[135] Matthews, Navaho Legends, p. 185 f.; Teit, Thompson River Indians, p. 78.

[136] Turner, Samoa, p. 257; Lawes (on New Guinea), in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, viii, 371; Callaway, Zulu Nursery Tales, p. 316; Matthews, Navaho Legends, p. 215; Rink, Tales of the Eskimo, p. 37; Sir G. S. Robertson, The Kafirs of the Hindu-Kush, p. 380 f.

[137] AEneid, vi.

[138] Odyssey, xi, 489; Isa. xxxviii, 10 ff.; Prov. iii, 16, etc.

[139] 1 Sam. xxviii, 14; Ezek. xxxii, 19-32; Isa. xiv, 9-15; xxxviii, 18. For the early Babylonian conception of the Underworld see the Descent of Ishtar (in Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, chap. xxv); S. H. Langdon, "Babylonian Eschatology," in Essays in Modern Theology and Related Subjects (the C. A. Briggs Memorial).

[140] Breasted, History of Egypt, p. 175.

[141] Cf. Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii, 83 ff.

[142] Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia; Callaway, Amazulus, pp. 12, 151 f.; W. Ellis, Madagascar, i, 393 (cf. J. Sibree, Madagascar, p. 312); A. B. Ellis, The Eẃe, p. 107 f., and The Tshi, p. 156 ff.; M. Kingsley, Travels, pp. 461, 480; R. B. Dixon, The Shasta, p. 469.

[143] Williams, Fiji, p. 194.

[144] Ezek. xxxii, 23, 27; Isa. xiv, 15.

[145] Jastrow, op. cit., p. 601; Ezek. xxxii.

[146] Iliad, xxiii, 71.

[147] Jastrow, op. cit., p. 602; Iliad, i, 3 ff.; 2 Sam. xxi, 10; Prov. xxx, 17.

[148] Hence special desire for sons, who were the natural persons to perform funeral rites for fathers.

[149] So also Plato, Gorgias, 80 (524).

[150] Hesiod, Works and Days, 110.

[151] Marillier, La survivance de l'ame.

[152] W. Ellis, Polynesian Researches, chap. ix.

[153] Marillier, op. cit.

[154] Smith, Virginia, p. 36.

[155] Will and Spinden, The Mandans (Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University), p. 133.

[156] So among the Betsileos and the Zulus (Marillier, op. cit.)

[157] So in Madagascar. Cf. Ezek. xxxii, 18 ff.; Isa. xiv, 4 ff.

[158] Journal of the American Oriental Society, iv, 312 f.

[159] S. St. John, The Far East, 2d ed., i, 182 f.; cf., i, 184.

[160] Marillier, op. cit. Here suicide appears to be regarded as a heroic act, and the women in question perish in doing a service to the tribe.

[161] Dixon, The Northern Maidu, p. 261; Westermarck, Moral Ideas, Index, s.v. Future Life; Hobhouse, Morals in Evolution, ii, 271 ff.; Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii, 83 ff.

[162] Castren, Finnische Mythologie, p. 126; Turner, Samoa, p. 259; Lawes, "New Guinea," in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, viii, 370; Rochas, Nouvelle Caledonie (Bulletin de la Societe d'anthropologie, 1860), p. 280; Lister, Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxi, 51; Dixon, op. cit., p. 262; Mueller, Amerikanische Urreligionen, p. 289 (Brazil).

[163] See Westermarck, loc. cit.

[164] Hawkins, Creek Country, p. 80.

[165] For details on this point see L. Marillier, La survivance de l'ame.

[166] Williams and Calvert, Fiji, p. 193 f.

[167] Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1842, p. 172, and 1852, p. 211; Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 530 f.

[168] Sepulchral inscriptions of Tabnit and Eshmunazar, and the inscriptions of Antipatros (Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum, vol. i, part i, p. 9 ff.; Lidzbarski, Handbuch der nordsemitischen Epigraphik, part ii, pl. iv, 1, 2; part i, p. 117; Rawlinson, Phoenicia, p. 394 f.).

[169] Breasted, Egypt, p. 173 ff.; Bloomfield, Religion of the Veda, p. 252; Hopkins, Religions of India, pp. 336, 380, 443; Texts of Taoism, ed. J. Legge, ii, 6 f. (in Sacred Books of the East, vol. 40); Legge, Religions of China, p. 82; De Groot, Religion of the Chinese, pp. 6, 25, 54, 70 ff., 117; Spiegel, Eranische Alterthumskunde, ii, 158 ff.; Plato, Republic, 614 (story of Er); Book of Enoch passim.

[170] W. Ellis, Polynesian Researches, chap. xv; Will and Spinden, The Mandans, p. 133; Dixon, The Northern Maidu, p. 261; Rig-Veda, i, 356; vii, 104. Cf. article "Blest, abode of the" in Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics.

[171] Tartarus is as far below Hades as the earth is below the sky (Iliad, viii, 16).

[172] Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 379 ff.

[173] Wiedemann, Egyptian Doctrine of Immortality, p. 50 f.; Maspero, Dawn of Civilization, p. 183 ff.; Breasted, History of Egypt, pp. 64, 173 ff. Different conceptions, however, appear in different stages of eschatological thought. Probably the older view was that all the dead descended to the Underworld. According to another view, the good ascended to heaven and accompanied the sun on his daily voyage over the heavenly ocean.

[174] Revue archeologique, 1903, and Reinach, Orpheus (Eng. tr.), p. 88 f.

[175] Gorgias, 523-526; Republic, x, 614; Laws, x, 904 f.; Phaedo, 113 f.

[176] Isa. lxv, 17-21; lxvi, 24; Enoch, x, 12-22.

[177] Enoch, xxii.

[178] Enoch, civ, 6; xcix, 11.

[179] Secrets of Enoch, chaps. vii-x. For the third heaven cf. 2 Cor. xii, 2-4. Varro also (quoted in Augustine, De Civ. Dei, vii, 6) assigned the souls of the dead to a celestial space beneath the abode of the gods.

[180] Matt. xxv, 46; 1 Thess. iv, 17; 2 Pet. ii, 4; iii, 13; Rev. xx, 15; xxi, 1; 2 Cor. xii, 2-4.

[181] See, for example, the Revelation of the Monk of Evesham, Eng. tr. by V. Paget (New York, 1909).

[182] Republic, x, 614.

[183] Herzog-Hauck, Real-Encyklopaedie, Index, s.v. Fegfeuer; Jewish Encyclopedia, article "Purgatory."

[184] American Indians (H. C. Yarrow, Introduction to the Study of Mortuary Customs among the North American Indians, p. 5 ff.); Egypt (Wilkinson, The Ancient Egyptians, chap. x); see article "Funerailles" in La Grande Encyclopedie. Grant Allen, in The Evolution of the Idea of God, chap. iii, connects the idea of bodily resurrection with the custom of inhumation and the idea of immortality with cremation, but this view is not borne out by known facts.

[185] Frazer, Golden Bough, 2nd ed., i, 262, 278.

[186] The doctrine of reincarnation in India followed on that of Hades, and stood in a certain opposition to it. Cf. Hopkins, Religions of India, pp. 204 ff., 530 n. 3; Bloomfield, Religion of the Veda, pp. 211, 252 ff.

[187] Zoroastrian Studies, p. 236. Prexaspes says that "if the dead rise again" Smerdis maybe the son of Cyrus. He may mean that this is not probable. Smerdis, he would in that case say, is certainly dead, and this pretender can be the son of Cyrus only in case the dead come to life.

[188] Diogenes Laertius in Mueller, Fragmenta Historicorum Gracorum, i, 289; cf. Plutarch, Isis and Osiris, 47, and Herodotus, i, 131-140. See Spiegel, Eranische Alterthumskunde, ii 158 ff.

[189] Occasional reincarnation in human form is found elsewhere. The Mazdeans made it universal.

[190] There is no certain or probable reference to it in the Old Testament before this. Ezek. xxxvii, 1-14, is obviously a figurative prediction of national (not individual) resuscitation, and the obscure passage Isa. xxvi, 19 seems to refer to the reestablishment of the nation, and in any case is not earlier than the fourth century B.C. and may be later.

[191] Dan. xii; 2 Macc. vii, 14; Enoch, xci, 10; xxii.

[192] 1 Cor. xv, 23; Rom. vi, 4; viii, 11; John vi, 54.

[193] Acts xxiv, 15; John v, 28 f.

[194] Apokatastasis (Col. i, 20; cf. Rom. xi, 32).

[195] Cf. Steinmetz, Ethnologische Studien zur ersten Entwicklung der Strase.

[196] Westermarck, Moral Ideas, ii, 234, 245 f.

[197] See below, on necromancy, Sec. 927.

[198] See Sec. 360 ff. (ancestor-worship) and Sec. 350 ff. (divinization of deceased persons).

[199] In Egypt there grew up also an elaborate system of charms for the protection of the dead against hostile animals, especially serpents,—a body of magical texts that finally took the form of the "Book of the Dead" (Breasted, History of Egypt, pp. 69, 175; Steindorff, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians, p. 153 ff.).

[200] Catapatha Brahmana, xii, 9, 3, 12. Cf. W. Ellis, Polynesian Researches, i, 193 f.

[201] Breasted, op. cit., p. 249.

[202] 1 Cor. xv, 29.

[203] 2 Macc. xii, 40 ff. Possibly the custom came to the Jews from Egypt. For later Jewish ideas on this point see Jewish Encyclopedia, article "Kaddish."

[204] Smith and Cheetham, Dictionary of Christian Antiquities, article "Canon of the Liturgy"; Hughes, Dictionary of Islam, article "Prayers for the Dead."

[205] On savage logic cf. Jevons, Introduction to the History of Religion, chap. iv.

[206] See Sec. 18 ff.

[207] See Sec. 635 ff.

[208] As to the efficiency of such tradition, compare the way in which mechanical processes are transmitted by older workmen to younger, always with the possibility of gradual improvement. In literary activity, also, tradition plays a great part; a young people must serve an apprenticeship before it can produce works of merit.

[209] Spencer, Principles of Sociology, i, sec. 35; Westermarck, Human Marriage, p. 43 ff.; Pridham, Ceylon, i, 454 (Veddas); United States Exploring Expedition, i, 124 (Fuegians); Fison and Howitt, Kamilaroi and Kurnai, p. 278 (Australian Grounditch); Fritsch, Die Eingeborenen Sued-Afrikas, p. 328 (Bushmen); Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes of the United States, i, 207 (North American Snake tribes); Rivet, in The American Anthropologist, 1909 ("The Jivaros of Ecuador").

[210] Cf. I. King, The Development of Religion, p. 66 ff.

[211] Even in higher forms of religion, as the Vedic, sacrifice and other ceremonies are supposed to have a magical power over the gods.

[212] This is a part of the belief in the mysterious energy (mana) potentially resident in all things.

[213] See, for example, the bird dances described by Haddon (Head-hunters, p. 358); compare W. Matthews, Navaho Legends, p. 83 al. Dances are now often given for the amusement of the public. Clowns often form a feature of such ceremonies; see Matthews, Navaho Legends, p. 230; R. B. Dixon, The Northern Maidu (Bulletin of American Museum of Natural History, xvii, part iii, p. 315 ff.).

[214] Howitt, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xvi, 327 ff.

[215] Miss Fletcher, Indian Ceremonies, p. 263 n.

[216] Miss Kingsley, Studies, p. 126.

[217] E. F. im Thurn, Indians of Guiana, vii, iv, 5.

[218] E. F. im Thurn, op. cit., vi.

[219] Of the same simple festive nature as dances are the plays or sports that are not infrequent among savages and half-civilized tribes. In the Areoi dramatic performances priests are ridiculed (W. Ellis, Polynesian Researches, p. 187).

[220] Miss Fletcher, "Emblematic Use of the Tree in the Dakotan Group" (in Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1896).

[221] So among the hill tribes of North Arracan (Journal of the Anthropological Institute, ii, 239) and the North American Indians (Featherman, Races of Mankind, division iii, part i, p. 37 etc.). Such dances are performed by the Tshi women in the absence of the men (A. B. Ellis, The Tshi, p. 226).

[222] See below, Sec. 903, on imitative magic.

[223] Riedel, in Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie, xvii.

[224] Haddon, Head-hunters, p. 139.

[225] Journal of American Folklore, xvii, 32. Cf. the dance for the benefit of a sick man (R. B. Dixon, "Some Shamans of Northern California," op. cit., xvii, 23 ff.).

[226] Journal of American Folklore, iv, 307. Cf. Will and Spinden, The Mandans, pp. 129 ff., 143 ff. The gods themselves, also, have their festive dances (W. Matthews, Navaho Legends, p. 83), and are sometimes represented as the authors of the sacred chants (ibid. p. 225).

[227] See W. Matthews, loc. cit.

[228] See, further, Journal of American Folklore, iii, 257; iv, 129; xii, 81 (basket dances); R. B. Dixon, The Northern Maidu, p. 183 ff. (numerous and elaborate, and sometimes economic); Robertson, Kafirs of the Hindu-Kush, chap. 33; N. W. Thomas, Australia, chap. 7. Thomas describes many Australian games, and Dixon (The Shasta, p. 441 ff.) Californian games. For stories told by the natives of Guiana see above, Sec. 106.

[229] 2 Sam. vi, 5.

[230] Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii, 133 f., 409 f.

[231] A. B. Ellis, The Tshi, p. 226.

[232] So, probably, the Old-Hebrew ark.

[233] See the references in article "Circumambulation" in Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics.

[234] Westermarck, Human Marriage, 3d ed., p. 542. This sexual instinct is carried back by Darwin (Descent of Man, chap. xii) to the lower animals.

[235] Cf. Gen. iii, 7. There is no conclusive evidence that the concealment of parts of the body by savages is prompted by modesty (cf. Ratzel, History of Mankind, i, 93 ff.), but it may have contributed to the development of this feeling.

[236] Cf. Y. Him, Origins of Art, chap. xvi. For the Maori usage see R. Taylor, New Zealand and its Inhabitants, chap. xviii.

[237] Cf. Lucien Carr, "Dress and Ornaments of Certain American Indians" (in Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society, 1897).

[238] Ratzel, op. cit., Index, s.v. Tattooing; Boas, The Central Eskimo, p. 561; Frobenius, Childhood of Man, chap. ii. Among some tribes (as the Fijians) untattooed persons are denied entrance into the other world. Naturally the origin of tattoo is by some tribes referred to deities: see Turner, Samoa, p. 55 f.; Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xix, 100 (New Zealand); xvii, 318 ff. (Queen Charlotte Islands and Alaska). The Ainu hold that it drives away demons (Batchelor, The Ainu, p. 22).

[239] Turner, op. cit., p. 141.

[240] Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, chap. vi.

[241] Frobenius, Childhood of Man, p. 31 ff.; cf. chap. i.

[242] Spencer and Gillen, op. cit., chap. vii.

[243] On a possible connection between tattoo marks and stigmata cf. W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, 3d ed., p. 334.

[244] See Sec. 23. Blood of men is sometimes drunk, simply to assuage thirst, or as a curative (Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, pp. 462, 464).

[245] Seligmann, The Melanesians of British New Guinea, Index, s.v. Art, decorative; Journal of American Folklore, vol. xviii, no. 69 (April, 1905).

[246] So the dress of the Jewish high priest (Ex. xxviii), that of the Lamas of Tibet (Abbe Huc, Travels in Tartary, Tibet and China, ii, chap. ii; Rhys Davids, Buddhism, p. 250), and costumes in some Christian bodies.

[247] Of the same nature is Jeremy Taylor's view (An Apology for authorized and set forms of Liturgy, Question 1, Sec. 7 ff.) that, as earthly monarchs are not addressed in the language of everyday familiar intercourse, so it is not proper that the deity should be approached with other than choice and dignified words—public prayers should be carefully worded.

[248] Cf. A. C. Haddon, article "Art" in Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics.

[249] A. de Quatrefages, The Pygmies, p. 157.

[250] Seligmann, The Melanesians of British New Guinea, Index, s.v. Hunting.

[251] Batchelor, The Ainu (the hunting of the bear); and so many American tribes, and, in part, some half-civilized peoples, as the Arabs of North Africa.

[252] Teit, in Jesup North Pacific Expedition, ii, 280.

[253] Seligmann, The Melanesians of British New Guinea, p. 291 ff.

[254] Hollis, The Nandi, p. 8 (cf. p. 24).

[255] Hollis (op. cit., p. 6 f.) relates that on a certain occasion when his party was driven from its wagons by a swarm of bees, a Nandi man appeared, announced that he was of the bee totem, and volunteered to restore quiet, which he did, going stark naked into the swarm. His success was doubtless due to his knowledge of the habits of bees.

[256] So in the Tsimshian ceremony in eating the first fish caught (Boas, in Fifth Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, vol. lix, p. 51). Cf. the Jewish rule (Ex. xii, 46), which may have had a similar origin.

[257] Teit, in Jesup North Pacific Expedition, ii, 282. A similar provision is mentioned in Ex. xvi, 16-20.

[258] Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, p. 167 f., and Native Tribes of Northern Australia, p. 308 etc.; Strehlow, Die Aranda-und Loritjastaemme in Zentralaustralien, part ii, p. 39 etc.

[259] Dixon, The Northern Maidu, p. 285 f.

[260] Seligmann, The Melanesians of British New Guinea, p. 177 f.

[261] Dorsey, The Skidi Pawnee, p. 149.

[262] Seligmann, op. cit., p. 291 ff.

[263] Here again the taboos are precautions against injurious supernatural influences.

[264] He is said also to imitate the cries of animals—that is, he combines natural means with supernatural.

[265] Spencer and Gillen, and Strehlow, loc. cit.

[266] This feeling for the tribal life may be called germinal public spirit. Cf. above, Sec. 103.

[267] Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., ii, 238 ff.

[268] Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 526.

[269] Frazer (Golden Bough, 2d. ed., ii, 43 ff.) refers to B. Smyth, Aborigines of Victoria, ii, 311; Strachey, Historie, p. 84; Krapf, Travels, p. 69 f.; Mone, Geschichte des Heldenthums im noerdlichen Europa, i, 119. See, further, T. Williams and Calvert, Fiji, p. 181 f.; W. Crooke, Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India, ii, 169.

[270] Ex. xxii, 29 [28]; xiii, 12, 13.

[271] Spencer and Gillen, op. cit., chap. vi.

[272] Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxv, 104 ff.

[273] Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., iii, 78.

[274] Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxiii, 18; xxvi, 30. Other examples are given by Frazer in his Golden Bough, 2d. ed., i, 81 ff., 163; he cites cases of persons (priests and kings) held responsible for rain, and put to death if they failed to supply it.

[275] Turner, Samoa, p. 145. On certain Roman ceremonies (that of the lapis manalis and others) that have been supposed to be connected with rain making see Wissowa, Religion und Kultus der Roemer, p. 106; W. W. Fowler, Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic, iii.

[276] Spencer and Gillen, Northern Tribes of Central Australia, p. 23.

[277] Tylor, Primitive Culture, i, 454; Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, i, 52 ff.; ii, 532 ff.

[278] There is, of course, another side to the character of ghosts—sometimes they are friendly.

[279] Ploss, Das Kind, 2d ed., i, chap. iv.

[280] Numb. xix.

[281] Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., iii, 39 ff.

[282] J. J. M. de Groot, Religion of the Chinese, chap. ii.

[283] Batchelor, The Ainu, new ed., p. 321 f.

[284] Josh. vii (story of Achan).

[285] Examples are given in Frazer's Golden Bough, loc. cit.

[286] Lev. xiv, 1-9.

[287] Lev. xvi. Cf. the vision (Zech. v, 5 ff.) in which wickedness (or guilt), in the shape of a woman, is represented (in no brotherly spirit) as being transferred from Jewish soil to Shinar (Chaldea).

[288] Miss J. E. Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion, p. 95 ff.

[289] Later the festival was certainly connected with the driving forth of winter, but its earlier form was, probably, as given above.

[290] W. W. Fowler, Roman Festivals, Index, s.v. Mamurius, Lupercalia. The beating was supposed also to have fertilizing power; cf. S. Hartland, Primitive Paternity, i, 100 ff.

[291] Deut. xvi; Ex. xii.

[292] In some savage tribes the older men seem to have nothing to do but arrange ceremonies.

[293] There is a faint survival, perhaps, in the use of incense in churches.

[294] A. Wuttke, Der deutsche Volksaberglaube der Gegenwart, ed. E. H. Meyer, Index; J. H. King, The Supernatural, i, 111 ff.

[295] Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xii, 129 ff. (Andaman Islands); ibid. xxv, 188 (East Africa); Frobenius, Childhood of Man, chap. iii; Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., iii, 422 ff.

[296] A. L. Kroeber, in University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology, ii, viii; Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, chap. xliii (on homosexual relations).

[297] Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., i, 326; iii, 204 ff.; Hartland, Primitive Paternity, Index, s.v. Puberty; Crawley, The Mystic Rose, p. 55.

[298] See below, under "Taboo."

[299] Emasculation, of course, does not belong here; it is not a custom of initiation proper.

[300] Cf. Crawley, The Mystic Rose, p. 135.

[301] Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxvii, 406 (Omahas). On mutilation as a general religious rite see H. Spencer, Principles of Sociology, i, 189, 290, and as punishment, Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, Index, s.v. Mutilation.

[302] Roscher, Lexikon, articles "Attis," "Kybele." Origen is a noteworthy example in Christian times; cf. Matt. xix, 12.

[303] For details of diffusion, methods, etc., see article "Circumcision" in Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics.

[304] This is an incision of the penis from the meatus down to the scrotal pouch.

[305] Herodotus, ii, 37.

[306] Crawley, The Mystic Rose, p. 137 f.

[307] Ploss, Das Kind, 2d ed., i, 368 f.

[308] On phallic cults see below, Sec. 388 ff.

[309] Gen. xxiv, 2 f.

[310] A. B. Ellis, The Yoruba, p. 66.

[311] J. G. Frazer, in the Independent Review, iv, 204 ff.

[312] Circumcision of females is the removal of the clitoris and the labia minora; introcision is the enlargement of the vaginal orifice by tearing it downwards; infibulation is the closing of the labia just after circumcision. Cf. Ploss, Das Weib, 2d ed., i, chap. v.

[313] Cf. also the great extent to which masturbation prevails among savages. Cf. Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, chap. xliii.

[314] A rod is thrust through the glans of the penis; see Roth, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxii, 45 (the palang); cf. Ploss, Das Weib, 2d ed., i, chap. xi; J. Macdonald, Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xx, 116.

[315] Cf. the defloration of young women (by certain officially appointed men) on the occasion of their arriving at the age of puberty; Rivers, The Todas, p. 503; Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, p. 93; Crawley, The Mystic Rose, p. 347.

[316] Gen. xvii. Islam has no divine sanction for circumcision; it is not mentioned in the Koran, doubtless because Mohammed took it for granted as a current usage.

[317] 1 Sam. xvii, 26.

[318] Article "Circumcision (Egyptian)" in Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, and the literature there cited.

[319] Deut. x, 16; Jer. ix, 25 f.; Rom. ii, 28 f.

[320] Article "Brotherhood (artificial)" in Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics.

[321] Cf. H. C. Trumbull, The Blood-Covenant, passim; W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, new ed., Index, s.v. Blood Covenant.

[322] Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., iii, 422 ff.; cf. Gatschet, Migration Legend of the Creeks, p. 185 f.

[323] Alice Fletcher, Indian Ceremonies, p. 278.

[324] Sec.Sec. 533, 1095 ff., 1161 ff.

[325] Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxv, 295 (South Australia); Howitt, Native Tribes of South-East Australia, p. 531 f.

[326] Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xiii, 296 (Queensland); Howitt, loc. cit.; Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, pp. 221, 223, and Native Tribes of Northern Australia, p. 361.

[327] H. Webster, Primitive Secret Societies, chap. ii ff.

[328] The office of sponsor exists in embryonic form in many savage communities; for boys the sponsor is the father or other near relation, for girls an old woman. The duties of savage sponsors usually continue only during the period of initiation.

[329] Westermarck, Human Marriage; H. N. Hutchinson, Marriage Customs in Many Lands; Ch. Letourneau, The Evolution of Marriage and of the Family; Crawley, The Mystic Rose; and the references in G. E. Howard's History of Matrimonial Institutions, i, chaps. i-iv; cf. Hartland, Primitive Paternity.

[330] See below, Sec. 429 ff.

[331] Similar restrictions existed in Greece and Rome. An Athenian citizen was not allowed to marry a foreign woman. In Rome connubium held in the first instance between men and women who were citizens, though it might be extended to include Latins and foreigners. In India marriage came to be controlled by caste. These local and national rules gradually yielded to rules based on degrees of consanguinity. Marriage between near relations was looked on with disfavor in Greece and Rome and by the Hebrews, and the Old Testament law on this point has been adopted (with some variations) by Christian nations. For the Arab customs see W. R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia, chap. iii.

[332] Cf. Crawley, The Mystic Rose, p. 462 ff.; W. R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia, 1st ed., p. 62 ff.; Hartland, Primitive Paternity, chaps. v, vi.

[333] In some cases, among the Todas of South India for example, the defloration takes place shortly before the girl reaches the age of puberty (Rivers, The Todas, p. 703); more generally it is performed when she reaches this age. This difference of time is not essential as regards the significance of the ceremony.

[334] Cf. Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., i, 224. For the Old Testament Song of Songs see Budde's commentary on that book.

[335] Sacrifices to local or other deities formed a part of marriage ceremonies in Greece and Rome; Hera and Juno were guardians of the sanctity of marriage. No religious ceremony in connection with marriage is mentioned in the Old Testament; a trace of such a ceremony occurs in the book of Tobit (vii, 13).

[336] The Mystic Rose, p. 322, etc.

[337] Hughes, Dictionary of Islam, article "Marriage."

[338] The danger might continue into early childhood and have to be guarded against; for a Greek instance see Gardner and Jevons, Greek Antiquities, p. 299.

[339] For details see Ploss, Das Kind, and works on antiquities, Hebrew, Greek, and Roman.

[340] Cf. Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, i, 72 ff.; iv, 244 ff.

[341] Dixon, The Northern Maidu, p. 228 ff.; and The Shasta, p. 453 ff.; Rivers, The Todas, p. 313 ff.; Hollis, The Nandi, p. 64 f.; D. Kidd, Savage Childhood, p. 7; Lev. xii; article "Birth" in Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics.

[342] See above, Sec. 55 f.

[343] Tylor (Primitive Culture, ii, 3 ff.) suggests that such an idea may have been supposed to account for the general resemblance between parents and children.

[344] R. H. Nassau, Fetichism in West Africa, p. 212.

[345] Haddon, Head-hunters, p. 353 ff.

[346] Turner, Samoa, chap. iii. In some Christian communities the saint on whose festival day a child is born is adopted as the child's patron saint. In the higher ancient religions there were religious observances in connection with the birth and rearing of children, special divine care being sought; see, for example, the elaborate Roman apparatus of divine guardians.

[347] Dixon, The Northern Maidu, p. 231; H. Webster, Primitive Secret Societies, p. 40 f.

[348] For methods of burial see article "Funerailles" in La Grande Encyclopedie.

[349] Robertson, The Kafirs, chap. xxxiii; Batchelor, The Ainu, chap. xlviii (the goddess of fire is asked to take charge of the spirit of the deceased).

[350] The food and drink (of which only the soul is supposed to be consumed by the deceased) are often utilized by the surviving friends; such funeral feasts have played a considerable part in religious history and survive in some quarters to the present day.

[351] A. B. Ellis, The Eẃe (Dahomi), chap. viii; A. G. Leonard, The Lower Niger and its Tribes, p. 160 f.; Herodotus, iv, 71 f. (Scythians); v, 5 (Thracians). Cf. the Greek Anthesteria and the Roman Parentalia.

[352] Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxi, 121.

[353] Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, p. 498.

[354] For elaborate Sioux ceremonies on the death of a child see Miss Fletcher, Indian Ceremonies (the Shadow or Ghost Lodge).

[355] On the disposal of the corpse, by inhumation, cremation, exposure, etc., see article "Funerailles" cited above; O. Schrader, in Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, ii, 16 ff.

[356] This may be in part a hygienic precaution.

[357] Haddon, Head-hunters, p. 91. Cf. G. L. Kittredge, "Disenchantment by Decapitation," in Journal of American Folklore, vol. xviii, no. 68 (January, 1905).

[358] De Groot, Religion of the Chinese, chap. iii.

[359] Cf. Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, chap. xxxvii ff.; Saussaye, Science of Religion (Eng. tr.), chap. xviii; and the references given in these works.

[360] See below, on removal of taboos.

[361] Fraser, Golden Bough, 2d ed., i, 306 f.

[362] Cf. Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, index, s.v. Homicide.

[363] See below, Sec. 201; cf. the Athenian Anthesteria and Thargelia.

[364] In Ex. iv, 24 f., Yahweh is about to kill Moses, apparently for neglecting a ritual act.

[365] Examples in Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii, 429 ff.; cf. Knox, Religion in Japan, p. 39.

[366] See the practices described by Rivers, in The Todas, Index, s.vv. Bathing, Purification.

[367] Schneckenburger, Proselytentaufe; article "Proselyten" in Herzog, Real-Encyklopaedie.

[368] In the New Testament baptism is said to be "for the remission of sins" (Acts ii, 38), and is called "bath of regeneration" (Tit. iii, 3); a quasi-magical power is attributed to it in 1 Cor. xv, 29.

[369] For the Mazdean use of urine see Vendidad, Fargard v, 160; xvi, 27, etc.; for use of buffalo's dung, Rivers, The Todas, pp. 32, 173 f., etc.

[370] Rivers, op. cit., p. 367.

[371] Compare, however, the use of natural pigments for decorative and religious purposes; see above, Sec. 115 ff.

[372] The Toda ceremony of burning a woman's hand in the fifth month of pregnancy, and a child's hand on the occasion of a funeral (Rivers, The Todas, pp. 315, 374), may be purificatory, but this is not clear; cf. Frazer, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xi.

[373] Lev. xv, 30; xvi, 15 ff.

[374] Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 196.

[375] Gruppe, Griechische Mythologie, p. 888 ff.; Jevons, Introduction to the History of Religion, p. 375; Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion, p. 150 ff.

[376] Lev. xvi.

[377] Fowler, Roman Festivals, Index, s.v.

[378] The native name of the festival, puskita (busk), is said to mean 'a fast,' but the ceremonies are largely purificatory; Gatschet, Migration Legend of the Creeks, p. 177 ff.

[379] Rivers, The Todas, p. 300 ff.

[380] Odyssey, iv, 730.

[381] Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, ii, 352; Dixon, The Northern Maidu, p. 269 f.

[382] H. Webster, Primitive Secret Societies, chap. ix; G. Brown, Melanesians and Polynesians, pp. 60-78.

[383] Lev. viii; cf. Copleston, Buddhism, chap. xviii; Lippert, Priesterthum (see references in the headings to the chapters).

[384] So in some Christian bodies.

[385] The details are given at great length by Westermarck, op. cit., chap. xxxvii, with references to authorities.

[386] It is by nature nonsacred, and so remains so long as it has not been made sacred by the special ceremonies that abound in savage communities. We have here the germ of the dualistic conception of man's constitution—the antagonism between spirit and body.

[387] Hollis, The Nandi, pp. 58, 92.

[388] Cf. the danger to a common man of eating a chief's food; see Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., i, 321 f.

[389] Frazer, In Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xv, 94, quoted by Westermarck.

[390] H. Spencer, Principles of Sociology, i, Sec. 140.

[391] In Christianity in connection with the eucharistic meal and other observances.

[392] The true principle is stated in Isa. lviii, 3 ff.

[393] Cf. article "Calendar" in Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics.

[394] For a series of dance seasons see Dixon, The Northern Maidu, p. 283 ff.; cf. Basset, in Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, ii, 513.

[395] Hollis, The Nandi, p. 94 ff.

[396] Hollis, The Masai, Index, s.v. Moon.

[397] Rivers, The Todas, Index, s.v. Moon.

[398] Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, ii, 835.

[399] 1 Sam. xx, 6 (clan festival); Isa. i, 13; Numb. xxviii, 11.

[400] Hastings, op. cit., ii, 555.

[401] Lev. xxiii, 33; Ps. lxxxi, 4 [3]. On the Sabbath as perhaps full-moon day, see below, Sec. 608.

[402] Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 449 ff.

[403] Buckley, in Saussaye's Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte, 2d ed., p. 83.

[404] Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 677 ff.

[405] Lev. xxiii, 23 f.; Numb. xxix, 1 ff. The Hebrew text of Ezek. xl, 1, makes the year begin on the tenth day of some month unnamed; but the Hebrew is probably to be corrected after the Greek. Cf. Nowack, Hebraeische Archaeologie, ii, 158 f.

[406] Fowler, Roman Festivals, p. 278.

[407] Cf. A. Mommsen, Feste der Stadt Athen (1898), p. 55.

[408] J. W. Fewkes, "The Winter Solstice Ceremony at Walpi" (in The American Anthropologist, xi).

[409] Prescott, Peru, i, 104, 127.

[410] A Saracen cult is described in Nili opera quaedam (Paris, 1639), pp. 28, 117.

[411] Hollis, The Nandi, p. 100; Rivers, The Todas, p. 593 ff.; cf. Dorsey, The Skidi Pawnee, p. xviii f.; Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, iii, 132 f.

[412] For some fasting observances in astral cults see Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, ii, 312 f.

[413] As food is the most pressing need.

[414] Judg. ix, 27; Neh. viii, 10.

[415] A. Mommsen, Feste der Stadt Athen (1898), Index, s.vv.; Gardner and Jevons, Greek Antiquities, pp. 287 f., 290, 292.

[416] Fowler, Roman Festivals, pp. 95 ff., 157 ff., 268 ff., 114, 124 ff., 241 ff.; cf. article "Mars" in Roscher, Lexikon, col. 2416 f.

[417] Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 453 ff.

[418] Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., iii, 78 f.

[419] A Babylonian festival of this sort (Sakea) is mentioned by Athenaeus (in Deipnosophistae, xiv, 639) on the authority of Berosus, and "Sakea" has been identified with "zakmuk," the Babylonian New Year's Day (cf. the story in Esth. vi); but the details of the festival and of the Persian Sakaea (Strabo, xi, 8) are obscure.

[420] Lev. xxiii.

[421] see above, Sec. 128.

[422] Hollis, The Nandi, p. 46 f.

[423] Gatschet, Migration Legend of the Creeks, p. 177 ff.

[424] Cf. the ceremony of the pharmakos in the festival of the Thargelia (Miss Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion, p. 95 ff.).

[425] Frazer, Golden Bough 2d ed., ii, 337 ff.

[426] This period has been generally held to be calendary. Its calendary reality is denied by Legge (in Recueil des travaux, xxxi) and Foucart (in Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, article "Calendar [Egyptian]").

[427] A noteworthy instance of this persistence appears in the history of the Bene-Israel, a body of Jews living in the Bombay Presidency (article "Bene-Israel" in Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics); they preserve the Jewish religious festivals, but under Indian names.

[428] See above, Sec.Sec. 4, 7.

[429] The word "fetish" (from Portuguese feitico, 'artificial', then 'idol, charm,'), devised originally as a name of charms used by the natives of the West African coast, is often employed as a general name for early religious practices. Its proper use is in the sense of a dead object, as a piece of clay or a twig, in which, it is held, a spirit dwells. The fetish is often practically a god, often a household god; the interesting thing about it is that the spirit, generally a tutelary spirit, can enter the object or depart at will, may be brought in by appropriate ceremonies, and may be dismissed when it is no longer considered useful.

[430] Algonkin manito or manitu (W. Jones, in Journal of American Folklore, xviii, 190); Iroquois orenda; Siouan wakonda; Chickasa hullo (Journal of American Folklore, xx, 57); cf. the Masai n'gai, 'the unknown, incomprehensible' (Hinde, The Last of the Masai, p. 99), connected with storms and the telegraph. Other names perhaps exist.

[431] Codrington, The Melanesians, Index, s.v. Mana.

[432] W. Jones, op. cit.

[433] It has therefore been compared to the modern idea of force as inherent in matter.

[434] The American manitu is an appellation of a personal supernatural being. The Siouan wakonda is invoked in prayer (Miss Fletcher, The Tree in the Dakotan Group).

[435] Judg. xiv, 19; 1 Sam. xix, 23; Ezek. xxxix, 29. Fury also is said to be poured out. Cf. Mark v, 30, where power ([Greek: dynamis]) is said to go out of Jesus.

[436] Cf. the Greek energeia and entelecheia.

[437] Cf. I. King, The Development of Religion, chap. vi.

[438] Examples in J. H. King, The Supernatural. Cf. T. S. Knowlson, Origins of Popular Superstitions, etc.; T. Keightley, Fairy Mythology.

[439] Cf. Tylor, Primitive Culture, 3d ed., ii, 229 ff.: article "Animals" in Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics.

[440] This may have been simply the transference to them of human custom, or it may also have been suggested by the obvious social organization of such animals as bees, ants, goats, deer, monkeys.

[441] Turner, Samoa, pp. 21, 26.

[442] Batchelor, The Ainu, p. 27.

[443] W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, (new ed., see p. 106) p. 128 f.

[444] A. Lang, Myth, Ritual, and Religion, i, 117 ff.

[445] Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, pp. 389, 401. Some Australians believed in an original gradual transformation of animals and plants into human beings.

[446] On the conception of animals as ancestors see below, Sec. 449 f.

[447] A demon may be defined as a supernatural being with whom, for various reasons, men have not formed friendly relations. Cf. W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, new ed., p. 119 ff., on the Arabian jinn; De Groot, Religion of the Chinese, p. 13 ff., for the Chinese belief in demonic animals. On the origin, names, and functions of demons and on exorcismal ceremonies connected with them see below, Sec. 690 ff., and above, Sec. 138 ff.

[448] So the Eskimo, the Ainu, the Redmen, and modern Arabs in Africa; many other instances are cited by Frazer in his Golden Bough, 2d ed., ii, 386 ff.

[449] Examples are found in many folk-stories of savages everywhere.

[450] For other sacred animals see N. W. Thomas, article "Animals" in Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics.

[451] Turner, Samoa, p. 238.

[452] Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., ii, 430 ff.; Thomas, article "Animals" cited above; Shortland, Traditions of New Zealand, iv; Marsden, Sumatra, p. 292; Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes, i, 34; v, 652; Waitz, Anthropologie, iii, 190; Callaway, Amazulus, p. 196; A. B. Ellis, The Tshi, p. 150; Mouhot, Indo-China, i, 252; J. Wasiljev, Heidnische Gebraeuche der Wotyaks, pp. 26, 78, etc.; G. de la Vega, Comentarios Reales, bk. i, chap. ix, etc. (Peru); Miss Kingsley, Travels, p. 492.

[453] Turner, op. cit., p. 242; Castren, Finnische Mythologie, pp. 106, 160, 189, etc.; Parkman, Jesuits in North America (1906), pp. 61 f., 66; Brinton, Myths of the New World, pp. 3, 105, 127, 161, 175, 272; cf. Acosta, Historia de las Indias, bk. v, chap. iv.

[454] So Zeus and bull, Artemis and bear, Aphrodite and dove, and many other examples. In such cases it is generally useless to try to discover a resemblance between the character of the god and that of the associated animal. There is simply, as a rule, a coalescence of cults, or an absorption of the earlier cult in the later.

[455] The particular conditions that induced this cult in Egypt escape us. See the works on Egyptian religion by Maspero, Wiedemann, Erman, Steindorff, and others.

[456] On the curious attitude of medieval Europe toward animals as legally responsible beings see E. P. Evans, The Criminal Prosecution and Capital Punishment of Animals.

[457] Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, chap. x. Two superhuman creators are said to have transformed themselves into lizards (ibid. p. 389 ff.).

[458] Batchelor, The Ainu, p. 35 ff.

[459] Matthews, Navaho Legends, pp. 80, 223; Dixon, The Northern Maidu, p. 263.

[460] Brinton, Myths of the New World, p. 269; cf. article "Animals" in Hastings, Encyclopaedia Of Religion and Ethics.

[461] See above, Sec. 253, for the Egyptian cult.

[462] References to Stow's Native Races of South Africa and Merensky's Beitraege are given in Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, i, 522.

[463] Cushing, in The Century Magazine, 1883; Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii, 243 f.

[464] Crooke, Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India, ii, 213.

[465] Hopkins, Religions of India, pp. 527, 539; Crooke, op. cit.; Fewkes, "The Winter Solstice Ceremony at Walpi," p. 17 ff.

[466] For a fanciful connection between the sun-myth and the spider see Frobenius, Childhood of Man, chap. xxiii.

[467] A somewhat vague Naga (snake) being of this sort is noted (Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 539). The relation between the Australian supernatural being Bunjil (or Punjil) and the eagle-hawk is not clear. Cf. Howitt, Native Tribes of South-East Australia, Index; Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, Index.

[468] See below, Sec. 635 f.

[469] A special form of man's relations with animals is considered below under "Totemism."

[470] For example, in Sumatra, offerings are made to the "soul of the rice"; there is fear of frightening the rice-spirit, and ceremonies are performed in its honor; see Wilken, Het Animisme bij de Volken van den Indischen Archipel; Kruyt, De Rijstmoeder van den Indischen Archipel, 389. It has been suggested that the prohibition of yeast in the Hebrew mazzot (unleavened bread) festival may have come originally from fear of frightening the spirit of the grain. It may have been, however, merely the retention of an old custom (if the grain was eaten originally without yeast), which later (as sometimes happened in the case of old customs) was made sacred by its age, was adopted into the religious code, and so became obligatory.

[471] This conception survives in the expressions "spirit of wine," etc., and Cassio's "invisible spirit of wine" easily passes into a "devil."

[472] This distinction is made in a somewhat formal way by the Ainu, a very rude people (Batchelor, The Ainu, chap. xxxiii).

[473] W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, 2d ed., p. 132 f.

[474] Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, Index, s.vv. totems, ancestors.

[475] Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, pp. 112, 116. Many other plant totems are mentioned by Frazer in his Totemism and Exogamy.

[476] Turner, Samoa, pp. 32, 39, 43, 72.

[477] This relation was not necessarily totemic—it may have been of a general character, of which totemism is a special form.

[478] Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., i, 179 ff.

[479] Cf. articles "Asylum" in Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, and Jewish Encyclopedia.

[480] W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, 2d ed., pp. 133, 195; Hopkins, in Journal of the American Oriental Society, xxx (1910), 4, p. 352.

[481] Miss Godden, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxvi, 186 ff.

[482] W. Crooke, Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India, new ed., ii, 85 ff.; cf. Hopkins, "Mythological Aspects of Trees, etc.," in Journal of the American Oriental Society, September, 1910.

[483] Rig-Veda, ix al.; Muir, Original Sanskrit Texts, v; Hillebrandt, Vedische Mythologie, i, 450; Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 112 ff.

[484] Spiegel, Eranische Alterthumskunde, ii, 114 ff.; Tiele-Gehrich, Geschichte der Religion im Alterium, ii, ii, p. 234 ff.

[485] Mannhardt, Baumkultus and Antike Wald- und Feldkulte; Frazer, Golden Bough, Index, s.v. Corn-spirit.

[486] Cf. below, Sec. 751 ff.

[487] The connection between such posts and the North-Semitic goddess Ashera is uncertain.

[488] Ward, Seal-cylinders of Western Asia.

[489] Cf. the suggestion of A. Reville (in his Prolegomenes de l'histoire des religions) that images arose in part from natural woods bearing a fancied resemblance to the human form.

[490] Boas, The Kwakiutl; Swanton, "Seattle Totem Pole," in Journal of American Folklore vol. xviii, no. 69 (April, 1905).

[491] See below, "Totemism," Sec. 449 f.

[492] Crooke, Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India, ii, 115 ff.

[493] Pausanias, x, 31, 4; Roscher, Lexikon, article "Meleagros."

[494] Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., iii, 391 ff.

[495] Gen. iii; cf. Hopkins, in Journal of the American Oriental Society, September, 1910. Whether the golden apples of the Hesperides had the life-giving quality is doubtful.

[496] This appears from a comparison of Gen. iii, 3 with ii, 17.

[497] Gen. iii, 5, 22.

[498] He is, perhaps, a diminished and conventionalized form of the old chaos dragon.

[499] On the various names and characters of this cosmic tree see Saussaye, Religion of the Teutons, p. 347 ff.

[500] Rig-Veda, x, 81, 4.

[501] 2 Sam. v, 24.

[502] Judg. ix, 37.

[503] See below, Sec. 935 ff.

[504] This is the case with all spirits that social needs do not force man to give names to.

[505] Rhys Davids, Buddhist India, p. 232.

[506] See above, Sec. 252 f.

[507] Ex. iii, 2 ff.; Deut. xxxiii, 16; Acts vii, 30, 35.

[508] See Journal of the American Oriental Society, xxx, 353 f., for possible examples.

[509] A list of such titles is given by C. Boetticher in his Baumkultus der Hellenen und Roemer, chap. iv.

[510] Dionysos is a bull-god as well as a tree-god.

[511] Dawn of Civilization, p. 12.

[512] Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 533.

[513] On the Soma cult see above, Sec. 270.

[514] Sec. 271.

[515] Lev. xvi.

[516] Gruppe, Culte und Mythen; Roscher, Lexikon. Cf. the developed cults of Vishnu and Civa.

[517] On Osiris and Isis see below, Sec. 728 f.

[518] Some instances of worship are given in Frazer's Golden Bough, 2d ed., i, 181, 189, 191. Frazer sometimes uses the term 'tree worship' where all that is meant is respect for trees as powerful things.

[519] See Sec. 253 ff.

[520] See Revue de l'histoire des religions, 1881.

[521] So in Central Australia (Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, pp. 123 f., 137).

[522] The rock whence came the stones thrown by Deucalion and Pyrrha (the origin of the human race) also gave birth to Agdistis mugitibus editis multis, according to Arnobius, Adversus Nationes, v, 5. Mithra's birth from a rock (Roscher, Lexikon) is perhaps a bit of late poetical or philosophical imagery.

[523] For various powers of stones, involving many human interests, see indexes in Tylor's Primitive Culture, Frazer's Golden Bough, and Hartland's Primitive Paternity, s.v. Stone or Stones.

[524] Festus, p. 2; see the remarks of Marquardt, Roemische Staatsverwaltung; Aust, Religion der Roemer, p. 121; and Fowler, Roman Festivals, p. 232 f. On the relation between the lapis and Juppiter Elicius, see Wissowa, Religion und Kultus der Roemer, p. 106; cf. Roscher, Lexikon, article "Iuppiter," col. 606 ff.

[525] See above, Sec. 97 ff.

[526] On processes of capturing a god in order to inclose him in an object, or of transferring a god from one object to another, see W. Crooke, "The Binding of a God," in Folklore, viii.

[527] In pre-Islamic Arabia many gods were represented by stones, the stone being generally identified with the deity; so Al-Lat, Dhu ash-Shara (Dusares), and the deities represented by the stones in the Meccan Kaaba.

[528] Livy, xxix, 10 f.

[529] 1 Sam. iv.

[530] Head, Historia Numorum, p. 661.

[531] Tacitus, Hist. ii, 3; it was conical in shape.

[532] Fowler, Roman Festivals p. 230 ff.; cf. above, the "lapis manalis," Sec. 289.

[533] Herodian, v, 3, 10.

[534] Pausanias, vii, 22. Cf. Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii, 160 ff.

[535] H. Spencer, Principles of Sociology, i, 335; Saussaye, Manual of the Science of Religion (Eng. tr.), p. 85 ff.

[536] Gen. xxviii, 18; cf. Smith, Religion of the Semites, 2d ed., p. 203 f.

[537] Hos. iii, 4.

[538] The reference in Jer. ii, 27, Hab. ii, 19 (stones as parents and teachers), seems to be to the cult of foreign deities, represented by images.

[539] On the interpretation of the masseba as a phallus or a kteis see below, Sec.Sec. 400, 406.

[540] And so in Assyrian and Arabic.

[541] There is no Greek etymology for baitulos, and if it came from without, a Semitic origin is the most probable.

[542] Eusebius, Praeparatio Evangelica, i, 10, 18.

[543] Hist. Nat., bk. xxxvii, chap. 51.

[544] Cf. F. Lenormant, in Revue de l'histoire des religions, iii, 31 ff.; Gruppe, Griechische Mythologie, p. 775 f.

[545] For Phoenician customs see Pietschmann, Phoenisier, p. 204 ff.

[546] Cf. Deut. x, 2; Ex. xxv, 16; 2 Chr. v, 10, where the stone in the ark seems to have become two stone tables on which the decalogue was written by the finger of Yahweh—an example, if the view mentioned above be correct, of the transformation of a thing originally divine in itself into an accessory of a god.

[547] Cf. Hughes, Dictionary of Islam, s.v. Kaaba; Wellhausen, Reste arabischen Heidentumes, pp. 99, 171.

[548] On the relation between the stone heaps and the Hermes pillars cf. Welcker, Griechische Goetterlehre, ii, 455, and Roscher, Lexikon, i, 2, col. 2382. With Hermes as guide of travelers cf. the Egyptian Khem (Min), of Coptos, as protector of wanderers in the desert, and perhaps Eshmun in the Sardinian trilingual inscription (see Roscher, Lexikon, article "Esmun"; Orientalische Studien Noeldeke gewidmet).

[549] See below, Sec. 1080.

[550] W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, 2d ed., pp. 202, 341; cf. Jevons, Introduction to the History of Religion, chap. xi; article "Altar" in Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics.

[551] Lev. xvi, 19.

[552] For some methods of such introduction see W. Crooke, in Folklore, viii.

[553] Herodotus, ii, 44; he identifies Melkart with Herakles.

[554] 1 Kings, vii, 15-22; Ezek. xl, 49.

[555] Perrot and Chipiez, Histoire de l'art, vol. iii; cf. Pletschmann, Phoenizier, p. 203 ff.; Rawlinson, Phoenicia, p. 338.

[556] Cf. below, Sec. 399 ff.

[557] W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, 2d ed., p. 487 ff.

[558] Strabo, iii, 5, 5.

[559] Those of Solomon's temple are described as being 27 feet in height, and without stairways. Cf. the structures connected with the Hierapolis temple (Lucian, De Syria Dea, 28).

[560] Desire for height appears also in the Egyptian pyramid and the Babylonian ziggurat, but both these had means of ascent to the higher levels. Cf. below, Sec. 1085.

[561] Maspero, Egyptian Archaeology, p. 100 ff.

[562] The movement from aniconic to anthropomorphic forms is seen in the image of the Ephesian Artemis, the upper half human, the lower half a pillar (Roscher, Lexikon, i, 1, cols. 588, 595).

[563] Examples in Tylor's Primitive Culture, 2d ed., ii, 170 f.; cf. his Early History of Mankind, chap. vi.

[564] Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, p. 188, etc.

[565] Matthews, Navaho Legends, index, s.v. Mountains; article "Bengal" in Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics; Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii, 260; Hollis, The Nandi, p. 48.

[566] Hopkins, Religions of India, pp. 358 ff., 537, and Journal of the American Oriental Society, September, 1910.

[567] On a general relation between gods and local hills see Rivers, The Todas, p. 444.

[568] Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 541, 638; cf. Isa. xiv, 13. Many Babylonian temples, considered as abodes of gods, were called "mountains."

[569] Hopkins, in Journal of the American Oriental Society, loc. cit., where the mythical mountains of the Mahabharata are described.

[570] Iliad viii, 2 al.

[571] Bastian, "Vorstellungen von Wasser und Feuer," in Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie, i; Tylor, Primitive Culture, 2d ed., ii, 209 ff., 274 ff.; W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, lecture v.

[572] Polybius, vii, 9.

[573] Num. v.

[574] Job vii, 12.

[575] Herodotus, vi, 76.

[576] Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, x, 179; Bell, Maldive Islands, p. 73.

[577] In Titus iii, 5, the reference seems to be to baptism.

[578] De Groot, Religion of the Chinese, p. 10 f.; cf. the German Lorelei.

[579] Frazer (in Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tylor) sees a river-god in the figure mentioned in Gen. xxxii, 24.

[580] Cf. John v, 4 (in some MSS.).

[581] This is W. R. Smith's contention in Religion of the Semites, lecture v. See his account of Semitic water-gods in general.

[582] Turner, Samoa, p. 345 f. Cf. the Roman lapis manalis; see above, Sec. 136.

[583] A large number of examples are given by Frazer in his Golden Bough, 2d ed., i, 81 f., al.

[584] Brinton, Myths of the New World, p. 17; Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, p. 189 f.

[585] One signification (not a probable one) proposed for the name Yahweh is, 'he who causes (rain) to fall.'

[586] Examples of such gods, in Africa, America, and Asia, are given in Tylor's Primitive Culture, ii, 259 ff.

[587] Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 99 ff.

[588] So in the Secrets of Enoch (ed. R. H. Charles), chaps. iv-vi, the treasuries of rain and dew in the lowest heaven are guarded by angels.

[589] Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, Index, s.vv.

[590] Matthews, Navaho Legends, p. 37; Dorsey, The Skidi Pawnee, p. 8; Teit, Thompson River Indians, p. 56 f.; R. Taylor, New Zealand and its Inhabitants, p. 130; Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 168, n. 1; Roscher, Lexikon, article "Prometheus." Accounts of the original production or the theft of fire are found in savage mythology the world over; see Frobenius, Childhood of Man, chaps. xxv-xxvii; Seligmann, The Melanesians of British New Guinea, p. 379; Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii, 277 ff.; O. T. Mason, Origins of Invention, chap. iii.

[591] So among the Todas (Rivers, The Todas, p. 437) and the Nandi (Hollis, The Nandi, p. 85).

[592] On an identification of Agni with fire see Bloomfield, Religion of the Veda, p. 158 ff.

[593] See Chap. VI.

[594] Shahrastani (12th century), Kitab al-Milal wa'l-Nihal, a sketch of religions and philosophical sects, Moslem and other (Germ. tr. by Haarbruecker, p. 298 f.).

[595] Hopkins observes (Religions of India, p. 105) that originally fire (Agni), in distinction from sun and lightning, is the fire of sacrifice. Cf. Bloomfield, Religion of the Veda, p. 157.

[596] Rivers, The Todas, p. 437; cf. the ceremony described on page 290 f.

[597] A. M. Tozzer, Comparative Study of the Mayas and the Lacandones, p. 133.

[598] Prescott, Peru, i, 106 f.

[599] Plutarch, Aristides, 20.

[600] The Hebrew expression, rendered in the English version "cause to pass through fire," means simply 'devote by fire.'

[601] Ex. xix, 18; Ezek. i, 4; Ps. xviii, 9 [604]; Rig-Veda, iii, 26, 7 (Indra).

[602] Rivers, The Todas, p. 437. In Gen. i, 3, light appears before the creation of the heavenly bodies.

[603] So in Carinthia, the Tyrol, and neighboring districts (Wuttke, Der deutsche Volksaberglaube der Gegenwart, p. 86).

[604] Dorsey, The Skidi Pawnee, p. xix.

[605] See below, Sec. 662, etc.

[606] Ps. xviii, 11 [10]; civ, 3 f.

[607] Iliad, xxiii, 194 ff.

[608] Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, chap. xviii; Rivers, The Todas, p. 595.

[609] W. Matthews, Navaho Legends, pp. 80, 223.

[610] Breasted, History of Egypt, p. 55; Taylor, New Zealand, p. 119; Hollis, The Masai, p. 279; cf. Turner, Samoa, p. 283.

[611] Teit, Thompson River Indians, p. 55 (the present sun is the daughter of a man sun).

[612] See examples in Tylor's Primitive Culture, i, 290 ff.

[613] On the position of the sun and moon in the later cults see below, Chap. VI.

[614] Teit, op. cit., p. 54.

[615] See the elaborate Pawnee history of gods (Dorsey, The Skidi Pawnee).

[616] See Chap. VI f.

[617] On the genesial (urano-chthonic) conception of the world in Polynesia see Tautain, in Anthropologie, vii (1896).

[618] Hollis, The Nandi, p. 113.

[619] Tylor, Primitive Culture, i, 363; ii, 262.

[620] Ps. xxix, 3; xviii, 14, 15 [13, 14].

[621] Iliad, viii, 76 f.; xxi, 198, etc. The thunderbolt of Zeus is said in Hesiod, Theogonia, 140 f., to be forged by the Cyclops.

[622] Bastian, Beitraege; H. Spencer, Principles of Sociology and Principles of Ethics; Grant Allen, Evolution of the Idea of God; Waitz-Gerland, Anthropologie der Naturvoelker; Lippert, Allgemeine Geschichte des Priesterthums; Tylor, Primitive Culture; Codrington, The Melanesians; Frazer, Golden Bough; Wilken, Handleiding voor de Vergelykende Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indie; Steinmetz, Ethnologische Studien zur ersten Entwicklung der Strafe; Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, Index, s.vv. Kings, Man-gods; Religions of Egypt (Maspero, Meyer, Wiedemann, Breasted, Steindorff), Babylonia (Jastrow), India (Barth, Hopkins), China (De Groot), Greece (Gruppe), Rome (Auer), etc.

[623] Golden Bough, 2d ed., i, 139 ff.

[624] Rivers, The Todas, p. 448.

[625] Monier-Williams, Religious Life and Thought in India, p. 259. See the cases mentioned by Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 522 n.

[626] For the documents see Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt.

[627] Rawlinson, Egypt, ii, 40 f., 84; Ed. Meyer, Geschichte des Alten Aegyptens, p. 252.

[628] When in a compound name the name of a god stands first, the determinative may refer simply to the god; it is evidence for the man only when it stands immediately before the nondivine element of the royal name. The inscriptions are given in Schrader, Keilinschriftliche Bibliothek, III, i; Thureau-Dangin, Sumerisch-Akkadische Koenigsinschriften. In the Code of Hammurabi (ca. 2000 B.C.) the king in one place (col. 5, ll. 4, 5) calls himself "the Shamash of Babylon," but this is of course a figure of speech; the code is given him by Shamash, the god of justice, and he assumes to be no less just than the god whom he here represents.

[629] For a different view see S. H. Langdon, article "Babylonian Eschatology" in Essays in Modern Theology and Related Subjects (the C. A. Briggs memorial volume).

[630] Cf. the Chinese and Japanese views mentioned above. Among the Mongols there seems to be no trace of such a cult (Buckley, in Saussaye, Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte, 2d ed.), but a similar one is found in Tibet in Lamaism.

[631] Ex. xxii, 28 [27]. Cursing the deity (that is, the national or the local god) is mentioned several times in the Old Testament. Eli's sons committed this offense (1 Sam. iii, 13, corrected text), and Job feared that his sons might have been guilty of it (Job i, 5, where the old Jewish scribes, causa reverentiae, have changed "curse" into "bless,"—so also in i, 11; ii, 5, 9).

[632] Adonis Attis Osiris, p. 15 ff.

[633] 2 Sam. xiv, 17.

[634] Isa. ix, 6 [5].

[635] Ps. lviii, 1 [2]; lxxxii, 1, 6. This last passage, however, is understood in John x, 34 f., to refer to Jewish men. The Hebrew text of Ps. xiv, 7 [6], is corrupt.

[636] De Groot, Religion of the Chinese. This is the philosophical form of the dogma. The root of the conception is to be found, doubtless, in the old (savage) view that the chief of the tribe has quasi-divine attributes.

[637] Knox, Religion in Japan, p. 64.

[638] In Alexander, 28. In the case of Alexander the influence of Egypt is apparent, and it may be suspected that this influence affected the later Greek and Roman custom.

[639] Appian, De Rebus Syriacis, lxv.

[640] Acts xii, 22.

[641] Boissier, La religion romaine (1878), i, 131 ff.

[642] Suetonius, Caligula, xxii.

[643] On the demand for a universal religion in the Roman Empire, and the preparation in the earlier cults for the worship of the emperors, see J. Iverach's article "Caesarism" in Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics; Boissier, op. cit., bk. i, chap. ii.

[644] Spiegel, Eranische Alterthumskunde, bk. iv, chap. iii.

[645] See the story of the power and fall of a great muni in Lassen's Anthologia Sanscritica.

[646] So, many Christian and Moslem saints have been wonder-workers without being divinized.

[647] Monier-Williams, Brahmanism and Hinduism, p. 510 f.

[648] Fortnightly Review, 1872.

[649] Stair, Samoa, p. 221; article "Bengal" in Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics (Brahmans often become evil spirits).

[650] The Todas, pp. 193, 203, 446.

[651] The Eẃe-speaking Peoples, p. 88 ff.

[652] Breasted, Records of Ancient Egypt.

[653] Sec. 357.

[654] Here, as in the case of the divinization of living men (Sec. 347 n., above), outside suggestion is probable.

[655] Cf. article "Caesarism" in Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics.

[656] Boissier, La religion romaine, i, 182. An illustration of religious ideas in the third century is afforded by the enrollment of Caracalla among the heroes, a divinizing decree of the Senate having been extorted by the turbulent and mercenary soldiery (Dio Cassius, ed. Boissevain [Eng. tr. by H. B. Foster], lxxix, 9).

[657] A. Mueller, Islam, i, 494; W. Muir, The Caliphate, p. 553 ff.

[658] In Isa. lxiii, 16, 'Abraham' appears to be a synonym of 'Israel,' and the reference then is to the nonrecognition of certain Jews by the national leaders.

[659] The narratives of the Pentateuch; Herodotus, v, 66; Pausanias, i, 5, 1.

[660] Article "Romulus" in Roscher's Lexikon.

[661] See below, Sec. 652.

[662] Herodotus, v, 66 al.

[663] Saussaye, Religion of the Teutons, pp. 163, 170, 206.

[664] The Ojibwa god Manabozho (described in Schoolcraft's Algic Researches) by some inadvertence got the name 'Hiawatha,' and so appears in Longfellow's poem. The real Hiawatha was a distinguished Iroquois statesman (supposed to be of the fifteenth century), the founder of the Iroquois League, honored as a patriot, but never worshiped as a god. See H. Hale, Iroquois Book of Rites, Index, s.v. Hiawatha; Beauchamp, in Journal of American Folklore, October, 1891.

[665] F. Pfister, Der Reliquienkult im Altertum.

[666] Spencer, Principles of Sociology, i; Grant Allen, Evolution of the Idea of God. See below, Sec. 631 ff.

[667] Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, Index, s.v. Dead; Grant Allen, op. cit.; article "Ancestor-worship" in Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics.

[668] Cf. above, Chap. II.

[669] Steinmetz (Ethnologische Studien zur ersten Entwicklung der Strafe, p. 280 ff.) has attempted a collection and interpretation of the usages of nearly two hundred tribes, but his reckoning is not satisfactory—his enumeration is not complete, and the facts are not sufficiently well certified. He concludes that cases of fear are twice as numerous as those of love.

[670] Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, chap. xiv.

[671] Spencer and Gillen, Northern Tribes Of Central Australia, pp. 516 f., 520 f.

[672] Cf. Codrington, The Melanesians, p. 271 f.

[673] The conception of such meals as physical and spiritual communion with the dead was a later development.

[674] The buffoonery that was sometimes practiced at Roman funerals seems to have come from the natural love of fun, here particularly, also, through the reaction from the oppressive solemnity of the occasion.

[675] Howitt and Fison, Kamilaroi and Kurnai, p. 246 ff.

[676] Taylor, New Zealand, pp. 104, 108.

[677] Codrington, The Melanesians, pp. 194, 253 f.; Powell, Wanderings, p. 170.

[678] Ellis, Madagascar, i, 23, 423.

[679] Callaway, The Amazulu, pp. 145, 151.

[680] A. B. Ellis, The Eẃe, p. 102 f.

[681] Steinmetz, Ethnologische Studien zur ersten Entwicklung der Strafe. A. L. Kroeber (in Journal of American Folklore, 1904) gives an account of a 'ghost-dance' in Northwest California, the object of which was said to be that the dead might return, though the details are obscure.

[682] Some such custom seems to be referred to in Deut. xxvi, 14.

[683] Fritsch, Die Eingeborenen Sued-Afrikas.

[684] Mariner, Tonga, p. 149.

[685] Wellhausen, Reste arabischen Heidentumes, p. 162 f.; Goldziher, in Revue de l'histoire des religions, x. So the Egyptian fellahin to-day.

[686] Codrington, The Melanesians, p. 219 f.; Bonney, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xiii, 122 ff.; Haddon, Head-hunters, pp. 91 f., 183; G. Allen, Evolution of the Idea of God, chap. iii.

[687] Sir G. S. Robertson, The Kafirs of the Hindu Kush, pp. 645 ff., 615 ff., 414 f.

[688] Breasted, Egypt, p. 421, etc.

[689] Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 604 f.

[690] Deut. xxvi, 14; Hos. ix, 4; Ezek. xxiv, 17 (revised text); Isa. viii, 19; 1 Sam. xxviii, 13.

[691] Rig-Veda, x, 15; Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 143 f.

[692] Spiegel, Eranische Alterthumskunde, ii, 91 ff.

[693] Odyssey, xi, 74 ff.; cf. xxiv, 63 ff.

[694] Odyssey, x, 519 ff.; xi, 25 ff.

[695] Stengel and Oehmichen, Die griechischen Sakralaltertuemer, p. 99 f.

[696] Gardner and Jevons, Greek Antiquities, p. 158 ff.; Gruppe, Griechische Mythologie, Index, s.v. Heros; Deneken, article "Heros" in Roscher, Lexikon. Lists of heroes are given by F. Pfister, in Der Reliquienkult im Altertum.

[697] Thucydides, v, 11; Pausanias, i, 32. For other examples, and for the details of the cult, see Stengel and Oehmichen, Die griechischen Sakralaltertuemer, p. 96 ff.

[698] Similar functions are performed by saints in some Buddhist, Christian, and Moslem communities.

[699] Pauly-Wissowa, Real-Encyclopaedie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft; Miss J. E. Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion, chap. ii, and the references in these works. On the Keres as ghosts see Crusius, in Roscher's Lexikon, s.v. Keren, and Harrison, op. cit., chap. v.

[700] Ovid, Fasti, v, 439 ff., manes exite paterni; cf. the Greek proverbial expression [Greek: thyraze kares] (Suidas, s.v. [Greek: thyraze]).

[701] De Groot, Religion of the Chinese, chap. iii.

[702] Aston, Shinto; Knox, Religion in Japan, p. 66 f.

[703] 1 Sam. xxviii.

[704] Cf. also the Teutonic valkyrs and nornas.

[705] See above, Sec. 359. The wide prevalence of the theory in ancient times is indicated by its adoption in the Graeco-Jewish Wisdom of Solomon (of the first century B.C.), chap. xiv, and by some Roman writers.

[706] Sec. 262 ff.

[707] For example, in Australia, Fiji, New Guinea, and India.

[708] Greece, Rome (Lupercalia), Egypt, and apparently in Israel (Ex. xxxii, 6; Numb. xxv).

[709] In carnivals and many less elaborate customs.

[710] See above, Sec. 34.

[711] It was observable in the lower animals, but in their case was not regarded as religiously important. See below, Sec. 419, for the connection of animals with phallic cults.

[712] Sec. 158 ff.

[713] Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, ii, 361.

[714] See Ratzel, History of Mankind; Waitz, Anthropologie der Naturvoelker; Mueller, Amerikanische Urreligionen; Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia; Codrington, The Melanesians; W. Ellis, Polynesian Researches; Hartland, article "Bantu" in Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics; Callaway, Amazulus; Featherman, Races of Mankind; Gruenwedel, "Lamaismus" in Die orientalischen Religionen (I, iii, 1 of Die Kultur der Gegenwart); Brinton, Myths of the New World, p. 149; Matthews, Dorsey, Teit, Boas, Hill-Tout, opp. cit. (on American Indians).

[715] Sec. 34.

[716] A. B. Ellis, Yoruba and Eẃe. Ellis does not say that the cult exists in Ashanti, where we should expect it to be found; its absence there is not accounted for. On phallic worship in Congo see H. H. Johnston, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xiii.

[717] Hopkins, Religions of India, pp. 453, 470.

[718] Cf. Crooke, article "Bengal" in Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics.

[719] Griffis, Religions of Japan; Aston, Shinto; Buckley, in Saussaye, Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte, 2d ed.; Florens, in Die Kultur der Gegenwart.

[720] Herodotus, ii, 48 f.

[721] Isis and Osiris, 51.

[722] An example of naive popular festivities is given in Herodotus, ii, 60.

[723] The Gilgamesh epic (Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 477); Amos ii, 7; Deut. xxiii, 17 f.; Herodotus, i, 199; Strabo, xvi, 1, 20; Epistle of Jeremy, 42 f.; Lucian, De Syria Dea, 6 ff. But Hos. ii, Ezek. xvi, xxiii, Isa. lvii, 8, are descriptions of Hebrew addiction to foreign idolatrous cults.

[724] Isa. lvii, 8: "Thou didst love their bed, the yad thou sawest." The renderings in the English Revised Version are not possible.

[725] Lucian, op. cit., 28, cf. 16.

[726] The Aramean Atargatis, properly Attar-Ate, is substantially identical with Ashtart and Ishtar.

[727] Lucian, De Syria Dea, 15.

[728] J. P. Peters, Nippur, Index, s.v. Phallic symbols; Bliss and Macalister, Excavations in Palestine, p. 136; Macalister, Bible Side-lights, p. 72 f.

[729] These objects (Hebrew masseba) are denounced by the prophets because they were connected with the Canaanite non-Yahwistic worship. The same thing is true of the sacred wooden post (the ashera) that stood by shrines; Deut. xvi, 21 f., etc.

[730] Roscher, Lexikon, s.v. Priapos. Diodorus Siculus, iv, 6, mentions also Ithyphallos and Tychon.

[731] Roscher, Lexikon.

[732] S. Seligmann, Der boese Bueck und Verwandtes, ii, 191 ff.

[733] Diodorus Siculus, i, 88.

[734] Roscher, Lexikon, s.v. Indigitamenta. Muto is 'phallos.'

[735] So Augustine, De Civitate Dei, iv, II, 34 al.

[736] S. Seligmann, Der boese Blick und Verwandtes, ii, 196 ff.

[737] Cf. Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 490, n. 4.

[738] On the yoni as amulet see Seligmann, Der boese Blick und Verwandtes, ii, 203.

[739] Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, ii, 491 f., and the references there to Gait's Assam and other works.

[740] III Rawlinson, pl. i, no. 12155, and IV Rawlinson, col. 2, II. 25-28. The androgynous sense is maintained by G. A. Barton, in Journal Of the American Oriental Society, xxi, second half, p. 185 ff. Other renderings of the first inscription are given by Thureau-Dangin in Revue d'Assyriologie, iv, and Radau, Early Babylonian History, p. 125.

[741] Text in Craig, Assyrian and Babylonian Religious Texts, i, pl. vii, obv. 6, and by Meek, in American Journal of Semitic Languages, xxvi; translation in Jastrow's Religion Babyloniens und Assyriens, i, 544 f., and discussion by him in article "The 'Bearded' Venus" in Revue archeologique, 1911, i.

[742] See for Lenormant's view Gazette archeologique, 1876 and 1879, and Jastrow's criticism in the article cited in the preceding note.

[743] Lajard, Recherches sur le culte de Venus. He is followed by A. Jeremias, The Old Testament in the Light of the Ancient East (Eng. tr.), i, 123.

[744] Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum, l, i, p. 13.

[745] 1 Sam. xii, 28; Deut. xxviii, 10. The angel in whom is Yahweh's name (Ex. xxiii, 21) has the authority of the deity.

[746] Cf. Dillmann, in Monatsbericht der Akademie der Wissenschaften (Berlin, 1881). The feminine form given to Baal in Rom. xi, 3 f., may refer to the disparaging term 'shame' (Heb. boshet, for which the Greek would be aischunē) often substituted by the late editors of the Old Testament for Baal. Saul's son Ishbaal ('man of Baal') is called Ishbosheth, Jonathan's son Meribbaal is called Mephibosheth, etc.

[747] Dillmann (loc. cit.) combines shamē with Ashtart, as if the sense were 'the heavenly Ashtart of Baal'—an impossible rendering; but he also interprets the phrase to mean 'Ashtart the consort of the heavenly Baal.' Halevy, Melanges, p. 33; Ed. Meyer, in Roscher's Lexikon, article "Astarte."

[748] Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum, i, i, no. 195; i, ii, no. 1, al. Tanit appears to be identical in character and cult with Ashtart.

[749] See below, Sec. 411 f.: cf. W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, 2d ed., p. 478.

[750] A similar interpretation is given by Baethgen in his Semitische Religionsgeschichte, p. 267 f. His "monistic" view, however, that various deities were regarded as manifestations of the supreme deity is not tenable.

[751] Servius, Commentary on Vergil, AEn. ii, 632; Macrobius, Saturnalia, iii, 8 on the same passage.

[752] There are manuscript variations in the text of Servius, but these do not affect the sense derived from the two authors, and need not be considered here.

[753] Cf. Frazer, Adonis Attis Osiris p. 428 ff.

[754] Servius, "they call her"; Macrobius, "Aristophanes calls her." But who this Aristophanes is, or where he so calls her, we are not informed.

[755] So Jastrow, in the article cited above. Remarking on the statement of Lydus (in De Mensibus, ii, 10) that the Pamphylians formerly worshiped a bearded Venus, he calls attention to the Carian priestess of Athene (Herodotus, i, 175; viii, 104), who, when misfortune was impending, had (or grew) a great beard—a mark of power, but presumably not a genuine growth. Exactly what this story means it is hard to say.

[756] Pausanias, vii, 17; Amobius, v, 5.

[757] Roscher, Lexikon, articles "Agdistis," "Attis"; Frazer, Adonis Attis Osiris, p.219 f.; H. Hepding, Attis; cf. Pseudo-Lucian, De Syria Dea, 15 (Attis assumes female form and dress).

[758] This practice seems to be an exaggerated form of the savage custom of self-wounding in honor of the dead (to obtain their favor), interpreted in developed cults as a sacrifice to the deity or as a means of union with him.

[759] On the wide diffusion of cults of mother-goddesses see below, Sec.Sec. 729, 734, 762, etc.

[760] Cf. Pseudo-Lucian, De Syria Dea 15; Ed. Meyer, Geschichte des Alteriums, 2d ed., i, 649, 651; Lagrange, Etudes sur les religions semitiques, 2d ed., p. 241; Hepding, Attis, p. 162.

[761] See above, Sec. 411.

[762] In Theophrastus, Characters, article 16 (Roscher, Lexikon, 8. v. Hermaphroditos).

[763] Roscher, article cited.

[764] Hopkins, Religions of India, pp. 447, 492.

[765] H. Ellis, Psychology of Sex, i, passim.

[766] Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, chap. xliii.

[767] Cf. Sec. 251 ff.

[768] Dulaure, Des divinites generatrices. Cf. Hartland, Primitive Paternity, chap. ii.

[769] See below, Chap. XI.

[770] J. F. McLennan, Studies in Ancient History; Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy; A. Lang, Social Origins; A. E. Crawley, in Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tylor; N. W. Thomas, ibid.

[771] Fraser (Totemism and Exogamy, iv, 135), thinks it possible that exogamy of totemic clans is always exogamy in decay.

[772] L. H. Morgan (the discoverer of the system), Ancient Society; W. H. R. Rivers in Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tylor.

[773] For the supposition of promiscuity are Morgan (op. cit., p. 54), Spencer and Gillen (Native Tribes of Central Australia, p. 100 ff.), and others; against are Westermarck (Human Marriage, chap. iv), Crawley (The Mystic Rose, p. 479 ff.), and others.

[774] Cf. Morgan, op. cit., p. 27, and part ii, chap. i.

[775] Howitt, Native Tribes of South-East Australia, p. 269 ff.

[776] Gen. xx, 12; the rule was later abrogated (Ezek. xxii, 11; Lev. xviii, 9).

[777] J. F. McLennan, Studies in Ancient History, first series, p. 90 ff.; second series, chap. vii.

[778] L. H. Morgan, Ancient Society, p. 424 ff.; Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, i, 164 ff.

[779] Westermarck, Human Marriage, chaps. xiv-xvi; Crawley, The Mystic Rose, p. 222. Cf. Darwin, Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication, ii, 103 f.

[780] J. J. Atkinson, Primal Law (in volume with Lang's Social Origins, p. 210 ff.).

[781] E. Durkheim, in Annee sociologique, i, 1-70.

[782] Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, iv, 75 ff.

[783] See references in Sec. 426.

[784] H. Ellis, Psychology of Sex, i, 36 f.; Crawley, in Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tylor.

[785] See above, Sec. 431.

[786] See above, Sec. 429, and compare Howard, History of Matrimonial Institutions, i, 121 ff.

[787] Details are given in Frazer's Totemism and Exogamy.

[788] Cf. below, Sec. 442.

[789] On two supposed human totems, Laughing Boys and Nursing Mothers, see Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, i, 160, 253; ii, 520 f.

[790] Sec. 436.

[791] So, apparently, among the Nandi (Hollis, The Nandi, pp. 6, 61).

[792] As among the Australian Arunta (Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, pp. 116, 125 ff.).

[793] Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, ii, 136; iii, 321; Boas, The Kwakiutl, p. 328 ff.

[794] Haddon and Rivers, Expedition to Torres Straits, v, 158 ff.; Seligmann, The Melanesians of British New Guinea, pp. 51, 320.

[795] Fraser, Totemism and Exogamy, ii, 200; iii, 40, 227, 267, 281, 322.

[796] Swanton, Tlingit Myths (Bulletin 39, Bureau of American Ethnology).

[797] See below, Sec. 544 ff.

[798] For the details of totemic customs reference may be made, once for all, to Frazer's encyclopedic Totemism and Exogamy.

[799] Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, pp. 415, 423, etc.

[800] Rivers, Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, xxxix; Man, viii.

[801] Brinton, The Lenape, p. 39.

[802] E. F. im Thurn, Indians of Guiana, p. 184.

[803] For the Mandingos of Senegambia see Revue d'ethnographie, v, 81, cited in Frazer's Totemism and Exogamy, ii, 544.

[804] Teit, Thompson River Indians, p. 95.

[805] Swanton, Tlingit Myths, and Jesup North Pacific Expedition, v, 231; Boas, The Kwakiutl, pp. 323, 336 f.

[806] Seligmann, The Melanesians of British New Guinea, p. 679; in the Louisiade group belief in direct descent is said to exist (p. 743).

[807] Cf. the remarks of Boas in the Introduction to Teit's Thompson River Indians.

[808] On the other hand, the Kurnai, who are not totemic, refrain, apparently, from eating their sex-patrons.

[809] This report was made in 1841, before the natives had come in contact with the whites.

[810] In the Banks Islands the restrictions of eating relate to the patrons of individual persons; see Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, xxxix, 165 f.

[811] Rivers, The Todas, Index, s.v. Food, restriction on.

[812] Cf. Matthews, Navaho Legends, p. 239, note 169; Franciscan Fathers, Ethnologic Dictionary p. 507.

[813] Teit, Thompson River Indians, p. 77.

[814] Cf. A. M. Tozzer, Comparative Study of the Mayas and the Lacandones (of Yucatan), and the literature given in articles "America, South" and "Brazil" in Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics.

[815] J. W. Fewkes is of opinion that the great Snake dance (an economic function) was formerly conducted by the Snake clan (Sixteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, p. 304).

[816] The choice of the object is determined by local conditions that are not known to us. Sometimes, probably, the object is the one most important for the welfare of the community; sometimes it may have come from accident. See below, Sec. 554 ff.

[817] The artificial objects that are regarded, in a few cases, as totems are probably of late origin, the product of reflection, and thus differing from the old totems, which arise in an unreflective time. However, the artificial totems are doubtless sometimes looked on as powerful; in some cases they may be little more than badges.

[818] This is Frazer's definition (in his Totemism p. 1), supplemented by the words "not worshiped." Cf., on the whole subject, Tylor, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxviii, 144; F. Boas, in American Journal of Psychology, xxi; A. A. Goldenweiser, "Totemism," in Journal of American Folklore, xxiii (1910).

[819] For a preciser definition of totemism see below, Sec. 520.

[820] The details are given in Frazer's Totemism and Exogamy.

[821] Certain Arunta traditions appear to point to a time when the totem was freely eaten. The bird-mates of the clans may be regarded as secondary totems—perhaps a survival from a time when a clan might have more than one totem.

[822] Spencer and Gillen, Northern Tribes of Central Australia, pp. 173, 318.

[823] The clan-names may formerly have been totemic, but data for the decision of this point are lacking.

[824] So Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, iv, 173.

[825] Cf. H. Webster, Primitive Secret Societies, pp. 1, 121 ff.; Crawley, The Mystic Rose, pp. 41 f., 45, 350, 454 ff.; Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, ii, 28 ff.; Hobhouse, Morals in Evolution, i, 183 ff., 188 ff.

[826] C. G. Seligmann, The Melanesians of British New Guinea, chaps. xxxv, 1.

[827] Such a belief is said to exist in the Aru archipelago (Papuan) west of New Guinea. There the family, and not the clan, is the social unit; every family has its badge or crest.

[828] Melanesia is here taken to include the Bismarck Archipelago (New Britain, New Ireland, and adjacent islands) and the islands lying to the eastward as far as the 180th meridian of longitude, though in this area there is in some places Polynesian influence.

[829] So Reverend George Brown, Melanesians and Polynesians, p. 28.

[830] This usage is reported for Florida Island.

[831] On the question whether these gods are a development out of totem animals see below, Sec. 577.

[832] On the relation of this idea to Frazer's theory of "conceptional totemism" see below, Sec. 548.

[833] It might then seem that the deity was originally the animal; see below, Sec. 577.

[834] As to the significance of this fact cf. below, Sec. 529 ff.

[835] W. H. Furness, 3d, The Island of Stone-Money.

[836] On the large theistic material of the Pelews see Frazer, Adonis Attis Osiris, pp. 386, 428 ff., with references to J. Kubary, "Die Religion der Pelauer" (in A. Bastian's Allerlei aus Volks- und Menschenkunde).

[837] Cf. below, Sec. 577.

[838] Exogamy is said to exist in the atoll Lua Niua, in the Lord Howe group; the population is described as Polynesian (Brown, Melanesians and Polynesians, p. 414 ff.); Dr. Brown thinks it probable that exogamous classes formerly existed in Samoa, to which place the Lua Niua people, he holds, are ultimately to be traced.

[839] Certain septs (among the Telugus and others) are named from inanimate (some times artificial) objects.

[840] The usages mentioned in article "Burma" in Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, iii, 24, do not necessarily show totemism.

[841] The Iroquois stock occupied an immense territory, partly in Canada, partly in the region now including the states of New York, Pennsylvania, Kentucky, Tennessee, Georgia, Alabama, and the Carolinas.

[842] Cf. Gatschet, Migration Legend of the Creeks, p. 24 ff.

[843] The Wyandots, who were allied to the Iroquois, dwelt in the district north of Lake Ontario.

[844] The Algonkins formerly ranged over a large territory extending along the Atlantic coast as far south as North Carolina and reaching westward to the Mississippi.

[845] It was from the Ojibwas that our word 'totem' was taken.

[846] A similar role, somewhat vague, is assigned to two supernatural beings in Australia (Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, p. 388; cf. p. 246).

[847] Gatschet, Migration Legend of the Creeks, p. 177 ff. It was expiatory, and was accompanied by a moral reconstruction of society, a new beginning, with old scores wiped out. Cf. the Cherokee Green Corn dance (see article "Cherokees" in Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics).

[848] Dorsey, The Skidi Pawnee, p. xviii. The Pawnee had a fairly well-developed pantheon, and a civil government based on rank (chiefs, warriors, priests, magicians). They lived in endogamous villages; in every village there was a sacred bundle, and all the people of the village were considered to be descendants of the original owner of the bundle.

[849] Will and Spinden, The Mandans (Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University, vol. iii, 1906), p. 129 ff.

[850] J. W. Fewkes, The Winter Solstice Ceremony at Walpi (reprint from The American Anthropologist, vol. xi, 1898), with bibliography.

[851] Fewkes, Journal of American Ethnology and Archaeology, iv, and Journal of American Folklore, iv.

[852] The stocks or groups are, going from north to south: the Dene or Athabascans (middle of Alaska and running east and west); the Tlingit (Southern Alaska); the Haidas (Queen Charlotte Islands and adjacent islands); the Tsimshians (valleys of the Nass and Skeena rivers and adjacent islands); the Kwakiutl (coast of British Columbia, from Gardiner Channel to Cape Mudge, but not the west coast of Vancouver Island); the Nootkas (west coast of Vancouver Island); the Salish (eastern part of Vancouver Island, and parts of British Columbia, Washington, Idaho, and Montana); the Kootenay (near Kootenay Lake and adjoining parts of the United States). See the authorities cited by Frazer in Totemism and Exogamy.

[853] Sec. 445 f.

[854] Cf. the divergent native accounts of the Melanesian buto (Codrington, The Melanesians, p. 31 ff.).

[855] In North America, in the Iroquois, Algonkin, Maskoki (Creek), and Siouan stocks; in Central America and South America; in Borneo and East Africa; and elsewhere.

[856] R. B. Dixon, The Northern Maidu (Central California), p. 223; id., The Shasta (Northern California and Oregon), p. 451; id., The Chimariko Indians (west of the Shasta, on Trinity River), p. 301; A. L. Kroeber, article "California" in Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics.

[857] Article "Bantu" in Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics.

[858] Hollis, The Masai, Index, and The Nandi, p. 5 f.

[859] A hint of an earlier usage is given in a legend which relates that totemic clans were ordained by a king to the end that certain sorts of food might be taboo to certain families, and thus animals might have a better chance to multiply.

[860] See the volumes of A. B. Ellis on these countries (chapters on "Gods" and on "Government").

[861] A. van Gennep, Tabou et totemisme a Madagascar, p. 314.

[862] On this point see below, Sec. 522 ff.

[863] For the details see W. R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia (includes the Hebrews); Joseph Jacobs, "Are there Totem-clans in the Old Testament?" (in Archaeological Review, vol. iii); A. Lang, Custom and Myth (on the Greek genos), and Myth, Ritual, and Religion, i, 266 ff.; ii, 226; S. Reinach, Cultes, mythes et religions (Greek and Celtic); Gardner and Jevons, Greek Antiquities, p. 68 ff., etc.; Fowler, Roman Festivals, p. 84 f.; G. L. Gomme, "Totemism in Britain" (in Archaeological Review, vol. iii); N. W. Thomas, "La survivance du culte totemique des animaux et les rites agraires dans le pays de Galles" (in Revue de l'histoire des religions, vol. xxxviii).

[864] Names are omitted that appear to belong only to individuals or to places.

[865] G. B. Gray, Hebrew Proper Names, p. 86 ff.

[866] Strabo, Geographica, xiii, 588.

[867] Herodotus, ii, 37, 42; Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheke Historike, i, 70.

[868] Lev. xi; Deut. xiv.

[869] Stengel and Oehmichen, Die griechischen Sakralaltertuemer, p. 27.

[870] Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., i, 241 f.

[871] Caesar, De Bello Gallico, v, 12.

[872] Herodotus, ii, 42.

[873] Pausanias, i, 24, 4. On the death of the god cf. Frazer, The Dying God.

[874] Herodotus, ii, 39 ff., W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, 2d ed., additional note G; the Roman Lupercalia.

[875] Diodorus Siculus, i, 86 (Egypt); cf. Pliny, Historia Naturalis, x, 4 f.

[876] W. R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia, chap. viii (Semites).

[877] See above, Sec.Sec. 441 ff., 466, and below, Sec. 526; Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, Index, s.vv. Animals and Totems.

[878] See above, Sec. 443 ff.

[879] So, also, in Northeastern Asia, in the Japan archipelago (the Ainu), and in low African tribes.

[880] Where sexual license before marriage prevails, young girls are allowed to go to these houses.

[881] H. Webster, Primitive Secret Societies.

[882] G. Brown, Melanesians and Polynesians, p. 60 ff.

[883] Mary Kingsley, West African Studies, p. 384, and Travels in West Africa, p. 532 ff.; Ellis, Yoruba, p. 110.