CHAPTER II

CHANGES IN COMPOSITION OF FOODS DURING COOKING AND PREPARATION

116. How do raw and cooked foods compare in general composition? 117. In what ways are foods acted upon during cooking? 118. What causes chemical changes to take place during cooking? 119. What are the principal compounds that are changed during the process of cooking? 120. How does cooking affect the cellulose of foods? 121. What change does starch undergo during cooking? 122. When foods containing starch are baked, what change occurs? 123. How are the sugars acted upon when foods are cooked? 124. What effect does dry heat have upon sugar? 125. What change occurs to the fats during cooking? 126. How does this affect nutritive value? 127. What changes do the proteids undergo during cooking? 128. Why does the action of heat affect various proteids in different ways? 129. Why are chemical changes, as hydration, often desirable in the cooking and preparation of foods? 130. What physical changes do vegetable and animal tissues undergo when cooked? 131. How do foods change in weight during cooking? 132. Why is a prolonged high temperature unnecessary to secure the best results in cooking? 133. To what extent is the energy of fuels utilized for producing mechanical and chemical changes in foods during cooking? 134. What effect does cooking have upon the bacterial flora of foods? 135. In what ways do bacteria exert a favorable influence in the preparation of foods? 136. How may certain classes of bacteria exert unfavorable changes in the preparation of foods? 137. What are the insoluble ferments? 138. What are the soluble ferments? 139. What part do they take in animal and plant nutrition? 140. Define aerobic ferments. 141. Define anaerobic ferments. 142. What general relationship exists between the chemical, physical, and bacteriological changes that take place in foods? 143. Why should foods also possess an esthetic value? 144. What kinds of colors should be used in the preparation of foods? 145. What processes should be used for removal of coloring materials from foods?

CHAPTER III

VEGETABLE FOODS

146. Give the general composition of vegetable foods as a class. 147. How do vegetable foods differ from animal foods? 148. Name some vegetables which contain the maximum, and some which contain the minimum percentage of protein. 149. Give the general composition of potatoes. 150. Of what is the dry matter mainly composed? 151. How much of the crude protein of potatoes is true protein? 152. What ratio exists between the nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous compounds in the potato? 153. Give the chemical composition of the potato. 154. What influence do different methods of boiling have upon the crude protein content of potatoes? 155. To what extent are the nutrients of potatoes digested and absorbed by the body? 156. What value do potatoes impart to the ration? 157. How do sweet potatoes differ in chemical composition and food value from white potatoes? 158. How do carrots differ in composition from potatoes? 159. What is characteristic of the dry matter of the carrot? 160. How do carrots and milk differ in composition? 161. To what is the color of the carrot due? 162. To what extent are the nutrients removed in the cooking of carrots? 163. What is the value of carrots in a ration? 164. Give the characteristics of the composition of parsnips. 165. How does the starch of parsnips differ from that of potatoes? 166. How does the mineral matter of parsnips differ from that of potatoes? 167. How does the cabbage differ in general composition from many vegetables? 168. To what extent are nutrients extracted in the boiling of cabbage? 169. Give the nutritive value of cabbage. 170. How does the cauliflower differ from cabbage? 171. Give the general composition of beets. 172. Give the general composition of cucumbers. 173. What nutritive value has lettuce? 174. Give the composition and dietetic value of onions. 175. How does the ratio of nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous compounds in spinach differ from that in many other vegetables? 176. Give the general composition and nutritive value of asparagus. 177. How much nutritive material do melons contain? 178. What are the principal compounds of tomatoes? 179. What nutrients do they supply to the ration? 180. In the canning of tomatoes, why is it desirable to conserve the juices? 181. How does sweet corn differ in composition from fully matured corn? 182. What nutritive value does the egg plant possess? 183. What are the principal nutrients of squash? 184. What nutritive material does celery contain? 185. To what does celery owe its dietetic value? 186. Why are vegetables necessary in a ration? 187. Why is it not possible to value many vegetable foods simply on the basis of percentage of nutrients present? 188. Name the miscellaneous compounds which many vegetables contain, and the characteristics which these may impart. 189. Why is it necessary to consider the sanitary conditions of vegetables? 190. How do canned vegetables differ in composition and food value from fresh vegetables? 191. What proportion of vegetables is refuse and non-edible parts? 192. Why is it necessary to consider the refuse of a food in determining its nutritive value?

CHAPTER IV

FRUITS

193. To what extent do fruits contain water and dry matter? 194. Give the general composition of fruits. 195. What compounds impart taste and flavor? 196. How much nutrients do fruits add to a ration? 197. Why is it not right to determine the value of fruits entirely on the basis of nutrients? 198. Give the general composition of apples? 199. What compound is present to the greatest extent in the dry matter of apples? 200. How do apples differ in composition? 201. Give the general physical composition of oranges. 202. What nutrients are present to the greatest extent in oranges? 203. How do lemons differ in composition from oranges? 204. How does grape fruit resemble and how differ in chemical composition from oranges and lemons? 205. What are the main compounds in strawberries? 206. In what ways are strawberries valuable in a ration? 207. Of what is grape juice mainly composed? 208. What acid is in grapes, and what is its commercial value? 209. To what are the differences in flavor and taste due? 210. How do ripe olives differ in composition from green olives? 211. What is the food value of the olive? 212. What physiological property does olive oil have? 213. What is the principal nutrient in peaches? 214. What compounds give flavor to peaches? 215. Of what does the dry matter of plums mainly consist? 216. How do plums differ in composition from many other fruits? 217. What are prunes? What is their food value? 218. How do dried fruits differ in composition from fresh fruits? 219. What should be the stage of ripeness of fruit in order to secure the best results in canning? 220. How do canned fruits differ in composition and nutritive value from fresh fruits? 221. To what extent are metals dissolved by fruit juices? 222. Why should tin in which canned goods are preserved be of good quality? 223. What preservatives are sometimes used in the preparation of canned fruits? 224. What is the objection to their use? 225. Why are fruits necessary in the ration? 226. What change does heat bring about in the pectose substances of fruits?

CHAPTER V

SUGAR, MOLASSES, SIRUPS, HONEY, AND CONFECTIONS

227. What is sugar? 228. From what sources are sugars obtained? 229. Name the two divisions into which sugars are divided. 230. How are sugars graded commercially? 231. What per cent of purity has granulated sugar? 232. How is the coloring material of sugar removed? 233. How is sugar treated to make it whiter? 234. What value as a nutrient does sugar possess? 235. Why should sugar be combined with other nutrients? 236. What foods contain appreciable amounts of sugar? 237. Why is an excessive amount of sugar in a ration undesirable? 238. Does sugar possess more than condimental value? 239. What is the average quantity of sugar consumed in this country? 240. What is maple sugar? 241. How does it differ in composition from other sugar? 242. How is adulterated maple sugar detected? 243. To what extent is granulated sugar adulterated? 244. Why is it not easily adulterated? 245. What are the dextrose sugars? 246. How do they differ chemically from sucrose? 247. What is the inversion of sugar? 248. In what way does acid act upon sugar? 249. How are the acid products removed? 250. What is the food value of glucose? 251. What is molasses? 252. How is it obtained? 253. Of what is it composed? 254. What gives taste and flavor to molasses? 255. How may molasses act upon metalware? 256. What is the food value of molasses? 257. What is sirup? 258. Name three kinds of sirup, and mention materials from which they are prepared. 259. What is the polariscope, and how is it employed in sugar work? 260. What is honey? 261. How does it differ in composition from sugar? 262. How is strained honey adulterated? 263. What materials are used in the preparation of confections? 264. What changes take place in their manufacture? 265. What materials are used for imparting color? 266. What can you say in regard to the coal tar colors? 267. What should be the position of candy in the dietary? 268. What can you say of the comparative value of cane and beet sugar? 269. How do the commercial grades of sugar compare as to nutritive value? 270. What are some of the impurities in candy? 271. What is saccharine? 272. What are its properties?

CHAPTER VI

LEGUMES AND NUTS

273. What nutrients do the legumes contain in comparatively large amounts? 274. How does the amount of this nutrient compare with that found in meats? 275. Why are legumes valuable crops in general farming and for the feeding of farm animals? 276. Give the general composition of beans. 277. How do beans compare in protein content with cereals? 278. How does the protein of beans differ from that of many other food materials? 279. To what extent are the nutrients of beans digested? 280. What influence does the combination of beans with other foods have upon digestibility? 281. What influence does removal of skins have upon digestibility? 282. In what part of the digestive tract are beans mainly digested? 283. How does the cost of the nutrients in beans compare with that of the nutrients in other foods? 284. How do string beans differ from green beans? 285. Give the general composition, digestibility, and nutritive value of peas. 286. What can you say of the use of copper sulphate in the preparation of canned peas? 287. What nutrients do peanuts contain in large amounts? 288. Give the general composition of nuts. 289. What are the characteristics of pistachio? 290. Give the general composition of the cocoanut. 291. What is cocoanut butter? 292. To what extent may nuts contribute to the nutritive value of a ration?

CHAPTER VII

MILK AND DAIRY PRODUCTS

293. What can you say as to the importance of dairy products in the dietary? 294. Give the general composition of milk. 295. What compound in milk is most variable? 296. To what extent are the nutrients in milk digestible? 297. What influence does milk have upon the digestibility of other foods? 298. Why is cheese cured in cold storage? 299. How can the tendency of a milk diet to produce costiveness be overcome? 300. Why is it necessary to consider the sanitary condition of milk? 301. What factors influence the sanitary condition of milk? 302. What is certified milk? 303. What is pasteurized milk? 304. How can milk be pasteurized for family use? 305. What is tyrotoxicon? 306. What is its source in milk? 307. To what is the color of milk due? 308. To what extent is color associated with fat content? 309. What causes souring of milk? 310. What change occurs in the milk sugar? 311. What are the most favorable conditions for the souring of milk? 312. What are some of the preservatives used in milk. 313. What objection is urged against their use? 314. What is condensed milk? 315. What is buttermilk, and what dietetic value has it? 316. How does goats' milk differ from cows' milk? 317. What is koumiss, and how is it prepared? 318. What are the prepared milks? 319. How does human milk differ in composition from cows' milk? 320. Give the nutritive value of skim milk. 321. What content of fat should cream contain? 322. In what ways is milk adulterated? 323. How are these adulterations detected? 324. Give the general composition of butter. 325. What is the maximum amount of water that a butter may contain without being considered adulterated? 326. What can you say in regard to the digestibility of butter? 327. How is butter adulterated? 328. How does oleomargarine compare in digestibility and food value with butter? 329. What is the food value of butter? 330. How does cheese differ in composition from butter? 331. Give the general composition of cheese. 332. To what are the flavor and odor of cheese due? 333. Why is cheese ripened? 334. What chemical changes take place during ripening? 335. To what extent are the nutrients of cheese digested? 336. Why is cheese sometimes considered indigestible? 337. To what extent do the nutrients of different kinds of cheese vary in digestibility? 338. How does cheese compare in nutritive value and cost with meats? 339. What is cottage cheese? 340. What is Roquefort cheese? 341. Name four kinds of cheese, and say to what each owes its individuality. 342. How is cheese adulterated? 343. Why are dairy products in older agricultural regions generally cheaper than meats?

CHAPTER VIII

MEATS AND ANIMAL FOOD PRODUCTS

344. Give the general composition of meats. 345. How do meats differ in chemical composition from vegetable foods? 346. What is the principal non-nitrogenous compound of meats, and what of vegetables? 347. Name the different classes of proteins in meats. 348. Which class is present in largest amounts? 349. To what extent are amid compounds present in meats? 350. What characteristics do amids impart to meats? 351. How are alkaloids produced in meats? 352. In what ways does the lean meat of different kinds of animals vary chemically and physically? 353. Give the general composition of beef. 354. What relationship exists between the fat and water content of beef? 355. How much refuse have meats? 356. In what forms are the ash elements (mineral matter) present in meats? 357. How does veal differ in composition from beef? 358. What general changes in composition occur as animals mature? 359. How do these compare with the changes that take place when plants ripen and seeds are produced? 360. How does mutton vary in composition from beef? 361. How does it compare in food value with beef? 362. How do lamb and mutton differ in composition? 363. To what extent do the various cuts differ in composition? 364. How do the more expensive cuts of lamb compare in nutritive value with the less expensive cuts? 365. How does pork differ in composition from other meats? 366. Give the general composition of ham. 367. Give the composition and nutritive value of bacon. 368. How does bacon compare in food value with other meats? 369. How does the character of the fat influence the composition and taste of the meat? 370. What influences the texture or toughness of meats? 371. How do cooked meats compare in composition with raw meats? 372. To what extent are nutrients lost in the boiling of meats? 373. What influence does the temperature of the water in which the meat is placed for cooking have upon the amount of nutrients extracted? 374. To what is the shrinking of meats in cooking due? 375. Of what does meat extract mainly consist? 376. To what do beef extracts owe their flavor? 377. What is their food value? 378. What is their dietetic value? 379. What is lard? 380. How does it differ in composition from other fats? 381. What is imparted to meats during the smoking process? 382. Why is saltpeter used in the preservation of meats? 383. Do vegetable foods contain nitrates and nitrites? 384. How does poultry resemble and how differ in composition from other meat? 385. Give the characteristics of sound poultry. 386. Give the general composition of fish. 387. How does the flesh of different kinds of fish vary in composition? 388. What influence does salting and preservation have upon composition? 389. How do fish and meat compare in digestibility? 390. How does the mineral matter and phosphate content of fish compare with that of other foods? 391. What are the main nutrients in oysters? 392. Give the general food value of oysters. 393. What is meant by the fattening of oysters? 394. What effect does the character of the water used in fattening have upon the sanitary value? 395. Give the general composition of the egg. 396. How do different parts of the egg differ in composition? 397. How does the egg differ in composition from the potato? 398. Is color an index to the composition of the egg? 399. What effect does cooking have upon the composition of the egg? 400. What factors influence the flavor of eggs? 401. How do different ways of cooking affect the digestibility? 402. Under what conditions can eggs be used economically in the dietary? 403. Why should eggs be purchased and sold by weight? 404. How do canned meats differ in composition from fresh meats? 405. How do the nutrients of canned meats compare in cost with those of fresh meat? 406. What are the advantages of canned meats over fresh meats? 407. What are some of the materials used in the preservation of meats?

CHAPTER IX

CEREALS

408. How are the cereals milled? 409. What are the cereals most commonly used for food purposes? 410. Give the general composition of cereals as a class. 411. What are the main nutrients in corn preparations? 412. What influence does the more complete removal of the bran and germ of corn have upon its digestibility? 413. How does the cost of nutrients in corn compare with other foods? 414. Why is corn alone not suitable for bread-making purposes? 415. Why should corn be combined in a ration with foods mediumly rich in protein? 416. What change takes place in corn meal from long storage? 417. Give the characteristics and composition of oat preparations. 418. How does removal of the oat hull affect the composition of the product? 419. To what extent do the various oat preparations on the market differ in composition and food value? 420. Do oats contain any special alkaloidal or stimulating principle? 421. Why should oatmeal receive longer and more-thorough cooking than many other foods? 422. To what extent are the nutrients in oatmeal digested? 423. How do wheat preparations differ in general composition from corn and oat preparations? 424. What influence upon the composition of the wheat breakfast foods has partial or complete removal of the bran? 425. What is the effect upon their digestibility and nutritive value? 426. What are the special diabetic flours, and how are they prepared? 427. What are the wheat middlings breakfast foods, and how do they compare in digestibility and food value with bread? 428. How do they differ mechanically? 429. How does barley differ from wheat in general composition? 430. What is barley water, and what nutritive material does it contain? 431. What cereal does rice resemble in composition? 432. With what food materials should rice be combined to make a balanced ration? 433. What can you say as to comparative ease and completeness of digestibility of rice? 434. Why are cereals valuable in the ration? 435. In what way do they take a mechanical part in digestion? 436. What are predigested breakfast foods? 437. How would you determine the general nutritive value of a breakfast food, knowing the kind of cereal from which it was prepared? 438. To what extent are cereals modified or changed in composition by cooking? 439. To what extent are the nutrients of cereal foods digested and absorbed by the body? 440. To what extent do the cereals supply the body with mineral matter? 441. How does the phosphate content of cereals compare with that of meats and milk?

CHAPTER X

WHEAT FLOUR

442. Why is wheat flour especially adapted to bread-making purposes? 443. To what extent may wheat vary in protein content? 444. What are spring wheats? 445. What are winter wheats? 446. Give the general characteristics of each. 447. What are glutinous wheats? 448. What are starchy wheats? 449. Name the different proteids in wheat flour. 450. About how much starch does wheat flour contain? 451. What other carbohydrates are also present? 452. What is the roller process of flour milling? 453. What is meant by the first break? 454. How are the different products of the wheat kernel separated? 455. What is meant by middlings flour? 456. What is break flour? 457. What is patent flour? 458. Name the high grade flours. 459. Name the low grade flours. 460. How are the impurities removed from wheat flour? 461. What per cent of the wheat kernel is returned as flour? As offals? 462. What becomes of the wheat germ during milling? 463. What sized bolting cloths are used in milling? 464. What is graham flour? 465. How does it differ in mechanical and chemical composition from white flour? 466. What is entire wheat flour? 467. How does it differ in physical and chemical composition from white flour? 468. What effect has the refining of flour upon the ash content? 469. How do low and high grade flours differ in chemical composition? 470. How do the wheat offals differ in composition from the flour? 471. What are the factors which influence the composition of flours? 472. What effect does storage have upon the bread-making value of flour? 473. What change takes place when new wheat is stored in an elevator? 474. What is durum wheat flour, and how does it differ from other flour? 475. What gives flour its color? 476. Why is color an index of grade? 477. How is the color of a flour determined? 478. How do flours differ in granulation? 479. How does the granulation affect the physical properties of flour? 480. How is the granulation of flour approximately determined? 481. How is the absorptive capacity of a flour determined? 482. What factors cause a variation in the capacity of flours to absorb water? 483. Give the characteristics of a good gluten. 484. What causes unsound flours? 485. How is the bread-making value of a flour determined? 486. How are flours bleached? 487. How does bleaching affect the chemical composition of flour? 488. What influence does bleaching have upon bread-making value? 489. Traces of what compounds are formed during bleaching? 490. Are these compounds injurious to health? 491. What effect does bleaching have upon the color of fiber and debris particles in flour? 492. Is it possible to bleach low grade flours and cause them to resemble high grade flours? 493. Are flours usually adulterated? 494. Why? 495. How would mineral adulterants be detected? 496. How would the presence of other cereals be detected? 497. How does flour compare in nutritive value with other foods? 498. How does the cost of flour compare with that of other foods? 499. What causes flours to vary so in bread-making value? 500. Why may flours produced from the same type of wheat vary slightly in character from year to year? 501. What relationship exists between the nutritive and bread-making value of a flour?

CHAPTER XI

BREAD AND BREAD MAKING

502. Define leavened and unleavened bread. 503. Why is yeast used in bread making? 504. Give the characteristics of a good loaf of bread. 505. Why is flour used for bread making purposes? 506. Name the eight chemical changes that take place during bread making. 507. To what extent do losses in dry matter occur during bread making? 508. What compounds suffer losses during bread making? 509. What is yeast? 510. What chemical changes does it produce? 511. What becomes of these products during bread making? 512. How is compressed yeast made? 513. What part does the alcohol take in bread making? 514. What temperature is reached in the interior of the loaf during bread making? 515. Through what chemical changes does starch pass during bread making? 516. To what extent are soluble carbohydrates formed? 517. In what way is starch acted upon mechanically? 518. Explain the structure of the starch grains in flour and in dough after they have been acted upon by the yeast ferments. 519. To what extent are acids produced in bread making? 520. What becomes of the acids formed? 521. How may the acids thus developed affect the properties of other chemical compounds? 522. To what extent are volatile carbon compounds, other than carbon dioxid and alcohol, liberated during bread making? 523. What changes occur to the various proteids during the process of bread making? 524. Why do flours vary in quality of gluten? 525. To what extent do losses of nitrogen occur during bread making? 526. How much of the total nitrogen of flour is present as proteids? 527. How is the fat of flour affected during the process of bread making? 528. What effect does the addition of 10 per cent of wheat starch to flour have upon the size of the loaf? 529. What effect does the addition of 10 per cent of wheat gluten to flour have upon the size of the loaf? 530. What relationship exists between gluten content and capacity of a flour to absorb water? 531. Give the general composition of bread. 532. What factors influence its composition? 533. What effect does the use of skim milk and lard in bread making have upon composition? 534. How does the temperature of the flour influence the bread-making process? 535. Why is it necessary to vary the process of bread making in order to get the best results with different kinds of flour? 536. To what extent are the nutrients of bread digested? 537. How does graham bread compare in digestibility with white bread? 538. How do graham and entire wheat breads compare in nutritive value with white bread? 539. What value do graham and entire wheat breads have in the dietary? 540. Why is white bread generally preferable in the dietary of the laboring man? 541. How do graham and entire wheat flours compare in chemical composition with white flour? 542. How do they compare in mechanical composition? 543. To what is the difference in digestibility supposed to be due? 544. Are graham and entire wheat breads necessary in a ration as a source of mineral elements? 545. What is the main difference in composition between old and new bread? 546. How do different kinds of bread made from the same flour compare in composition and nutritive value? 447. How does toast differ in composition from bread? 548. What influence does toasting have upon digestibility? 549. What is gained by toasting bread? 550. How does bread compare in nutritive value with other cereal foods? 551. How does bread compare in nutritive value with animal foods?

CHAPTER XII

BAKING POWDERS

552. What is a baking powder? 553. What are the two kinds of materials which baking powders contain? 554. Name the different types of baking powders. 555. How does baking powder differ in its action from yeast? 556. What are the cream of tartar baking powders? 557. What is the nature of the residue which they leave? 558. What are the phosphate baking powders? 559. What is the nature of the residue which they leave? 560. Why is the mineral phosphate not considered equally valuable with that naturally present in foods? 561. What are the alum baking powders? 562. What residue is left from the alum powders? 563. Which of the three classes of baking powders is considered the least objectionable? 564. Why is a new baking powder preferable to one that has been kept a long time? 565. Why should baking powders be kept in tin cans, and not in paper? 566. Why are fillers used in the manufacture of baking powders? 567. How may a baking powder be prepared at home? 568. How does such a baking powder compare in cost and efficiency with those purchased in the market?

CHAPTER XIII

VINEGARS, SPICES, AND CONDIMENTS

569. What is vinegar? 570. How is it made? 571. Give the three chemical changes that take place in its preparation. 572. Why is air necessary in the last stage of the process? 573. What ferments take part in the production of vinegar? 574. What is malt vinegar? 575. What materials other than apples can be used in the preparation of vinegar? 576. Give the characteristics of a good vinegar. 577. In what ways are vinegars adulterated? 578. What food value has vinegar? 579. Why should vinegars not be stored in metalware? 580. What dietetic value has vinegar? 581. To what materials do the spices owe their value? 582. What is pepper? 583. What is the difference between white and black pepper? 584. What compounds give pepper its characteristics? 585. How are peppers adulterated? 586. What is mustard? 587. Give its general composition. 588. How is it adulterated? 589. What is ginger? 590. How is it prepared for the market? 591. Give its general composition. 592. What is cinnamon? 593. What is cassia? 594. What gives these their taste and flavor? 595. What are cloves? 596. How are they prepared? 597. What is mace? 598. What is nutmeg? 599. Do the spices have any food value? 600. What is their dietetic value? 601. Why is excessive use of some of the spices objectionable?

CHAPTER XIV

TEA, COFFEE, CHOCOLATE, AND COCOA

602. What is tea? Name the two plants from which it is obtained, the countries where each grows best, and the number of flushes each yields. 603. Upon what does the quality and grade of tea depend? 604. Give differences in the preparation and composition of green and black teas. 605. The characteristic flavor of tea is imparted by what compound? 606. To what compound are its peculiar physiological properties due? 607. What can you say of the protein in tea as to amount and food value? 608. Why should tea—especially green tea—be infused for a very short time, never boiled? 609. What effect has tannin upon the digestion of proteids? 610. What three points are considered in judging a tea? 611. What is the most common form of tea adulteration? 612. Describe the coffee plant and fruit, and its method of preparation for market. 613. What is the difference in the chemical composition of tea and coffee? 614. Name the characteristic alkaloid of coffee. How does it compare with theme? 615. Why may coffee not be considered a food? 616. Tell different ways in which coffee may be adulterated. 617. Which is more commonly practiced, tea or coffee adulteration? Why? 618. How may real coffee be distinguished from chicory? Why? 619. Name the three kinds of coffee in general use. Give distinguishing features of each. Which is usually considered best? 620. From what are cocoa and chocolate obtained? 621. Give the two methods of preparing cocoa. 622. What alkaloid similar to the theme and caffeine of tea and coffee is present in cocoa and chocolate? 623. What is the difference in preparation of cocoa and chocolate? 624. What are cereal coffee-substitutes? 625. What nutritive value have they? 626. How do they differ in composition from coffee? 627. To what extent does cocoa add to the nutritive value of a ration? 628. What is plain chocolate? 629. Why do chocolate preparations vary so widely in composition? 630. What treatment is given to the cocoa bean in its preparation for commerce? 631. What treatment is sometimes given to prevent separation of the cocoa fat? 632. In what ways may cocoa and chocolate preparations be adulterated?

CHAPTER XV

DIGESTIBILITY OF FOODS

633. Define the term nutrient. 634. Do all the nutrients of food have the same degree of digestibility? 635. What is a digestion coefficient? 636. How is the digestibility of a food determined? 637. What volatile products are formed during the digestion of food? 638. Define digestible protein; digestible carbohydrates, digestible fat. 639. What is the available energy of a ration? 640. How is it determined? 641. How do the nutrients, protein, fat, and carbohydrates, compare as to available energy? 642. Why is it necessary to consider the caloric value of a ration? 643. Is the protein molecule as completely oxidized in the body as starch or fat? 644. What residue is left from the digestion of protein? 645. What part do the soluble ferments take in digestion? 646. To what extent are the nutrients of animal foods digested? 647. Which nutrient, protein or fat, is the most completely digested? 648. How do vegetable foods compare in digestibility with animal foods? 649. What effect does cellulose have upon digestibility? 650. Which of the nutrients of vegetables, protein or carbohydrates, is more completely digested? 651. What mechanical value may cellulose have in a ration? 652. Why must bulk be considered in a ration, as well as nutrient content? 653. Name the eight most important factors influencing the digestibility of foods. 654. To what extent does the combination of foods affect the digestibility of the nutrients? 655. Why does a mixed ration give better results than when only a single food is used? 656. How does the amount consumed affect the completeness of the digestive process? 657. To what extent does the method of preparing food affect digestibility? 658. What is gained, so far as digestibility is concerned, by the cooking of foods? 659. To what extent does the mechanical condition of food affect its digestibility? 660. Why is it desirable to have some coarsely granulated foods in a ration? 661. Why should the ration not be composed exclusively of finely granulated foods? 662. Why is some coarsely granulated food more essential in the dietary of the sedentary than in the dietary of the laborer? 663. How does palatability affect the digestive process? 664. Do psychological processes in any way affect digestion? 665. What physiological properties do some foods possess? 666. To what are these physiological properties due? 667. To what extent is individuality a factor in digestion? 668. To what extent does digestibility differ with individuals? 669. Why do some foods affect individuals in different ways? 670. Why is it necessary that the quantity, quality, and character of the food should vary with different individuals? 671. In what different ways is the expression "digestibility of a food" used? 672. Why is it necessary to consider the digestibility of food, as well as its composition? 673. Does the digestibility of a food necessarily indicate the economic uses that will be made of it by the body? 674. How is it possible for one food containing 10 per cent of digestible protein, and other nutrients in like amounts, to be more valuable than another food with the same per cent of digestible protein and other nutrients? 675. How is it possible for one food to contain less total protein than another food and yet be more valuable from a nutritive point of view? 676. Why is it necessary to consider the mechanical condition of a food and its combination with other foods, as well as its chemical composition? 677. What effect does lack of a good supply of air have upon the completeness of the digestion process? 678. In what ways does the digestion of food resemble the combustion of fuel? 679. What is gained by a study of the digestibility of foods? 680. Why may two foods of the same general character give different results when used for nutritive purposes?

CHAPTER XVI

COMPARATIVE COST AND VALUE OF FOODS

681. To what extent do the nutritive value and the market price of foods vary? 682. How is the value of one food expressed in terms of another food? 683. How determine the amount of nutrients that can be procured in a food for a given sum of money? 684. How compare the amounts of nutrients that can be procured in two foods for a given sum of money? 685. How is it possible to determine approximately which of two foods is cheaper, when the price and composition of the foods are known? 686. To what nutrient is preference usually given in assigning a value to a food? 687. When the difference in this nutrient between two foods is small, then the preference is given to what nutrients? 688. At ordinary prices, what are the cheapest vegetable foods? 689. What are among the cheapest animal foods? 690. Why is it not possible to determine the value of a food absolutely from its composition and digestibility? 691. Why is it necessary to consider the physical as well as the chemical composition of foods? 692. What proportion of the income of the laboring man is usually expended for food? 693. What are the most expensive foods? 694. What foods furnish the largest amount of nutrients at the least cost?

CHAPTER XVII

DIETARY STUDIES

695. What is a dietary study? 696. How is a dietary study made? 697. What is the value of the dietary study of a family? 698. To what extent does the protein in the dietary range? 699. Why is a scant amount of protein in a ration undesirable? 700. Why is an excess of protein in the ration undesirable? 701. What are dietary standards? 702. How are such standards obtained? 703. Why is it desirable in a ration to secure the protein and other nutrients from a variety rather than from a few foods? 704. Why is it necessary to consider the caloric value of a ration? 705. How is this determined? 706. What is a wide nutritive ratio? 707. What is a narrow nutritive ratio? 708. Why should the amount of nutrients consumed vary with the work performed? 709. How should the nutrients be apportioned among the meals? 710. What are some of the most common dietary errors? 711. What analogy exists between human and animal feeding? 712. What is gained by the rational feeding of both humans and animals? 713. What use can be made of the results of dietary studies for improvement of the dietary? 714. Why is it not possible for animal foods to compete in economy with cereal and vegetable foods? 715. Is a well-balanced ration and one containing an ample supply of nutrients necessarily an expensive ration? 716. Show how it is possible for one family to spend less money for food than another family, and yet secure more digestible nutrients and energy. 717. What are some of the most erroneous ideas as to food values? 718. Why is it necessary to consider previously acquired food habits in the selection of foods? 719. In general, what portion of the nutrients of a ration should be derived from vegetable foods, and what portion from meats? 720. To what extent may a ration vary from the dietary standards? 721. Why are some inexpensive foods often expensive when prepared for the table? 722. What are some of the ways in which the cost of a ration can be decreased without sacrificing nutritive value? 723. Why do different nationalities acquire distinct food habits? 724. Why is it not possible to make sudden and radical changes in the dietary? 725. Why is it not possible for a dietary which gives ample satisfaction for one class of people to be applied to another class with equal satisfaction? 726. What relationship exists between the dietary of a nation and its physical development? 727. What relationship exists between dietary habits and mental development and vigor? 728. Why is it unnecessary and undesirable to regulate absolutely the amount of nutrients consumed in the daily ration? 729. What is the general tendency as to quantity of food and amount of nutrients consumed? 730. Why do people of sedentary habits require a different dietary from those pursuing active, out-of-door occupations?

CHAPTER XVIII

RATIONAL FEEDING OF MAN

731. What is the object of the rational feeding of man? 732. On what is it based? 733. How does it compare with the rational feeding of animals? 734. What is a standard ration? 735. How is it determined? 736. To what extent may the nutrients of a ration vary from the standard? 737. How do you combine foods to form a balanced ration? 738. What foods are valuable for supplying protein? 739. What foods supply fats? 740. What foods are rich in carbohydrates? 741. What other requisites should a ration have in addition to supplying the necessary nutrients? 742. Why is it necessary to consider the calorie value of a ration? 743. If a ration contained an excess of carbohydrates and a scant amount of protein, how could it be improved? 744. How do you calculate the nutrients in a fraction of a pound of food? 745. Give the amounts of the common food materials, as potatoes, bread, butter, milk, and cheese, ordinarily combined to form a ration. 746. To what extent may foods differ in composition from the average analysis given? 747. What foods are subject to the greatest and what foods to the least variation?

CHAPTER XIX

WATER

748. Why is water regarded as a food? 749. Does it enter chemically into the composition of plants? Of animals? 750. In addition to serving as a food, why is water necessary for life processes? 751. In what ways may water be improved? 752. What are the most common forms of impurities? 753. What are the mineral impurities of water? 754. What is their source? 755. What effect do some of these minerals have upon the value of the water? 756. What causes some waters to dissolve limestone? 757. What are permanently hard waters? 758. To what is temporary hardness in water due? 759. What is the best way to remove mineral matter from water? 760. What are the organic impurities of water? 761. What are the sources of the organic impurities? 762. What change does the organic matter of water undergo? 763. What becomes of the nitrogen of the organic matter? 764. What does the presence of nitrates in water indicate? Nitrites? 765. What is the total solid matter of a water, and how is it obtained? 766. Define the terms free ammonia; albuminoid ammonia. 767. What does the presence of chlorine in a surface well water indicate? 768. Explain natural purification of water. 769. Can natural purification always be relied upon? 770. Why does the character of the drinking water affect health? 771. What diseases are mainly caused by impure drinking water? 772. With what materials in water are the disease-producing organisms associated? 773. Why should a water of questionable purity be boiled? 774. State how the boiling should be done, to be effective. 775. Why should boiled water receive further care in its storage? 776. What effect does improvement of the water supply of a city have upon the death rate? 777. How may connections between cesspools and surface well waters be traced? 778. What impurities do rain waters contain? 779. Explain the workings of the Pasteur and Berkefeld water filters. 780. Why must special attention be given to cleaning the water filter? 781. Explain the processes employed for the removal of mechanical impurities of water by sedimentation and the use of chemicals. 782. Why should such purification be under the supervision of a chemist or bacteriologist? 783. What effect does freezing have upon the purity of water? 784. Why are precautions necessary in the use of ice for refrigeration? 785. What are mineral waters? 786. How are artificial mineral waters prepared? 787. What are the more common materials used in their preparation? 788. Why should mineral waters be extensively used only by the advice of a physician? 789. What are some of the materials used for softening water? 790. Which are the least objectionable of these materials? 791. Which are the most objectionable? 792. What can you say of the use of ammonia and ammonium carbonate for softening waters? 793. In washing clothing after contagious diseases, what materials may be used for disinfecting? 794. Why, in softening waters for household purposes, must caustic soda, potash, and bleaching powder be used with caution? 795. Why is it necessary to determine by trial the material most suitable for softening water? 796. What advantage, from a pecuniary point of view, results from the improvement of the water supply of a community?

CHAPTER XX

FOOD IN ITS RELATION TO HOUSEHOLD SANITATION AND STORAGE

797. What are the compounds usually determined in a food analysis? 798. Does such an analysis necessarily indicate the presence of injurious compounds? 799. What are the sources of the injurious organic compounds in foods? 800. Why is it necessary to consider sanitary condition as well as chemical composition? 801. What are the sources of contamination of foods? 802. What is the object of the sanitary inspection of food? 803. How may flies carry germ diseases? 804. Why should food be protected from impure air and dust particles? 805. Why should places where vegetables are stored be well ventilated? 806. How may the dirt adhering to vegetables be the carrier of germ diseases? 807. Why should the cellar in which food is stored be in a sanitary condition? 808. What effect does the cleaning of streets and improvement of the sanitation of cities have upon the death rate? 809. Name the three natural disinfectants, and explain the action of each. 810. Why must dishes and utensils in which foods are placed be thoroughly cleaned? 811. Explain the principle of refrigeration. 812. What kind of ferment action may take place at a low temperature? 813. Why is some ventilation necessary in refrigeration? 814. What effect does refrigeration have upon the composition of food? 815. What relationship exists between unsanitary condition of soils about dwellings and contamination of the food? 816. Why should special attention be given to the sanitary disposal of kitchen refuse? 817. Name the ways in which this can be accomplished. 818. How may foods become contaminated through imperfect plumbing? 819. Mention the conditions necessary in order to keep foods sanitary.



REFERENCES

The following list of references is given for the use of the student in case additional information is desired upon some of the subjects discussed in this work. The list is not intended as a complete bibliography of the subject of foods. The advanced student will find extended references in the Experiment Station Record and the various chemical, physiological, and bacteriological journals.

1. SNYDER: The Chemistry of Plant and Animal Life.

2. Minnesota Experiment Station Bulletin No. 54: Human Food Investigations.

3. CROSS AND BEVANS: Cellulose.

4. WILEY: Principles and Practice of Agricultural Analysis, Vol. III.

5. Minnesota Experiment Station Bulletin No. 74: Human Food Investigations.

6. PARRY: The Chemistry of Essential Oils, etc.

7. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 142: Principles of Nutrition and Nutritive Value of Food.

8. MANN: Chemistry of the Proteids.

9. Minnesota Experiment Station Bulletin No. 85: Wheat and Flour Investigations.

10. ARMSBY: Principles of Animal Nutrition.

11. SHERMAN: Organic Analysis.

12. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin No. 43: Digestion Experiments with Potatoes and Eggs.

13. Unpublished results of author.

14. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin No. 49: Cold Curing of Cheese.

15. WILEY: Foods and Their Adulteration.

16. Minnesota Experiment Station Bulletin No. 63: Miscellaneous Analyses.

17. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No. 13, Part 8: Canned Vegetables.

18. LEACH: Food Inspection and Analysis.

19. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 256: Preparation of Vegetables for the Table.

20. U. S. Department of Agriculture Year Book, 1905: Fruit and its Uses as Food.

21. Handbook of Experiment Station Work, 1893.

22. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Division of Chemistry Bulletin No. 94: Studies on Apples.

23. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No. 69: Fruits and Fruit Products.

24. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 203: Canned Fruits, Preserves, and Jellies.

25. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No. 27: Sugar Beet Industry.

26. SADTLER: A Handbook of Industrial Organic Chemistry.

27. Minnesota Experiment Station Bulletin No. 86: The Food Value of Sugar. The Digestive Action of Milk.

28. HUTCHISON: Food and Principles of Dietetics.

29. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No 93: Sugar as Food.

30. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin No. 252: Maple Sugar and Sirup.

31. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No. 13, Part 6: Sugar, Molasses, Sirup, and Confections.

32. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 121: Peas and Beans as Food.

33. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 122: Nuts as Food.

34. Maine Experiment Station Bulletin No. 54: Nuts as Food.

35. California Experiment Station Bulletins Nos. 107 and 132: Investigations among Fruitarians.

36. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 74: Milk as Food.

37. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 63: Care of Milk on the Farm.

38. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 149: Digestibility of Milk.

39. RUSSELL: Dairy Bacteriology.

40. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No. 13. Part 1: Dairy Products.

41. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 131: Household Tests for Detection of Oleomargarine and Renovated Butter.

42. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin No 61: Relation of Bacteria to Flavor of Cheddar Cheese.

43. Minnesota Experiment Station Bulletin No. 92: The Digestibility and Nutritive Value of Cottage Cheese, etc.

44. LAWES AND GILBERT: Experiments with Animals.

45. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 34: Meats, Composition and Cooking.

46. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No. 13, Part 7: Lard and Lard Adulterants.

47. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin No. 193: Cooking of Meats as Affecting Digestibility.

48. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin No. 141: Experiments on Losses in Cooking Meats. See also Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin No. 102: Losses in Cooking Meats.

49. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin No. 66: Physiological Effect of Creatin and Creatinin.

50. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin No. 162: The Influence of Cooking upon the Nutritive Value of Meats.

51. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No. 13, Part 10: Preserved Meats.

52. RICHARDSON, W. D., Journal of the American Chemical Society, December, 1907: The Occurrence of Nitrates in Vegetable Foods, in Cured Meats, and Elsewhere.

53. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin No. 182: Poultry as Food.

54. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 85: Fish as Food.

55. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin, Experiment Station Work: Digestibility of Fish and Poultry.

56. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 249: Cereal Breakfast Foods.

57. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No. 50: Composition of Maize.

58. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin No. 305: Gluten Flour and Similar Foods.

59. HAMMERSTON: Physiological Chemistry.

60. EDGAR: The Wheat Berry.

61. Minnesota Experiment Station Bulletin No. 90: Composition and Value of Grains.

62. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin No. 101: Bread and Bread Making.

63. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin No. 156: Digestibility and Nutritive Value of Bread and Macaroni Flour.

64. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin No. 67: Bread and Bread Making.

65. University of Nebraska Bulletin No. 102: The Effect of Bleaching upon the Quality of Wheat Flour.

66. SNYDER: Wheat Flour and Bread.

67. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin No. 126: Bread and Bread Making.

68. LAWES AND GILBERT: Experiments on Some Points in the Composition of the Wheat Grain, of the Product in the Mill and Bread.

69. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No. 13, Part 5: Baking Powders.

70. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No. 13, Part 2: Spices and Condiments.

71. Food Standards: U. S. Department of Agriculture. See Annual Reports of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists.

72. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin No. 21: Methods and Results of Investigations on the Chemistry and Economy of Foods.

73. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No. 13, Part 7: Tea, Coffee, and Cocoa Preparations.

74. The Respiration Calorimeter: Year-book U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1904.

75. Year Book U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1902: Cost of Food as Related to its Nutritive Value.

76. See U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations Bulletins Nos. 82, 71, 129, 116, 37, 55, 150. See also other bulletins of the Office of Experiment Stations.

77. CHITTENDEN: Physiological Economy in Nutrition.

78. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin No. 98: Effect of Severe and Prolonged Muscular Work on Food Consumption.

79. HENRY: Feeds and Feeding.

80. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations: Dietary Studies in Chicago Bulletin No. 55.

81. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin No. 116: Dietary Studies in New York City.

82. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 119: Banana Flour.

83. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin No. 159: Digest of Japanese Investigations on the Nutrition of Man.

84. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin No. 150: Dietary Studies at the Government Hospital for the Insane, Washington, D.C.

85. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin No. 149: Studies on the Food of Maine Lumbermen.

86. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin No. 143: Studies on the Digestibility and Nutritive Value of Bread at the Maine Experiment Station.

87. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations, Experiment Station Work, Vol. III: Wells and Pure Water.

88. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 88: Pure Water on the Farm.

89 Mineral Impurities in Water. See various bulletins of the California and New Mexico Agricultural Experiment Stations.

90. MASON: Examination of Water.

91. Department of the Interior, U. S. Geological Survey: The Quality of Surface Waters in Minnesota.

92. FUERTES: Water and Public Health.

93. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 124: Distilled Drinking Water.

94. TURNEAURE AND RUSSELL: Public Water Supplies.

95. VAUGHAN AND NOVY: Ptomains and Lencomains.

96. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Entomology, Circular No. 71: House Flies.

97. ELLEN H. RICHARDS AND S. MARIA ELLIOTT: The Chemistry of Cooking and Cleaning.

98. Dr. WOODS HUTCHINSON, Saturday Evening Post, 1908: The Real Angels of the House.

99. HARRINGTON: Practical Hygiene.

100. PRICE: Handbook of Sanitation.



INDEX

Air, infection from impure, 287. pure, disinfectant, 290.

Albuminoids, 23.

Alkaloids, 24.

Allspice, 202.

Almonds, 77.

Alum baking powder, 188.

Amids and Amines, 23.

Animal and vegetable foods, economy of, 250.

Animal foods, digestibility of, 220.

Apparatus used in experiments, 301.

Apples, 49. pectose from, 307.

Ash, of foods, 4. elements of plants, 5.

Asparagus, 43.

Available energy, 217. nutrients, 216.

Bacteria in food, 32.

Baking powder, composition of, 186. cream of tartar, 187. phosphates, 189. alum, 189. inspection of, 191. fillers, 191. home-made, 191. testing for alum, 315. testing for ammonia, 316. testing for phosphoric acid, 316.

Baking tests, 153-314.

Barley preparations, 128.

Beans, composition, 71. digestibility, 72. removal of skins, 72. string, 73. use of, in dietary, 74.

Beef, 101. extracts, 110.

Beets, 41.

Beverages, composition, 213.

Bleaching of flour, 155.

Bolting cloth, 138.

Bread and bread making, 158-185. leavened and unleavened bread, 158. chemical changes during making, 159. losses during bread making, 160. production of carbon dioxide, 163. production of alcohol, 163. production of soluble carbohydrates, 165. production of acids, 166. production of volatile compounds, 167. production of volatile nitrogenous compounds, 172. wheat proteids, part taken by, 169. oxidation of fat, 173. starch, influence of, addition of, 173. composition of bread, 174. temperature of flour, 176. use of skim milk, 176. process of bread making, 177. digestibility of bread, 178. graham bread, use in the dietary, 179. white and graham bread compared, 180. mineral content of, 182. new and old, 183. action of heat on, 184. different kinds of, 184.

Breakfast foods, 121-132.

Broth, 109.

Butter, composition, 91. digestibility, 91. adulteration, 92. coloring, 92. renovated, 92. water in, 305.

Buttermilk, 88.

Cabbage, 41.

Candies, 69.

Canned meats, 118. vegetables, 46. peas, 75.

Carbohydrates defined, 8.

Carrots, 40.

Cauliflower, 41.

Cellars, storage of food in, 283.

Cellulose and properties, 8.

Cereals, 121-132. preparation of, 121. cost of, 121. value of, 131. use of, in dietary, 131. corn preparations, 122. oat preparations, 124. wheat preparations, 126. barley preparations, 128. rice preparations, 129. predigested, 130. phosphates in, 131. mineral matters of, 131. coffees, 210.

Cesspools, 289.

Cheese, 92-96. general composition, 92. digestibility, 93. use of, in dietary, 94. cottage, 95. different kinds of, 95. adulteration, 96.

Chemical changes during cooking, 27-30.

Chemicals, use of, in preparation of foods permitted, 36.

Chestnuts, 76.

Chicory, detection in coffee, 319.

Chocolate, 212. adulteration of, 213.

Cinnamon and cassia, 201.

Cloves, 201.

Coal tar dyes, testing for, 308.

Cocoa, 210.

Cocoanuts, 77.

Coffee, composition of, 207. detection of chicory in, 319. glazing of, 208. substitutes, cereal, 210. types of, 209.

Combustion of foods, 6.

Cooking, changes during, 27. chemical, 27-30. physical, 30-32. bacteriological, 32.

Corn, sweet, 41. preparations, 122.

Cream, 87.

Cream of tartar, 187.

Crude fiber of foods, 9.

Crude protein, 21.

Cucumbers, 42.

Dairy products, 80-97. use of, in dietary, 96.

Dextrose, 64.

Dietary standards, 245.

Dietary studies, 244-260. object of, 244. mixed, desirable, 250. of families compared, 253. in public institutions, 259.

Digestibility of foods, 214. of animal foods, 220. of vegetable foods, 222.

Digestion, combination of foods, 223. factors influencing, 223. amount of food, 224. method of preparation of food, 225. mechanical condition of foods, 226. psychological factors, 230. individuality, 229.

Digestion and health, 219.

Dishcloth, unclean, 292.

Disinfectants, 281, 289, 295.

Drying of foods, 2.

Dry matter, 2.

Egg plant, 44.

Eggs, 114-118. composition, 114. digestibility, 116. cooking of, 116. use of, in dietary, 117.

Elements in foods, 7.

Energy, available, 217.

Energy value of rations, 246.

Entire wheat, 145.

Essential oils, 15. occurrence, 15. composition of, 16. food value, 16.

Esthetic value of foods, 36.

Fat, occurrence in food, 12. composition, 13. physical properties, 14. food value, 14. individual fats, 14. oxidation of, during bread making, 173.

Ferments, soluble, 34. insoluble, 34.

Figs, 54.

Fish, 113.

Flavoring extracts, 56.

Flavors, composition of, 48. occurrence of, 49. food value, 49.

Flies, contamination of food by, 286, 295.

Foods, 215. digestibility of, 215. mechanical condition of, 226. palatability of, 228. physiological properties of, 228. ash of, 4. predigested, 130. sodium chloride in, 4. cost of, 231. market price and nutritive value, 231-234. composition of, 234-263. comparative nutritive value, 231. economy of production, 250. habits, 250. notions, 252. relation to mental and physical vigor, 258. amount consumed, 262. injurious compounds in, 284. contamination of, 284, 292. sanitary inspection of, 286. storage in cellars, 288. infection from impure air, 287. utensils for storage, 291. raw, 27. cheap and expensive, 252.

Fruits, composition of, 48. canned, 54. dried, 54. canned and adulterated, 55.

Fruit extracts, 56.

Fruit flavors, 55.

Ginger, 200.

Gliadin, 314.

Gluten, addition of, to flour, 173. moist and dry, 314.

Gluten properties of flour, 151.

Graham bread, 179. use in dietary, 180.

Graham flour, 144.

Grape fruit, 51.

Grapes, 53.

Heat, action on foods, 30.

Hickory nuts, 77.

Honey, 68.

Ice, 279.

Inspection of food, 286.

Inversion of sugar, 64.

Kitchen refuse, 294.

Koumiss, 88.

Laboratory practice, 299.

Lard, 106. substitutes, 107.

Legumes, 71-76.

Lemon extract, testing, 307.

Lemons, 51. acidity of, 305.

Lettuce, 42.

Macaroni flour, 148.

Mace, 202.

Malted foods, 121.

Maple sugar, 62.

Meals, number of, per day, 248.

Measuring, directions for, 302.

Meat broth, 109.

Meats, 98-120. general composition, 98. proteids of, 99. fat of, 100. water of, 98. texture of, 107. cooking of, influence of, on composition, 108. extractive materials, 110. smoked, 111. boric acid in, 312. saltpeter in, 111. canned, 118.

Melons, 43.

Microscope, use of, 304.

Milk, importance in dietary, 80. general composition, 80. souring of, 86. condensed, 87. digestibility, 81. sanitary condition, 82. certified milk, 84. pasteurized, 84. color of, 85. preservatives in, 86. goat's, 88. human, 89. adulteration of, 89. prepared, 88. formaldehyde in, 310.

Mineral matter, 4. in ration, 5.

Mineral waters, 279.

Miscellaneous compounds, 16.

Mixed nitrogenous compounds, 25.

Mixed non-nitrogenous compounds, 16.

Moisture content of foods, variations in, 1.

Moisture in foods, how determined, 2.

Molasses, 65.

Mustard, 199. testing for turmeric, 318.

Mutton, 103.

Nitrates in foods, 45.

Nitrites in foods, 111.

Nitrogen free extract, 11. defined, 11. composition, 12. how determined, 12. variable character of, 12.

Nitrogenous compounds, 17. general composition, 17.

Non-nitrogenous compounds, classification of, 7.

Nutmeg, 202.

Nutrients, available, 216.

Nutritive value of nitrogenous compounds, 16. starch, 9. sugar, 11. nitrogen free extract, 11. fat, 12. protein, 19. amids, 23.

Nuts, 76-79. use of, in dietary, 78.

Oat preparations, 124.

Oleomargarine, 92. detecting, 310.

Olive oil, testing, 308.

Olives, 54.

Onions, 42.

Oranges, 50.

Organic acids, 15. occurrence in foods, 15. influence on digestion, 15. use in plant economy, 15. production during germination, 15.

Organic compounds, classification of, 7.

Organic matter, 6.

Oysters, 114.

Palatability of food, 228.

Parsnips, 40.

Peaches, 53.

Peanuts, 76. fat from, 309.

Peas, 74. canned, 75.

Pectose substances, 11.

Pepper, 198.

Phosphate baking powders, 189.

Physical changes during cooking, 30.

Physiological properties of foods, 228.

Pistachio, 77.

Plumbing, sanitary, 297.

Plums, 53.

Pork, 104.

Potatoes, 37. composition, 39. digestibility, 38. nutritive value, 38. sweet, 39.

Poultry, 112.

Predigested foods, 130.

Protein, composition of, 19. properties of, 19. combinations of, 20. types of, 20. crude, 21. food value of, 22. amount of, in ration, 246.

Psychological factors in digestion, 230.

Pumpkins, 45.

Rational feeding of man, 261-267.

Rations, wide and narrow, 245. standard, 261. object of, 261. examples of, 264. requisites of, 266. protein requirements of, 246. energy value of, 246.

References, 350.

Refrigeration, 292.

Refuse, disposal of, 294.

Renovated butter, 92.

Review questions, 323.

Rice preparations, 129.

Saccharine, 70.

Saltpeter in meats, 111.

Sanitary condition of vegetables, 45.

Sanitary inspection of food, 286.

Sausage, 111.

Sodium chloride in foods, 5.

Soil, sanitary condition of, 294.

Spices, 212.

Spinach, 42.

Squash, 45.

Starch, 9. occurrence, 9. composition, 9. properties, 10. food value, 10. influence of heat on, 10.

Strawberries, 52.

Sugar, defined, 11. beet, 58. cane, 58. commercial grades, 58. manufacture of, 59. sulphur in, 59. digestibility of, 59. value of, in dietary, 61. adulteration of, 63. maple, 62. dextrose, 64.

Sunlight as a disinfectant, 290.

Sweet potatoes, 39.

Syrups, 66. sorghum, 66.

Tea, 203-206. black, 203. green, 204. composition of, 214. judging of, 205. adulteration of, 206. physiological properties of, 206. examination of leaves, 318.

Toast, 184.

Tomatoes, 43.

Underfed families, 251.

Vanilla extract, testing, 307.

Veal, 102.

Vegetable foods, 222.

Vegetables, 37-47. edible portion, 47. canned, 46. sanitary condition of, 45. digestibility of, 222.

Vinegar, 193-197. preparation of, 193. different kinds of, 195. adulteration of, 196. solids, 316. specific gravity, 317. acidity, 317.

Volatile matter, 6.

Water, drinking, 268-283. importance, 268. impurities in, 269. mineral impurities, 270. organic impurities, 271. purification of, 272-278. analysis, 271. and typhoid fever, 273. improvement of, 276. boiling of, 276. filtration of, 277. distillation of, 278. materials for softening water, 280. testing purity of, 320.

Water in foods, 1. how determined, 1.

Water supply, economic value, 282.

Waters, mineral, 279.

Weighing, directions for, 302.

Wheat cereal preparations, 126.

Wheat flour, 133. spring and winter wheat flour, 133. starchy and glutenous, 135. composition of, 136. process of milling, 136-140. patent, 142. grades of, 142. composition of, 143. ash content, 145. graham, 145. entire wheat, 145. by-products, 146. aging and curing, 147. macaroni, 148. color, 148. granulation, 149. capacity to absorb water, 150. gluten, properties of, 151. unsoundness of, 152. baking tests, 153. bleaching of, 155. adulteration of, 156. nutritive value of, 157. water in, 304. ash in, 305. acidity of, 313. moist and dry gluten, 314.

Yeast, action of, 161. compressed, 162. dry, 163.



BY HARRY SNYDER, B.S.

Professor of Agricultural Chemistry, University of Minnesota, and Chemist of the Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station

The Chemistry of Plant and Animal Life

Illustrated. Cloth. 12mo. 406 pages. $1.25 net; by mail, $1.35

"The language is, as it should be, plain and simple, free from all needless technicality, and the story thus told is of absorbing interest to every one, man or woman, boy or girl, who takes an intelligent interest in farm life."—The New England Farmer.

"Although the book is highly technical, it is put in popular form and made comprehensible from the standpoint of the farmer; it deals largely with those questions which arise in his experience, and will prove an invaluable aid in countless directions."—The Farmer's Voice.

Dairy Chemistry

Illustrated, 190 pages, $1.00 net; by mail, $1.10

"The book is a valuable one which any dairy farmer, or, indeed, any one handling stock, may read with profit."—Rural New Yorker.

Soils and Fertilizers

Third Edition. Illustrated. $1.25 net; by mail, $1.38

A book which presents in a concise form the principles of soil fertility and discusses all of the topics relating to soils as outlined by the Committee on Methods of Teaching Agriculture. It contains 350 pages, with illustrations, and treats of a great variety of subjects, such as Physical Properties of Soils; Geological Formation, etc.; Nitrogen of the Soil and Air; Farm Manures; Commercial Fertilizers, several chapters; Rotation of Crops; Preparation of Soil for Crops, etc.

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

64-66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK

BOOKS ON AGRICULTURE

ON SELECTION OF LAND, Etc.

Thomas F. Hunt's How to Choose a Farm $1 75 net E. W. Hilgard's Soils: Their Formation and Relations to Climate and Plant Growth 4 00 net Isaac P. Roberts's The Farmstead 1 50 net

ON TILLAGE, Etc.

F. H. King's The Soil 1 50 net Isaac P. Roberts's The Fertility of the Land 1 50 net Elwood Mead's Irrigation Institutions 1 25 net F. H. King's Irrigation and Drainage 1 50 net William E. Smythe's The Conquest of Arid America 1 50 net Edward B. Voorhees's Fertilizers 1 25 net Edward B. Voorhees's Forage Crops 1 50 net H. Snyder's Chemistry of Plant and Animal Life 1 25 net H. Snyder's Soil and Fertilizers. Third edition 1 25 net L. H. Bailey's Principles of Agriculture 1 25 net W. C. Welborn's Elements of Agriculture, Southern and Western 75 net J. F. Duggar's Agriculture for Southern Schools 75 net G. F. Warren's Elements of Agriculture 1 10 net T. L. Lyon and E. O. Fippin's The Principles of Soil Management 1 75 net Hilgard & Osterhout's Agriculture for Schools on the Pacific Slope 1 00 net J. A. Widtsoe's Dry Farming 1 50 net

ON GARDEN-MAKING

L. H. Bailey's Manual of Gardening 2 00 net L. H. Bailey's Vegetable-Gardening 1 50 net L. H. Bailey's Horticulturist's Rule Book 75 net L. H. Bailey's Forcing Book 1 25 net A. French's How to Grow Vegetables 1 75 net

ON FRUIT-GROWING, Etc.

L. H. Bailey's Nursery Book 1 50 net L. H. Bailey's Fruit-Growing 1 50 net L. H. Bailey's The Pruning Book 1 50 net F. W. Card's Bush Fruits 1 50 net J. T. Bealby's Fruit Ranching in British Columbia 1 50 net

ON THE CARE OF LIVE STOCK

D. E. Lyon's How to Keep Bees for Profit 1 50 net Nelson S. Mayo's The Diseases of Animals 1 50 net W. H. Jordan's The Feeding of Animals 1 50 net I. P. Roberts's The Horse 1 25 net George C. Watson's Farm Poultry 1 25 net C. S. Valentine's How to Keep Hens for Profit 1 50 net O. Kellner's The Scientific Feeding of Animals (trans.) 1 90 net M. H. Reynolds's Veterinary Studies for Agricultural Students 1 75 net

ON DAIRY WORK

Henry H. Wing's Milk and its Products $1 50 net C. M. Aikman's Milk 1 25 net Harry Snyder's Dairy Chemistry 1 00 net W. D. Frost's Laboratory Guide in Elementary Bacteriology 1 60 net I. P. Sheldon's The Farm and the Dairy 1 00 net Chr. Barthel's Methods Used in the Examination of Milk and Dairy Products 1 90 net

ON PLANT DISEASES, Etc.

George Massee's Diseases of Cultivated Plants and Trees 2 25 net J. G. Lipman's Bacteria in Relation to Country Life 1 50 net E. C. Lodeman's The Spraying of Plants 1 25 net H. M. Ward's Disease in Plants (English) 1 60 net A. S. Packard's A Text-book on Entomology 4 50 net

ON PRODUCTION OF NEW PLANTS

L. H. Bailey's Plant-Breeding 1 25 net L. H. Bailey's The Survival of the Unlike 2 00 net L. H. Bailey's The Evolution of Our Native Fruits 2 00 net W. S. Harwood's New Creations in Plant Life 1 75 net

ON ECONOMICS AND ORGANIZATION

J. B. Green's Law for the American Farmer 1 50 net J. McLennan's Manual of Practical Farming 1 50 net L. H. Bailey's The State and the Farmer 1 25 net Henry C. Taylor's Agricultural Economics 1 25 net I. P. Roberts's The Farmer's Business Handbook 1 25 net George T. Fairchild's Rural Wealth and Welfare 1 25 net S. E. Sparling's Business Organization 1 25 net In the Citizen's Library. Includes a chapter on Farming Kate V. St. Maur's A Self-supporting Home 1 75 net Kate V. St. Maur's The Earth's Bounty. 1 75 net G. F. Warren and K. C. Livermore's Exercises in Farm Management 80 net H. N. Ogden's Rural Hygiene 1 50 net

ON EVERYTHING AGRICULTURAL L. H. Bailey's Cyclopedia of American Agriculture: Vol. I. Farms, Climates, and Soils. Vol. II. Farm Crops. Vol. III. Farm Animals. Vol. IV. The Farm and the Community. Complete in four royal 8vo volumes, with over 2000 illustrations. Price of sets: cloth, $20 net; half morocco, $32 net.

For further information as to any of the above, address the publishers.

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture

EDITED BY L. H. BAILEY

Of Cornell University, Editor of "Cyclopedia of American Horticulture," Author of "Plant Breeding," "Principles of Agriculture," etc.

WITH 100 FULL-PAGE PLATES AND MORE THAN 2000 ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT—FOUR VOLUMES—THE SET: CLOTH, $20 NET—HALF MOROCCO, $32 NET—CARRIAGE EXTRA

Volume I—FARMS

The Agricultural Regions—The Projecting of a Farm—The Soil Environment—The Atmosphere Environment.

Volume II—CROPS

The Plant and Its Relations—The Manufacture of Crop Products—North American Field Crops.

Volume III—ANIMALS

The Animal and Its Relations—The Manufacture of Animal Products—North American Farm Animals.

Volume IV—THE FARM AND THE COMMUNITY

Economics—Social Questions—Organizations—History—Literature, etc.

"Indispensable to public and reference libraries ... readily comprehensible to any person of average education."—The Nation.

"The completest existing thesaurus of up-to-date facts and opinions on modern agricultural methods. It is safe to say that many years must pass before it can be surpassed in comprehensiveness, accuracy, practical value, and mechanical excellence. It ought to be in every library in the country."—Record Herald, Chicago.

PUBLISHED BY

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

64 66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK

THE END