, and other ancient peoples.

[1599] Formerly, says Cicero (De Divinatione, i, 16), almost nothing of moment, or even in private affairs, was undertaken without an augury.