B. Lydian inscriptions.

From about 500 B.C. Letters mostly like Greek capitals (sometimes reversed); (Illustration IV, at bottom).

C. Lycian inscriptions and monuments.

From about 500 B.C. inscriptions, sometimes with a Greek translation. (IV, at bottom.)

Monuments, mostly with inscriptions, are generally tombs in stone, built to imitate wood, with the ends of beams projecting or showing.

D. Greek antiquities.

(1) Early period to 323 B.C. the great Greek colonies on the seaboard and in the coast valleys really formed an outlying part of Greece, and for them the section on Greece should be consulted.

(2) Periods of Seleucid and Pergamene rule, 323-130 B.C. Inscriptions of these periods to be found mostly in the coastal region, rarely on the plateau. Chiefly royal ordinances, thank offerings, municipal honorary inscriptions, decrees, covenants, and the like.

(3) Graeco-Roman period, 130 B.C.-A.D. 400. Language of inscriptions remains normally Greek, though the lettering gradually assumes a different character from century to century, steadily deteriorating. The Phrygian language, written in Greek letters, survives for several centuries in epitaphs, part of the inscription often being in Greek.

Latin inscriptions are not common except in Roman colonies during the earlier centuries of their existence. Elsewhere they are chiefly official documents of various kinds (e.g. imperial ordinances, milestones usually of columnar shape with the Emperor's titles, boundary stones, &c.), or expressions of homage to Emperors, honorary inscriptions to governors and other officials, dedications, epitaphs, &c. Sometimes a Greek version is added.

Latin inscriptions of the Republican period (recording decrees of the Senate) are extremely rare.



CHAPTER IV

CYPRUS

[The traveller will find the Catalogue of the Cyprus Museum, by J. L. Myres and M. Ohnefalsch-Richter (Oxford, 1899) indispensable for the study of Cypriote Antiquities. Reference may also be made to Myres, Catalogue of the Cesnola Collection of Antiquities from Cyprus (New York, 1914). They contain numerous illustrations of types, and make diagrams for the present section unnecessary.]

The principal classes of ancient remains are as follows:

Settlements. These are usually much devastated by the removal of building materials to more recent habitations; or are obscured by modern towns and villages on the same site. All foundations in squared masonry, or composed of unusually large stones, should be noted and protected as far as possible. The frequent presence of large building stones, and especially of architectural fragments, in recent house-walls probably indicates the neighbourhood of an ancient building: and all reconstructions and fresh foundation-trenches should be kept under observation. The present Antiquity Law provides for the inspection and custody of ancient remains so exposed: the Curator of Ancient Monuments is charged with the supervision of all buildings and monuments above ground; the Keeper of Antiquities for the custody of movable objects, and for the registration of those already in private possession. Taking into consideration the utility of good building material to the present owners of such sites, active co-operation to preserve ancient masonry is not to be expected, unless local patriotism and expectation of traffic from tourists can be enlisted in support of Government regulations. Architectural fragments found in reconstruction are often best preserved by arranging that they shall be built conspicuously into one of the new walls, well above ground-level, or transferred to the nearest church or school-house.

Sanctuaries usually consist of a walled enclosure containing numerous pedestals and bases of votive statues and other monuments. Usually only the foundation-walls are of stone, as the same sun-dried brick was commonly used in ancient as in modern times for the superstructure. Such sites are often vary shallow, and when they occur in the open country are liable to be disturbed by ploughing, when the smaller statuettes and terra-cotta figures may be turned up in considerable numbers. As most of our knowledge of the sculpture, as well as of the religious observances, of ancient Cyprus is derived from such sites, all such indications should be reported at once to the Keeper of Antiquities, and arrangements made for the site to be examined with a view to excavation before it is cultivated further. The sculpture on these sites begins usually in the seventh century B.C.; before that period terra-cotta figures were in use as far back as the ninth or tenth century. Figures of 'Mixed Oriental' style, resembling Assyrian or Egyptian work, give place about 500 B.C. to a provincial Greek style, which passes gradually into Hellenistic and Graeco-Roman. The material is almost invariably the soft local limestone, and the workmanship is often clumsy; but even the coarser examples should be treated carefully, as they were sometimes completed in colours which are easily destroyed by too vigorous washing. The first cleaning should be with gently running water only.

Tombs are of all periods, and are found not only around historical sites and actual ruins, but also in localities where the settlement to which they belonged has wholly disappeared. Though simple graves were always in use among the poorest folk, the commonest form of tomb at all periods is a rock-cut chamber entered by a door in one side, to which access is given by a shaft or sloping passage (dromos) cut likewise in the rock. The earliest are but a few feet from the surface, just deep enough to ensure a firm roof to the chamber; later the depth is as much as 12 or 15 feet. Occasionally the chamber, and even the passage, is built of masonry and roofed with stone slabs or a corbel vault, and the simple door-slab gives place to a stone door, hinged, or sliding in a grooved frame. Cremation was occasionally practised in the Hellenistic Age, but the regular custom was to bury the body; during the Bronze Age in a sitting or a contracted posture, in all later periods lying at full length. Stone coffins (sarcophagi), with a lid, were used occasionally by the rich from the sixth century onwards, and wooden coffins in the Graeco-Roman period. There is always as rich a tomb-equipment as the mourners could afford, of personal ornaments, wreaths, provisions, weapons, and other gear, especially pottery; and terra-cotta figures of men, animals, furniture, and other objects for the use of the deceased. In Graeco-Roman tombs pottery is supplemented or replaced by glass vessels, and coins are frequent, and are important evidence of date. Most of our knowledge of Cypriote arts and industries comes from this tomb-equipment, which should therefore if possible be preserved entire and kept together, tomb by tomb; not neglecting the skeletons themselves, which are of value to indicate changes in the island population. The position of tombs was often marked by gravestones above ground; these remain scattered in the surface soil, or collected to block the entrances to later tombs. They are frequently inscribed. A very common form in Greco-Roman times is the cippus, a short column, like an altar.

Pottery and other objects from tombs, and also from settlements, is classified as follows:

Stone Age: not clearly represented in Cyprus; but some of the earliest tombs (with rude varieties of red hand-made ware) contain no metallic objects, and may belong to the latest neolithic period. Stone implements are very rare, and should be carefully recorded, with a note of the spot where they were found.

Bronze Age, early period (before 2000 B.C.): polished red ware, hand-made, sometimes with incised ornament filled with white powder.

Bronze Age, middle period (2000-1500 B.C.): polished red ware, and also white hand-made ware with painted linear ornament in dull black or brown.

Bronze Age, late period (1500-1200 B.C.): degenerate polished red and painted white ware; wheel-made white ware with painted ornament in glazed black or brown, of the 'Late Minoan' or 'Mycenaean' style introduced from the Aegean; various hand-made wares of foreign styles, probably from Syria or Asia Minor.

In these periods, weapons, implements, and ornaments are of copper (with bronze in the 'late' period); gold occurs rarely; terra-cotta figures are few and rude; engraved seals are cylindrical like those of Babylonia.

Early Iron Age: wheel-made pottery, either white or bright red, with painted geometrical ornament in black (supplemented on the white ware with purple-red); there is also a black fabric imitating metallic forms.

The early period (1200-1000 B.C.) marks the transition from bronze to iron implements, with survival of Mycenaean decoration on the pottery, and replacement of cylindrical by conical seals.

The middle period (1000-750 B.C.) has purely geometrical decoration: terra-cotta figures are modelled rudely by hand, and painted like the pottery.

The late period (750-500 B.C.) shows foreign influences from Greece and from Phoenicia or Egypt, competing with and enriching the native geometrical style. Scarab seals, blue-glaze beads, and other personal ornaments, and silver objects, appear. Terra-cotta figures stamped in a mould occur side by side with modelled.

Hellenic Age, with increasing influence of Greek arts and industries.

Early or Hellenic period (500-300 B.C.): the native pottery degenerates, and Greek vases and terra-cottas are imported and imitated; jewellery of gold and silver is fairly common and of good quality; with engraved seals set in signet rings: the bronze mirrors are circular, with a handle-spike.

Middle or Hellenistic period (300-50 B.C.): the native pottery is almost wholly replaced by imitations of forms from other parts of the Greek world, especially from Syria and Asia Minor: large handled wine-jars (amphorae) are common: terra-cottas and jewellery also follow Greek styles: coloured stones are set in rings and ear-rings.

Late or Graeco-Roman period (50 B.C.-A.D. 400): pottery is partly replaced by vessels of blown glass: clay lamps, red-glazed jugs, so called 'tear-bottles' of spindle-shapes, ear-rings of beads strung on wire, bronze rings and bracelets, circular mirrors without handles, and bronze coins are characteristics.

Byzantine Age (after A.D. 400): Christian burial in surface graves supersedes the use of rock-hewn tombs: funerary equipment goes out of use, except a few personal ornaments, which are of mean appearance, and may bear Christian symbols. Domestic pottery is coarse, ungraceful, and frequently ribbed on the outside. Clay lamps have long nozzles, and Christian symbols. Glass becomes clumsy and less common; and glazed bowls and cups come into use. Occasional rich finds of silver plate (salvers, cups, spoons, &c.) and personal ornaments, have been made among Byzantine ruins.

On mediaeval and later sites, various glazed fabrics of pottery are found, and occasionally examples of the glazed and painted jugs, plates, and tiles known to collectors as 'Rhodian' or 'Damascus' ware.

Inscriptions occur on settlement-sites, in sanctuaries and associated with tombs: usually cut on slabs or blocks of soft limestone, though marble and other harder stones were used in Hellenistic and Roman times. Besides the ordinary Greek (see Illustration IV), and Roman alphabets the Phoenician alphabet (see Illustrations X and XI) was in use at Kition (Larnaca), in the great sanctuaries at Idalion (Dali), and occasionally elsewhere; and from early times until the fourth century a syllabary peculiar to Cyprus, often very rudely hewn, in irregular lines, on ill-shaped blocks. Such 'Cypriote inscriptions' (see accompanying Illustration VII) are of great value and interest, and have been often overlooked among building material drawn from old sites. In all doubtful cases, a 'squeeze' should be made by one of the methods described in the first part of this volume and submitted to the Keeper of Antiquities. The stamped inscriptions on the handles of wine-jars are worth preserving, as evidence for the course of trade.

Coins were issued in Cyprus from the sixth century onward; first in silver; later (in the fourth century B.C.) occasionally in gold, and from the fourth century commonly in copper. A Ptolemaic coinage succeeded in the third century that of the local rulers; the Roman coinage, with inscriptions sometimes in Greek, sometimes in Latin, lasts from Augustus to the beginning of the third century. Coins of the Byzantine Emperors and of the Lusignan Kings are common.



CHAPTER V

CENTRAL AND NORTH SYRIA

[See the diagrams of flint implements, Illustration II; of pottery and weapons, &c., VIII & IX; of alphabets, X & XI.]

The following notes are to be accepted as only a rough and imperfect guide, since no part of Syria, north of Palestine, has been widely or minutely explored, and the archaeology of the earliest period, in Central Syria, for example, is almost unknown.

The periods into which the archaeological history of Syria should be divided are roughly, as follows:

I. Neolithic and Chalcolithic Age, to about 2000 B.C. II. Bronze Age or Early Hittite, to about 1100 B.C. III. Iron Age or Late Hittite, to about 550 B.C. IV. Persian Period, to about 330 B.C. V. Hellenistic Period, to about 100 B.C. VI. Roman Period. VII. Byzantine Period.

I. Neolithic.

No purely Neolithic sites yet known, but lowest strata of remains at Sakjegozu and Sinjerli, on the Carchemish citadel, and in certain kilns at Yunus near by, and also pot-burials among house remains are of this Age. (But see Chapter VIII, Mesopotamia, whose Neolithic period is similar.)

Stone implements: as in Greece, including obsidian of very clear texture, probably of inner Asiatic, not Aegean production. Bone needles and other implements.

Pottery. Four varieties have been observed: (1) buff ground with simple linear decoration applied direct on the gritty body-clay in lustreless pigments, black, chocolate-brown, or red, according to the firing; (2) greenish-buff face, hand-polished, with polychrome varnish decoration of vandykes and other geometric motives; (3) monochrome, black to grey, not burnished, but sometimes decorated with incised linear patterns; (4) plain red or buff (e.g. large urns in which Neolithic burials were found on the Carchemish citadel). All pottery hand-made.

Figurines: rude clay and stone figurines are likely to occur, but have as yet been found very rarely in Neolithic strata.

Copper implements: traces observed at Carchemish: to be looked for.

II. Bronze Age (Early Hittite).

(a) Early period to about 1500 B.C. Cist-graves made of rough stone slabs, near crude brick houses. Conjunction of such slabs with bricks would be an indication of an early Bronze Age site. Rare pot-burials survive.

Implements. Spear-heads of long tapering form rounded sharply at the base which has long tang (IX, Fig. 5): poker-like butts (IX, Fig. 2): knives with curved tangs: 'toggle' pins: all bronze (but a silver toggle-pin has been found) (IX, Figs. 1,8).

Pottery. All wheel-made but rough: light red or buff faced of reddish clay: decoration rare and only in simple zigzags or waves in reddish-brown pigment: long-stemmed vases of 'champagne-glass' form are common (VIII, Fig. 4): rarely a creamy slip is applied to the red clay.

(b) Later period. Cist-graves apart from houses, in cemeteries.

Implements. Long narrow celts often riveted: spear-heads, leaf-shaped or triangular (IX, Figs. 3, 6, 10): axe-heads with socket, swelling blade and curved cutting edge: pins both 'toggle' and unpierced, straight and bent over.

Pottery. Wheel-made, well potted, and commonly ring-burnished, the process beginning at the base of a vase and climbing spirally: little painted decoration: face usually dusky brown over pinkish body clay, but red and yellow-white faced wares also found: shapes, mostly bowls, open and half closed: ring feet, but no handles to vases: only occasionally lug-ears (IX, Figs. 1,2,3,5,6). Rims well turned over belong to the latest period, in which elaborate ring-burnishing is common.

Beads, &c. Diamond-shaped, with incised decoration, in clay or stone, common. Pendants, &c., of shell, lapis lazuli, cornelian, crystal. Cylinders, of rude design like Babylonian First Dynasty, in stone and bone. Spindle-whorls in steatite and clay.



III. Iron Age (Late Hittite).

To this belong the mass of 'Hittite' remains in Syria. Graves are unlined pits, with urn burials, the corpse having been cremated. Cylinders, &c., showing traces of fire, will belong to this Age.

Implements and weapons. Arrow-heads of bronze: spear-heads of bronze and iron: axes, knives, and picks of iron (miniature models occur in graves): daggers of iron. Fibulae, of bronze, semicircular and triangular (as in Asia Minor) (IX, Figs. 4, 9, 11): plain armlets of bronze: pins, spatulae, &c., of bronze: thin applique ornaments. Bronze bowls (gilt) with gadroon or lotus ornament (moulded) in later period. Steatite censers, in form of a cup held by a human hand, are not uncommon (IX, Fig. 7).

Pottery. Tall narrow-mouthed urns, bath-shaped vessels, and bell-kraters common (VIII, Fig. 10): trefoil-mouth oenochoae and hydriae; also amphorae (VIII, Fig. 7).

In earlier period, white or drab slipped surface with geometric patterns (rarely rude birds) in black. In later period, pinkish glaze with geometric patterns in black-brown, concentric circles being a common motive. Tripod bowls in unslipped 'kitchen' ware (VIII, Fig. 8). Blue or greenish glazed albarelli, with white, brown, or yellow bands, occur (as in Rhodes).

Figurines. Drab clay, painted with red or black bands and details. Two types: (a) Horsemen; (b) Goddesses of columnar shape, often with flower headdresses, and sometimes carrying a child.

Seals, &c. Scarabs with designs of Egyptian appearance: cylinders, steatite or (more commonly) glazed paste, lightly and often scratchily engraved: hard stone seals finely engraved: flattened spheroids in steatite with Hittite symbols on both faces, inscriptions being often garbled.

Inscriptions. Most of those in Hittite script, both relieved and incised, found in Syria, are of this Age, but chiefly of the earlier part of it (cf. Illustration VI). Those in Semitic characters begin in this Age; and to its later part (8th-7th cents.) belong important Aramaic inscriptions, e.g. the Bar-Rekub monuments of Sinjerli (Shamal). See tables of letter-forms appended to Palestine section, Illustrations X & XI.

IV. Persian Period.

Imported Egyptian and Egypto-Phoenician objects (bronze bowls as in Age III: scarabs: figure-amulets), Rhodian (pottery), Attic (coins, small black-figure vases, &c.).

Weapons and implements. Iron. Long swords: spearheads, socketed, often with square or diamond mid-rib: short double-edged daggers with round pommels: chapes (bronze) with moulded or beaten relief-work: knives, small and slightly curved: arrow-heads (usually bronze and triangular): horse- bits (usually bronze) with heavy knobbed side-bars: ear-rings, wire armlets and pins (generally plain) of bronze: fibulae as in Age III: circular mirrors, plain, of bronze: anklets of heavy bronze: kohl-pots, bronze, of hollow cylindrical form, with plain sticks.

Pottery. As in Age II, plain, polished, rarely ring-burnished, but of less careful workmanship (VIII, Fig. 9.) Glazed albarelli, 'pilgrim- bottles', aryballi, &c., (as in Age III) common. White-yellow slipped ware with bands of black survives rarely from Age III.

Stone vessels. Bowls on inverted cup-shaped feet not uncommon (VIII, Fig. 11).

Beads and seals. Eye-beads in mosaic glass, and other glass beads (hard stone and bronze more rarely): conoid seals in hard crystalline stones, usually engraved with figure praying to the Moon-god: also soft stone, glass and paste conoids. Scarabs and scaraboids in paste. Cylinders become scarce.

V. Hellenistic. VI. Roman. VII. Byzantine.

Most of the characteristic Syrian products of all these Periods do not differ materially from those found in other East Mediterranean lands, e.g. Greece and Asia Minor. The change to Persian (Sassanian) types comes in the late seventh century A.D.

Two classes of objects, examples of the first of which are mostly of Age III, but may be Persian, Hellenistic, or even Roman, are very commonly met with in Syria:

1. Figurines, single or in pairs or threes, of bronze or terra-cotta, representing cult-types. Most common is a standing god with peaked cap, short tunic, and arm raised in act of smiting: a seated goddess also common: figures of animals, especially a bull; and phallic objects (these mainly Roman).

2. Glass plain (iridescent from decay), ribbed, or moulded, in great variety of forms-bowls, jugs, cups, &c. Mostly late Hellenistic, Roman, and Byzantine, and especially common and of fine quality in the Orontes valley.

Parti-coloured glass (with white or yellow bands and threads) is earlier (Persian Period). Painted and enamelled glass with gilt or polychrome designs is later (ninth to fifteenth century, Arab).



CHAPTER VI

PALESTINE

[See the diagrams of flint implements, Illustrations II; pottery, XII; alphabets, XIV & XV.]

I. General Principles.

1. Study of the pottery of the country, not merely from books but from actual specimens, is an absolutely essential preliminary. Without an acquaintance with this branch of Palestinian archaeology, so thorough that any sherd presenting the least character can be immediately assigned to its proper period, no field research of any value can be carried out. (See further V below.)

2. A knowledge of the various Semitic alphabets is necessary for copying inscriptions. Unless the traveller be also acquainted with the languages he had better be cautious about copying Semitic inscriptions; without such knowledge he runs the risk of confusing different Semitic letters, which often closely resemble one another. He should, however, be able to make squeezes and photographs.

The following are the languages and scripts which may be found in Palestinian Epigraphy.

Egyptian, in Hieroglyphics. Greek. Babylonian Cuneiform. Latin. Assyrian Cuneiform. Arabic, in Cufic script. Hebrew, in ancient script. Arabic, in modern script. Hebrew, in square character. Armenian (in mosaic Phoenician. pavements, also graffiti Moabite. in Church of Holy Aramaic. Sepulchre).

Tables of the chief alphabetic and numeral forms of the West Semitic scripts are given in Illustrations X & XI; for the Greek, see Illustration IV.

3. The traveller should have had practice in making measured drawings of buildings.

4. For some branches of work a good knowledge of Arabic is indispensable—not the miserable pidgin jargon usually spoken by Europeans, nor yet the highly complex literary language, which is unintelligible to the ordinary native, but the colloquial of the country, spoken grammatically and properly pronounced. Work done through dragomans is never entirely satisfactory, because it requires the unattainable condition that the dragoman should be as much a scientific student of anthropology and of archaeology as the traveller himself.

5. The student for whom these pages are written should not attempt any excavation, unless he has been trained under a practical excavator, and has learnt how work, which is essentially and inevitably destructive of evidence, can be made to yield profitable fruit. There is plenty of work that can be done on the surface of the ground without excavation.



II. Sites of Towns and Villages.

1. Nomenclature. The sites of ancient towns and villages are usually conspicuous in Palestine, and are recognized in the local nomenclature. They are denoted by the words tall, plural tulul, meaning 'mound', and khirbah, plural khirab meaning 'ruin'. These words are commonly spelt in English tell and khirbet (less correctly khurbet) and we use these more familiar forms here. As a rule, though not invariably, the sense of these terms is distinguished. A tell is a site represented by a mound of stratified accumulation, the result of occupation extending over many centuries, and easily recognizable among natural hillocks by its regular shape, smooth sides, and flat top. A khirbet is a field of ruins in which there is little or no stratification. Nearly all the sites of the latter type are the remains of villages not older than the Byzantine or Roman period.

2. Identification of ancient sites. This is a task less easy than it appears to be, and many of the current identifications of Biblical sites call for revision. Similarity of name, on which most of these identifications depend, is apt to be misleading; in many cases sites identified thus with Old Testament places are not older than the Byzantine Period. [1] This similarity of name may sometimes be a mere accident; it may also sometimes be accounted for by a transference of site, the inhabitants having for some special reason moved their town to a new situation. In such cases the tell representing the older site may perhaps await identification in the neighbourhood. In attempting to establish identifications, the date of the site, as determined from the potsherds, and its suitability to the recorded history of the ancient site in question, are elements of equal importance with its name.

[1] An example is Khirbet Teku'a, long identified with the Biblical Tekoa.

Note: The traveller should be cautioned against embarking on the study of place-names, identification of scriptural sites, &c., before mastering the principles of Arabic phonetics. Many of the attempts made at rendering the names of Palestinian place-names in European books are simply grotesque. The following are the chief pitfalls:

(1) Confusion of the vowels, the pronunciation of which is obscure. (2) The consonant 'ain, to which the untrained European ear is deaf, and which in consequence is often omitted. Less frequently it may be over-conscientiously inserted in a place where it does not exist. Sometimes the 'ain and its associated vowel are transposed (as M'alula for Ma'lula) making unpronounceable combinations of consonants. (3) The letter kaf, often dropped in pronunciation, and therefore often omitted. (4) The letter ghain, which an unaccustomed ear confuses with either g or r. (5) The reduplicated letters, which a European is apt to hear and to write as single. (6) The nuances between the different d, h, k, t, and s sounds.

3. Surface-exploration of a tell. The stratification can rarely be studied on the surface only: superficial indications of this are obscured by the plough, weather, vegetation, and the activities of modern natives who grub for building-stone and for the chance of buried treasure. Only by trenching can the strata be exposed. An exception to this rule is afforded by Tell el-Hesy (Lachish) explored by Dr. Petrie in 1890- 1: here the erosion of a stream had exposed enough of the strata for a reconnaissance. In the majority of cases the most that a visitor can hope to do is to pick up stray antiquities on the surface of the ground, and ascertain therefrom the limits of date.

The chief clue is afforded by the pottery (see below, V), sherds of which, large and small, are strewn in considerable numbers on every ancient site. Scarabs, seals, bronze implements, iron fragments, beads, bone ornaments, and the like may also be noticed. A trained eye is essential even for such surface finds: one man may walk over a mound and find nothing, another may walk in his steps and gather quite an interesting harvest of small objects.

Surface indications of buried buildings (or rather foundations) may be noted both on the top and on the sides of a tell. Lines of wall may not infrequently be traced. Often the vegetation growing on the surface indicates the presence of structures underneath (either by burnt-up patches amid luxuriant growths, or vice versa).

4. Surface exploration of a khirbet. The task here is, generally sneaking, simpler. In a khirbet there is usually no great depth of accumulation; indeed, the bare rock frequently crops up in the middle of such a site. There is, therefore, as a rule only one historical period represented. Potsherds, coins (Roman, Jewish, Byzantine, early Islamic, sometimes Crusader), tesserae of mosaic pavements, fragments of iron nails, beads, minute metal ornaments (as bronze wire finger-rings) are to be picked up on khirbet sites.

The remains of walls are usually more easily traceable in khirbet than in tell sites, though much damage has been done by quarrying for modern buildings. These walls should be carefully examined: buildings other than mere houses (churches, synagogues, baths) may sometimes be detected. Cisterns should be noted. Some of these are not very obvious and the traveller should be on his guard against falling into them.

All stones should be examined, as there is a chance of finding inscriptions.

5. In all work on ancient sites the investigator must make a point of noting everything, irrespective of its apparent importance, and of carefully training a critical judgement in interpreting his observations. It is impossible to lay down general principles that govern every case completely: every site presents its own individual problems.

III. Rock-cut Tombs.

1. All Palestine is honeycombed with rock-cut tombs, which form a fascinating and inexhaustible field of study. Unfortunately all that are in the least degree visible have long ago been rifled, and in recent years those pests, the curio-hunting tourists, have done incalculable harm by stimulating the native tomb-robber and dealer.

2. The explorer of rock-cut tombs must be indifferent to mud, damp, evil smells, noxious insects, and other discomforts, and he must be prepared to squeeze through very narrow passages, much clogged with earth. He is recommended to be on his guard against scorpions and snakes.

3. A plan and vertical section of the tomb should be drawn. The measurements should be taken carefully, not only for the sake of the accuracy of the plan, but also for metrological purposes.

4. The rock outside the entrance of the tomb-chamber should be examined. It often shows rebating or other cutting, designed to receive the foundations of a masonry mausoleum (resembling in general style the rock-hewn monuments in the Kedron Valley at Jerusalem). As a rule such structures have been entirely destroyed for the sake of their stones.

5. The tool-marks of the tomb-quarriers should be examined, as they sometimes reveal interesting technical points.

6. Every inch of the surface of the excavation, inside and out, must be examined for ornaments, symbols, or inscriptions. These may be either cut or painted, and often are very inconspicuous. Ornaments are usually floral in type, though in late tombs figure-subjects are occasionally to be found. Symbols are either Jewish (the seven- branched candlestick) or Christian (the cross, A-omega, or the like). Inscriptions are not necessarily formally cut: they are sometimes mere scratched graffiti, which would be sure to escape notice unless carefully looked for (as in the so-called 'Tombs of the Prophets' on the Mount of Olives).

7. Dating of tombs. The savage rifling to which Palestinian tombs have been subjected has much reduced the material available for dating them. The following general principles apply to Southern Palestine: those in Northern Palestine and Syria still await a more exact study:

The earliest tombs known in the country were mere natural caves, into which the dead were cast, often very unceremoniously.

In the Second Semitic Period (circa 1800-1400 B.C.) hewn chambers began to be used. These are in the form of cylindrical shafts with a doorway at the bottom leading sideways into the burial-chamber. Natural caves are still frequently used.

In the Third Semitic Period (circa 1400-1000 B.C.) the shaft: form disappears and an artificial cave, rudely hewn out, takes its place. The entrance is in the side of the chamber, though not necessarily at the level of the floor. Rude shelves for the reception of the bodies are sometimes, but not always, cut in the sides of the chamber.

In the Fourth Semitic Period (circa 1000-550 B.C.) the tomb- chambers are of the same kind, but are as a rule smaller.

In Southern Palestine the well-made tomb-chambers, such as are to be seen in great numbers around Jerusalem, are all post-exilic. There is an immense variety in plan, some tombs being single chambers, others complications of several chambers. The late excavation absurdly called the 'Tombs of the Kings' at Jerusalem is quite a labyrinth of rockcut chambers. In exploring such a structure a careful search should be made for devices for deluding thieves: special precautions are sometimes taken to conceal the entrance to inner groups of chambers. There are some interesting examples of this in the cemetery in the Wadi er-Rababi, south of Jerusalem. However, all tombs of this period fall into two groups, kok tombs and arcosolium tombs. In the former the receptacles for bodies are of the kind known by the Hebrew name kokim—shafts, of a size to accommodate one body (sometimes large enough for two or three) driven horizontally into the wall of the chamber. In the normal kok tomb-chamber there are nine kokim, three in each wall except the wall containing the entrance doorway. But there are many other arrangements. In the 'Tombs of the Judges' there is a double row of kokim in the entrance chamber. The explorer should not forget that a kok sometimes contains a secret entrance to further chambers at its inner end. In arcosolium tombs the receptacles are benches cut in the wall, like the berths in a steamer's cabin. These are sometimes sunk, so as to resemble rock-cut sarcophagi.

The late tombs round Jerusalem are in the form of caves driven horizontally into the hill-sides. Further south, e.g. in the region round Beit Jibrin, they are more frequently sunk vertically, the entrance being in the roof of the burial chamber, or approached by a square shaft (a reversion to the Second Semitic form, except that these latter have round shafts).

IV. Caves. The history of the artificial caves hewn in the soft limestone of Palestine, is quite unknown. The caves of the neighbourhood of Beit Jibrin provide ample material for several months' exploration.

Though the caves are labyrinthine there is little fear of an explorer losing his way: he should, however, be well provided with lights, as it would be extremely awkward to be left in the innermost recess of a cave consisting of ten or a dozen chambers united by narrow creep- passages, without adequate illumination. There are occasionally unexpected and dangerous pitfalls: and hyenas and serpents often shelter in the caves. The present writer has explored many of them entirely alone, but this is, on the whole, not to be recommended.

Besides planning the cave, its walls should be searched for inscriptions, &c. It should be remembered, however, that these may have been added at any time and do not necessarily belong to the original excavation. Symbols, apparently of a phallic nature, are sometimes cut on the walls, as well as crosses and other Christian devices, and Cufic inscriptions. Frequently the walls are pitted with the loculi of a columbarium, which, however, appear to be too small to receive cinerary urns and must be intended for some other purpose.

V. Pottery.

Owing to the importance of the subject a special section on Pottery is given here, and the two accompanying plates (XII) show some of the commonest types of vessels. But the student cannot learn all he will need to know of Palestinian pottery from a few pages of print. A representative series of specimens will be found in the Jerusalem Museum: he may supplement his study of these by the perusal of reports on excavations, such as Petrie, Tell el-Hesy (pp. 40-50); Bliss, A Mound of Many Cities (passim); Excavations in Palestine (pp. 71-141); Macalister, Excavation of Gezer (vol. ii, pp. 128-239; and plates); Sellin, Jericho; Schumacher, Tell et-Mutasellim.

Pre-Semitic Period (down to circa 2000 B.C.). Ware hand-modelled, without wheel, coarse, gritty, and generally soft-baked and very porous. The section of a clean fracture is usually of a dirty yellowish colour, resembling in appearance coarse oatmeal porridge. Bases usually flat, loop-handles or wavy handles on the bodies of the vessels: mouths wide and lips curved outward. The body of the vessel often decorated with drip lines or with a criss- cross, in red paint.

First Semitic Period (circa 2000-1800 B.C.). Similar to the last: but the potter's wheel is used, and horizontal painted and moulded rope-like ornament also found. Combed ornament and burnished lines frequent.

Second Semitic Period (circa 1800-1400 B.C.). During this period imports from Egypt, Crete, the Aegean Sea, and especially Cyprus were common, and potsherds originating in those countries are frequently to be picked up: also local imitations of these foreign wares. The ware of this period is on the whole well- refined and well-modelled: the most graceful shapes, in jugs and bowls, belong to it. Elaborate polychrome decoration, including figures of birds. But little moulded ornament.

Third Semitic Period (circa 1400-1000 B.C.). The same foreign influences are traceable, but rather as reminiscent local imitations than as direct imports. Late Minoan [Mycenaean] sherds are, however, frequent. The shapes of vessels are less artistic than in the preceding period: the painted ornament is also degenerated, being traced in wiry lines rather than in the bold wash of the preceding period.

Fourth Semitic Period (circa 1000-550 B.C.). Late Cypriote imports. The local ware very poor, coarse, gritty, inartistic. No painted ornament except mere lines: clumsy moulded ornament frequent.

Post-Exilic and Hellenistic Period (circa 550-100 B.C.). Imports from Greece (sometimes fragments of black or red figured vases, or lekythoi) and from the Aegean Islands (especially wine-jars from Rhodes: stamped handles of such are frequent). The native ware is easily recognizable by its smoothness and hardness; when struck with a stick a sherd emits a musical clink. The vessels are very fair imitations of classical models, occasionally with painted ornament, but more frequently moulded.

Roman and Byzantine Period (circa 100 B.C.-A.D. 600). The unmistakable character of the ware of this period is the ribbed surface, with which nearly all vessels are decorated. Fragments of ribbed pottery are strewn almost over all Palestine. Ornament consisting of repeated impressions of stamps now begins to appear. Lamps with decoration, inscriptions, Christian or Jewish symbols common. Glass vessels also frequent.

Arab Period (circa A.D. 600 onwards). The early Arab ware often bears painted decoration singularly like that on Second and Third Semitic pottery, but a fatty soapy texture characterizes the Arab ware, which is absent from the earlier sherds. There is likewise a complete absence of representation of natural forms (birds and the like). In or about the Crusader period the use of ornamental glaze makes its appearance.



VI. Sanctuaries.

The hill-top shrines, now consecrated to saints of Islam, are doubtless in origin ancient Canaanite high places. There is here a rich but a very difficult field for investigation. The difficulty lies in (a) gaining the confidence of those to whom the sanctuaries are holy, and (b) guarding against wilful or unconscious deception. Only long residence and frequent intercourse, with the Muslim population will make it possible for any one to obtain really trustworthy information as to the traditions or the sites of these ancient sanctuaries. A knowledge of Arabic is essential for a study of the sites themselves, as there are frequently inscriptions cut or painted on the walls which should be studied. The casual traveller cannot hope to carry out researches of any value on these ancient sites.

Sometimes the buildings are Crusaders' churches transformed. The one really certain fact as to masonry dressing in Palestine may here conveniently be noticed—that Crusader structures are built of well- squared stones with a plane surface finished off with a dressing consisting of very fine diagonal lines. Once seen, this masonry dressing is absolutely unmistakable.

Buildings thus identified as Crusader should be examined for masons' marks.

VII. Miscellaneous.

The following are some other types of ancient remains with which the traveller may meet almost anywhere in Palestine:

(1) Prehistoric (Stone Age) sites. Marked by being strewn with flint implements and chips: see a fine collection in the Museum of the Assumptionists (Notre-Dame de France) at Jerusalem. Specimens should be collected and the site mapped.

(2) Dolmens. Frequent east of Jordan; rare, though not unknown, in Western Palestine. Should be measured, photographed, described, and mapped.

(3) Rock-cuttings of various kinds, which should be measured, planned, and mapped. Among these the commonest are: (a) Cisterns (usually bottle-shaped, a narrow neck expanding below). (b) Cup-markings, common everywhere. Often associated with cisterns. (c) Wine and olive presses: there is a great variety in form, but they generally consist of two essential parts—a shallow pressing- vat on which the fruit was crushed, and a deeper receiving-vat in which the expressed juice was collected. The vats are often lined with cement containing datable potsherds, and are sometimes paved with mosaic tesserae. (d) Quarries.

(4) Sacred trees and bushes, recognized by the rags with which they are festooned. Should be photographed and mapped, and their legends ascertained, subject to the cautions given above under the head of Sanctuaries.

(5) Castles and churches, usually of the Crusader period: early Saracenic buildings. Should be recorded by means of plans, photographs, measured drawings, and written descriptions.

(6) Mosaic pavements, usually belonging to Byzantine buildings; should be recorded by means of coloured drawings.



CHAPTER VII

EGYPT

[See the diagrams of flint implements, Illustration II; pottery, Illustration XIII; and the table of hieroglyphic signs liable to be confused with each other, Illustration I]

First Prehistoric Age, 8000?-7000? B.C. Cemeteries of round or oval pits on the desert; no towns known. Red faced pottery, often with lustrous black top, earliest with patterns of white slip lines: all hand-made. Block figures of ivory or paste. Combs with long teeth and animal tops.

Second Prehistoric Age, 7000?-5500 B.C. Graves, square pits. Red faced, and much coarse brown pottery. Buff with red painting of cordage, spirals, and ships. Pot forms copied from stone. Some pots globular with wavy ledge handles, changing to cylinders with wavy band. Slate palettes in all prehistoric periods.

Early Dynasties, 5500-4700 B.C. Towns and cemeteries. Great mastabas of brick. Wooden coffins begin. Great jars; hard, wheel-made pottery. Glazed tiles, &c. Stone bowls common. Cylinder sealings on clay.

Pyramid Period, IV-Vl Dynasties, 4700-4000 B.C. Sculptured stone tomb-chapels. Diorite bowls. Thick brown pot offering bowls. Limestone statues, painted. Cornelian amulets in strings.

Vl-XI Dynasties, 4200-3600 B.C. Copper mirrors begin. Buttons, wide face, un-Egyptian work. Pottery models of houses placed on grave edge.

Middle Kingdom, Xll-XIII Dynasties, 3600-2900 B.C. Brick pyramids. Large rock tomb-chapels, painted. Hard drab pottery. Alabaster kohl-pots, good forms. Globular beads, large; cornelian, amethyst, and green glaze. Scroll pattern scarabs.

XIV-XVII Dynasties. 2900-1600 B.C. Small flasks with handles, black with pricked patterns. Coarsely cut scarabs. Shell beads.

New Kingdom XVIII-XXI Dynasties, 1587-952 B.C. Small painted tombs. Pottery, red face black edge to 1500; buff, red and black lines to 1400; blue bands 1400-1200. Hard polished drab, about 1400-1350. Glass beads, &c., abundant 1400-1300. Glaze deep blue 1500, brilliant blue 1400, poor blue 1300, green 1200: deep blue ushabtis 1100, pale and rough 1000. Ushabtis, stone or wood engraved 1550-1450, pottery 1450 to very coarse 1250, wood very coarse by 1250; glazed fine 1300, decline to small rough lumps 800. Beads, minute coloured glaze and stone to 1450, thin discs 1450-1350, coloured pastes red and blue 1450 to 1300, yellow glass mainly 1300- 1200, poor glaze after 1200. Alabaster kohl-pots, clumsy forms to 1450; tubes of stone, glaze, wood, or reed 1450-1200.

Bubastites, XXII-XXV Dynasties, 950-664 B.C. Clumsy large jars, widening to bottom, small handles. Green glazed figures of cat-head goddess, cats, pigs, and sacred eyes; coarse glass beads, yellow and black: copper wire bracelets. Glass beads with blue spots in circles of brown and white. Scarabs coarse and worst at 750. Fine work revived at 700 by Ethiopians. Glazes dull, dirty, green. Glass unknown. Coffins very roughly painted.

Saites, XXVI-XXX Dynasties, 664-342 B.C. Pottery clumsy, mostly rough: some thin, smooth red. Greek influence; silver coins from 500 onward. Iron tools beginning. Glaze pale greyish and olive: some fine blue at 350. No glass. Bronze figures common. Ushabtis with back pier and beard; fine 650 to poor at 350.

Ptolemies, 332-30 B.C. Pottery clumsy and small. Many Rhodian jars with Greek stamped handles. Glazes, dark violet and yellow-green. Glass revived for inlay figures in shrines: minute mosaic begins. Glazed beads scarce, no scarabs. Large copper coins, silver tetradrachms, base in later time, and concave on reverse.

Romans, 30 B.C.-A.D. 641. The earlier half, to A.D. 300. Large brown amphorae, peg bottoms; ribbed after 180, wide ribbing at first, then narrower. Glass blown; fine white and cut facets in 1st cent.; hollow brims 2nd-4th; stems and pressed feet, 3rd-4th. Glass mosaic 1st cent.; coarser wall mosaic 2nd cent. Glaze coarse blue, on thick clumsy bowls and jugs. Red brick buildings as well as mud brick, coins: billon tetradrachms in 1st cent., almost copper in 2nd, small copper dumps in 3rd, leaden tokens from A.D. 180 to 260. Some large copper in 1st and 2nd, thinner than the Ptolemaic. Potsherds used for writing receipts and letters. Abundance of moulded terra- cottas, and small lamps.

Roman, Second Period, A.D. 300-641. The Constantinian Age brings in new styles. Much salmon-coloured hard pottery, mainly platters and flat dishes. Brown amphorae soft and smaller, with narrow ribbing. No glaze. Much very thin glass. Coins: little thin flat copper, as in rest of Empire, ending about 450. No Egyptian coinage, except a very few rough lumps from Justinian to Heraclius, I+B on back. Letters written on potsherds and flakes of limestone.

Red brick the material for all large buildings. Limestone capitals of debased leafage. Rudely cut relief patterns in wood. Coarsely carved and turned bone or ivory. Pottery in Byzantine Age with white facing and rudely painted figures. Textiles, with embroidery in colours, and especially purple discs with thread designs of the earlier Arab period. A characteristic of late Roman and Arab mounds is the organic smell.

Muhammadan Period. Seventh to fifteenth centuries. Characterized by great amounts of glazed pottery. Smaller antiquities found in cemeteries or on ruined sites, the earliest transitional, and related to Coptic examples of the same kinds. Pottery: lamps at first continue Christian forms and are unglazed; afterwards long spouted lamps of dark green glaze. Fragments of vessels, &c., from the rubbish heaps of old Cairo are glazed; a typical faience has a soft sandy body of light colour with painted designs in blue or blue and brown with transparent glaze. Those of the Mamluk period, and probably some of earlier date, show a general resemblance to Western Asiatic contemporary wares, due to importation of potters from Syria, Asia Minor, and Persia (between twelfth and fifteenth centuries). Other varieties have decoration in metallic lustre on an opaque white tin glaze; others again have monochrome glazes imitating imported Chinese wares. Inscriptions very rare. Glass: if found, is in fragments; rich coloured enamel designs are seldom earlier than the thirteenth century. Textiles: chiefly found in small pieces; the colours rich; ornament consisting of geometrical designs and Cufic inscriptions. Any silk, or printed patterns, should be secured.

No information about papyri is given here, for the reason that any site containing them should not be touched except by a trained excavator.



CHAPTER VIII

MESOPOTAMIA

[See the diagrams of flint implements, Illustration II; pottery and brick-forms, Illustration XIV; cuneiform signs, and other scripts Illustration XV].

Mesopotamian antiquities are nearly always found in Tells, or artificial mounds, which are the sites of ancient towns or temples. The surrounding plain for a distance of several hundred yards out, whether steppe-desert or untilled land, will usually be found to be productive of antiquities, either a few inches or few feet deep or, in the case of the dessert, actually lying upon the surface. These are usually the result of rainstorms washing out antiquities from the tell itself. Each tell or ganglion of connected tells usually has a number of small subsidiary tells round about it, the sites of small isolated buildings or villages connected with the central settlement. Originally the settlements were built upon natural rises of the ground which stood up as islands in the fen-country.

Visitors should give the local names of tells in Arabic characters, when possible, so that mistakes in transliteration into English may be avoided. Antiquities bought in the neighbourhood of a tell should be noted as coming from that neighbourhood. Depredations by Arabs (or by others!) should be noted, and reported to the nearest Political Officer or Inspector of Antiquities. The barbarous practice of forcibly dislodging inscribed bricks from walls, as trophies and 'souvenirs', which has unhappily been common during the war, should never be imitated and always discountenanced as much as possible.

Other good spots for antiquities than tells are rare. In the mountainous and stony country of the North we may meet with rock- sculptures, as at Bavian, and these should always be recorded by a traveller, even if he is not certain that they have not been remarked before: something new may turn up at any time. Antiquities acquired in the neighbourhood of such monuments should be noted, and their precise place of origin ascertained, if possible, as in this way the site of some ancient settlement adjoining the monument may be identified. The open ruin-fields, or Khurbas, characteristic of Palestine are not usual, except in the case of Parthian or Sassanian palace ruins such as Ctesiphon, Hatra, or Ukheidhir, which were often abandoned almost as soon as they were built, so that no later population could pile up rubbish-heaps or graves above them.

In order to aid the visitor to get some idea of the age of a tell or other site from the antiquities found on its surface and its neighbourhood, and so to be able to give some idea of what is likely to be found in it, the following hints have been drawn up.

In the first place, most of the surface remains, are, as elsewhere, pottery sherds. These should tell us their date by their appearance. It must be said, however, that our experience on the subject of the development of Mesopotamian pottery is limited. Owing to the attention of Assyriologists having been so long focussed on the study of the cuneiform records, to the neglect of general archaeology, we have nothing like the knowledge of these things that we have in Egypt or in Greece. Such minutiae of information as our common knowledge of ceramic development in Egypt or in Greece gives us with regard to these countries, enabling us to date sites with great accuracy, are not vet available for Mesopotamia. And if for this reason all possible information as to the objects found on archaeological sites is desirable, it is also impossible yet to give the visitor any absolute guide to the distinctive appearance of pottery at every period. The main periods are known. The 'prehistoric', the Sumerian, the late Babylonian, and the Parthian styles are easily distinguishable. If a visitor is able to tell us that such-and-such a mound is prehistoric or is Parthian, or that settlements of both periods existed on it, this is what we want. One of the most general of criteria with regard to pottery is whether it is glazed or not. If glazed, it is, generally speaking, late. Other things besides pottery are of course found, and the presence or the absence of metal, and the occurrence of stone implements, are important. But it must be remembered that stone was used long into the 'Bronze' Age, and contemporaneously with copper. There is no sudden break between the two periods. Fragments of shell and mother-of-pearl, often with incised designs, are very characteristic of the earliest period. Coins are of late date; a tell with coins on it is certain to contain buildings as late as the fourth or third century B.C. (though it may also contain far older buildings as well). One of the most useful criteria of age is: Bricks. The form of the brick is a very good guide to date. The Babylonians used both kiln-baked and crude bricks. The oldest type, whether baked or crude, is plano-convex in form, and uninscribed. The mortar is bitumen. Later on rectangular bricks, often square, made in moulds, were introduced. These usually bore the name of the royal builder. Later on bricks became generally oblong and much like our own. In the sixth century the square shape was revived. Both shapes were in use at the Nebuchadnezzar period. Glazed bricks were then common. Under the Persians mortar took the place of bitumen. Under the Parthians and Sassanians, bricks were yellow, oblong, small, and very hard. Details will be found below, The names of various excavated sites are given in brackets as the 'classical' sources of information on certain points, and as the places from which type-antiquities have come to our Museums. Ancient names are in capitals; museums in italics.

I. PREHISTORIC (?) AGE: Chalcolithic (aeneolithic) period, before 3500 B.C.

Until quite recently no traces of the Stone Age had been discovered in Babylonia other than a few possible palaeoliths lying on the surface of the desert: all traces of a Neolithic Age were supposed to have been buried beneath the alluvium of the valley. In Assyria, however, neolithic traces in the shape of obsidian flakes had been discovered by the late Prof. L. W. King in the course of his excavation of the mound of Kuyunjik (NINEVEH), besides fragments of painted pottery resembling those from the earliest deposits in Asia Minor and those found by the American geologist Pumpelly in his diggings in the kurgans of Turkestan, (to which he assigned an extremely remote date B.C.). In Persia, and about the head of the Persian Gulf, somewhat similar pottery was discovered by de Morgan and the other French excavators at Susa, Tepe Musyan, Bandar Bushir, and other places: here again the dates were put at a very remote period. With the exception of a few flint saw-blades from Warka [1], Fara, Zurghul, and Babylon [2], no similar remains had been found in Babylonia until, in 1918, Capt. R. Campbell Thompson, exploring on behalf of the British Museum, discovered flint and obsidian flakes and painted pottery lying on the surface of the desert at Tell Abu Shahrein (ERIDU), and also at Tell Muqayyar (UR). The continued excavations carried out by Mr. H. R. Hall for the Museum in 1919 have produced more of the same evidence from both places, besides a new 'prehistoric' site at Tell el-Ma'abed or Tell el-'Obeid near Ur. It seems that these antiquities date from the very end of the neolithic, or rather to the succeeding 'chalcolithic', age; whether they are really prehistoric, as regards Babylonian history, must until more evidence from stratified deposits is found remain undecided. They prove the occupation of the head of the Persian Gulf at the beginning of history by a people whose primitive art was closely akin to that of early Elam, and distinct from that of the Sumerians.

[1] Found by Loftus in 1854: their early date was not recognized at the time. [2] Koldewey, Excavations at Babylon, E.T., p. 261, fig. 182. Koldewey curiously speaks of the saw-blades as 'palaeolithic.' They are, of course, nothing of the sort.

Characteristics: flint, chert, obsidian, green and red jasper, and quartz-crystal flakes, arrowheads, cores, and saw-blades. Chert and limestone rough hoe-blades (easily mistaken for palaeolithic implements; they are, however, much flatter); polished serpentine or jasper celts; lentoid (lentil-shaped), amygdaloid (almond-shaped), and discoid beads of cornelian, crystal, obsidian, &c., unpolished; nails of translucent quartz and obsidian (obviously imitations of metal types); hard grey pottery sickles, pottery cones of various sizes, and pottery objects like gigantic nails bent up at the ends; pottery painted with designs in black, usually geometrical (see illustration XIV, Fig. 1), but sometimes showing plant-forms or even animals. This ware is often very fine, so much so as to look as if wheelmade. The shapes are chiefly bowls (often closely resembling early Egyptian stone bowl types), pots with suspension-handles or lugs, and spouted 'kettles'. All these objects are at Shahrein and el-'Obeid found lying on the desert surface at the distance of 50 or 100 yards from the tell; they are supposed to have been washed out of the lower strata of the latter by rains. Objects of this kind should be recorded from any site, and the neighbourhood of a desert tell should always be searched for them.

.

.

II. EARLY BRONZE (Copper) AGE: First Sumerian (pre-Sargonic) Period; c. 3500-3000 B.C. Earliest Sumerian civilization.

Typical sites. Older strata at Telloh (LAGASH); Fara (SHURUPPAK); Tell 'Obeid (ancient name as yet unknown); Shahrein (ERIDU).

Characteristics. Writing. First appearance of script, already conventionalized from pictographs. Cut on stone and incised on clay tablets and bricks of characteristic early style. Brick buildings, with crenellated walls (until the discovery of Tell 'Obeid supposed to date only from the later Sumerian period) of typical plano-convex bricks, baked or crude, usually with thumb-mark down length of convex side (Shahrein), or with two thumb-holes (for carrying the brick when wet?), or vent-holes ('Obeid); at first uninscribed, later with long inscriptions; measuring 10 x 6 x 2-2 1/4 ins. (Shahrein), and 8 x 6 x 2-2 1/4 ins. ('Obeid); poorly shaped and baked (see XIV, Fig. 3). Bitumen used for mortar; laid very thick. Hard white stucco on internal faces of crude brick house walls, often decorated with red, white, and black painted horizontal stripes (Shahrein.) Pottery. Wheel and hand-made; drab, fine or coarse paste, unpainted and usually undecorated. Typical shapes: (see XIV, Figs. 2 abc) mostly handleless vases, and cups, and spouted 'kettles' (again often resembling early Egyptian types).

Metals: Copper. Extensive use: large copper figures of animals, heads cast, bodies of copper plates fastened by nails over a core of clay with a mixture of bitumen and straw; the figures have eyes, tongues, and teeth of red and white stone and nacre (Tell 'Obeid); goat's head with inlaid eyes of nacre (Fara). Otherwise ordinary treatment of eye shows a number of wrinkle lines round it, and it is always disproportionately large (bull's heads, Tell 'Obeid and Telloh). Small fragments of copper or bronze on the surface of a tell should never be neglected, as there may be enough in any fragment to give an idea of possible archaic remains within the tell.

Silver. Rare. Fine engraved vase of Entemena (Telloh, Louvre).

Gold. Not uncommon. Copper nails with gold-plated heads (Shahrein).

Stone. Portrait figures in round (Bismaya, Telloh, &c.), usually representing men, with face and head shaven; very prominent large curved nose; usually squatting with arms crossed, sometimes standing; only garment a kilt apparently made of locks of natural wool. Usually inscribed in archaic characters on back of shoulders. Material: a grey or a white limestone most usual; tufa and dolerite also used. Reliefs: large stelae (Stele of the Vultures; Telloh, Louvre, fragment in B. M.), completely inscribed; small relief plaques, inscribed (Telloh, Louvre). Flint carved and engraved cylinder- seals, of limestone, black basalt, jasper, diorite, &c. Vases, bowls, and cups (usually fragmentary), of white and pink limestone and breccia. Maceheads of breccia, granite, &c., of same type as the early Egyptian (Shahrein).

Shell. Very largely used for decoration; small plaques of nacre often engraved with scenes of men worshipping, &c. (Telloh); tessellated pillars with nacre plaques ('Obeid). Seal-cylinders of shell.

Wood. Rarely survives; small beams plated with copper ('Obeid).

Burials. Pottery coffins with lids, mat burials; bodies contracted; funerary furniture, copper, stone or pottery drinking cups held near mouth: copper weapons, fish-hooks, net weights; beads of agate, lapis, shell (unpolished); colour-dishes, (Fara). (The idea that the Babylonians ever burnt their dead is now discredited; the supposed 'fire-necropoles' at Zurghul, &c., are not substantiated.)

The burials are hard to distinguish from similar contracted interments of later date, except that the furniture is more abundant in early times and mat graves are unusual in later days Mounds of this age may be known by the occurrence on the surface of scraps of oxydized copper, nails, &c.; shell-fragments; undecorated light drab sherds; and the typical small plano-convex bricks.

III. MIDDLE BRONZE AGE. 1. Early Semitic or Akkadian (Sargonid) period; c. 3000-2500 B.C.

Characteristics. Less crude style of art: development of writing (see XIV, Fig. 1); first inscribed clay tablets of usual style; beginnings of cuneiform, developed from the archaic semi-pictographic character. Bricks still plano-convex; stamped inscriptions begin. Stone maceheads of same type as earlier. Large and well-cut cylinder-seals of fine limestone, lapis, diorite, granite, and shell are characteristic of the period: they are generally of an easily recognizable form (reel-shaped) with sides showing a marked concavity (see XIV, Fig. 5). The great development of art is shown by the stele of Naram-Sin (Louvre) found at Susa. Not many mounds of this period have been dug.

2. Later Sumerian (Gudea) and early Semitic Babylonian (Hammurabi) periods; c. 2500-1800 B.C.

Characteristics. Typical 'Gudea' style of sculpture, in round and relief (Telloh, Louvre); materials hard diorite, dolerite and basalt as well as limestone: characteristic treatment of eye with heavily marked brows: elaborate tiaras and head-dresses of female figures, &c. Very high development. Regular use of cuneiform on clay tablets and cones (see XV, Figs. 13-15); non-cuneiform character (in a developed form) still used in brick stamps (XV, Fig. 10) and on stone monuments. Bricks (XIV, Fig. 4) now rectangular and well made, either square (14 ins., usually, by 2 1/2 ins. thick) or oblong (11 1/2 x 8 x 2 1/2 ins., or 10 x 5 x 2 1/2 ins.) with stamps or incised inscriptions of Ur-Engur, Dungi, Bur-Sin, Gudea and other kings (XV, Fig. 10), from Ur, Shahrein, Telloh, Niffer, &c. Bricks of Bur-Sin from Shahrein often have inscription-stamps also on the smaller sides (thickness). Great buildings of crude and baked brick (Telloh, Ur); temple-towers (ziggurats) of crude brick faced with burnt brick (Ur, Shahrein, Niffer). Town ruins of Hammurabi's age (Babylon): crude brick: plans always confused and haphazard. Bitumen still used for mortar. Burials, contracted, often in double pots (mouth to mouth), sealed with bitumen. With the bodies are found large numbers of agate and cornelian beads, unpolished.

Mounds of this period may be recognized by the typical square or oblong bricks (often with thumb-holes), with stamps of kings' names, &c., in non-cuneiform characters, or with hand-incised inscriptions in early cuneiform, made while the clay was wet; clay tablets or cones inscribed in early cuneiform; copper nails (those with gold- plated heads found at Shahrein may also date from this time); drab or black pottery sherds with impressed or incised designs, generally rough and evidently made with a piece of stick or the thumb-nail; rough stone quern-slabs with rubbers, grinding and hammer-stones, &c.; and the burials described above (these, however, also occur in later times).

IV. LATER BRONZE AGE: Kassite, Middle Babylonian, and Early Assyrian periods; c. 1800- 1000 B.C.

Characteristics. Stabilization of Babylonian art; typical 'Kassite' cylinder-seals with straight sides (XIV, Fig. 6); disappearance of old non-cuneiform character with gradual disuse of Sumerian; early stone-cut inscriptions in cuneiform (see XV, Fig. 16; an Elamite inscription). Occasional and rare appearance of glazed pottery (imitation of Egyptian), and multi-coloured glass; early Assyrian sculpture (those unversed in minutiae of Mesopotamian art will only be able to tell this earlier work from the later by the earlier style of the accompanying inscriptions). Not many mounds of this period have been dug.

V. EARLY IRON AGE: 1. Late Babylonian and Assyrian periods; c. 1000-540 B.C.

Characteristics. Flourishing period of Assyrian art and writing (for details see the archaeological books, which are very full on this period). Mounds may be known by the occurrence of fragments of granite or basalt bowl-querns, often with feet; pieces or whole vases of the multi-coloured opaque glass usually called 'Phoenician' (which are already found in the preceding period); alabaster pots; straight- sided cylinder seals (see XIV, Fig. 6); Syrian conical seals of steatite (XIV, Fig. 7); small and rude clay figures of deities, such as Ishtar or Papsukal (the guardian of buildings), and animals, such as horses, sheep, doves, ducks, &c.; bronze pins, often with birds on the heads; baked clay tablets of the fine Kuyunjik type (see XV, Fig. 12; script, Fig. 17); pottery lamps with long protruding curved nozzles; pottery vases simple and undecorated save by incised lines, as for many centuries past (for types see XIV, Figs. 9 a b c d); light-blue glazed ware introduced from Egypt towards end of period; polychrome glazed ware with designs of rosettes, chevrons) &c., somewhat earlier; large pots without feet common for storage of grain and oil, sometimes for tablets: mouth often closed with a brick. Stone pithoi are also found. Vertical drains or sinks, made of a number of pottery cylindrical drums, fitting on top of or into one another, are found everywhere on town-mounds of this period; visitors should avoid tumbling into them, as they are often open or only covered by a very thin crust of earth. Usually they are perforated to allow of soaking into the surrounding earth, and are, when excavated whole, generally found capped by, a beehive-shaped perforated cover. Sometimes these drains were made of old pots with their lower parts broken off, and fitted into one another. Secular buildings were of burnt brick; sacred buildings usually of crude brick, from religious conservatism. Crude bricks nearly always oblong; burnt bricks square (14 ins.) or oblong (9x6x3 ins.). The burnt brick of Nebuchadnezzar's time is extraordinarily fine and hard, and the bitumen-mortar so finely spread as to be almost invisible (Babylon). Walls of this reign have a rock-like solidity and tenacity that should make them easily recognizable. Those of immediately preceding reigns show the bitumen far more clearly, and the bricks are usually not as finely made as Nebuchadnezzar's; at Babylon the latter's work is thus at once distinguishable from that of Nabopolassar. A typical brick- inscription of Nebuchadnezzar is illustrated above, XV, Fig. 11. It is in the revived archaic script, always used for this purpose by the late Babylonian kings. Use of coloured glazed brick is characteristic of period; often relief figures of animals are made up of glazed bricks each specially moulded for its proper position and numbered (Ishtar Gate, Babylon). Royal palaces were often decorated with reliefs depicting conquests, &c., carved on slabs of alabastrine marble placed along the brick walls, with great statues of human- headed bulls (Cherubim), &c. (Nimrud [CALAH], Kuyunjik [NINEVEH], Khorsabad. Brit. Mus. and Louvre.) Burials usually in drab clay pot-coffins (larnakes) with covers; bodies still contracted; funerary furniture scanty, consisting chiefly of pins, beads, an occasional cylinder-seal, and a few pots (XIV, Figs. 9 a b c d). Ribbed pots with blue (weathered green) glaze, often pitched both within and without, were also employed towards the end of the period, inverted over the bodies. Also anthropoid pottery sarcophagi, an idea imported from Egypt. Child burials in bowls. Iron objects sometimes buried with the dead; often found in palace-ruins (weapons, horse-furniture, &c.). Bronze commonly used for gates, door, bolts, &c. (Gates of Shalmaneser's palace; Brit. Mus.).

2. Persian (Achaemenian) period: c. 540-330 B.C.

This period is distinguished from the former by the less frequent use of bronze, the introduction of coinage, and the development of the simplified Persian cuneiform writing (never on tablets, only on stone monuments; see XV, Fig. 18). Bitumen ceased to be used as mortar in buildings. Persian walls (e. g. the Apadana at Babylon) are easily distinguished by the use of clay mortar, and the unusual thickness of the mortar-courses between the bricks. Burials in shallow trough-like pottery coffins, with the bodies at full length, but with the knees slightly flexed (these continued during the next period).

VI. MIDDLE IRON AGE: 1. Greek and Parthian periods; c. 330 B.C.-220 A.D.

Characteristics. Sudden degeneration and disappearance of the ancient native civilization and art; imitation of Greek culture, Greek buildings (theatre at Babylon), and inscriptions; Greek legends on Parthian coins; Parthian kings call themselves 'Philhellenes'; Graeco-Roman architecture imitated (Hatra). Graeco-Roman terra- cottas, pottery lamps, pilgrim-flasks and bone-carvings; classical seal gems; Roman glass; fragments of imitation of classical sculpture in marble (the material being adopted as well as the style); and, of course, coins—these are characteristic remains found on mounds of this period. About l00 B.C. the use of cuneiform was given up; clay tablets were no longer used. Aramaic became the usual form of writing; ink used on sherds; wax tablets. Small bowls often found with ink-written incantations in Judaeo-Aramaic (see XV, Fig. 19). Mounds of this period are perhaps most easily recognized by the quantities of deep-blue glazed sherds found lying about on them. The glaze is rather thin, laid on a coarse drab ware, and is often cracked. The blue is very fine, rivalling the old Egyptian. Burials of this period are often found in (besides the shallow pottery coffins mentioned above) rectangular oblong boxes of thin coarse ware with light friable blue glaze (Babylon), or (later) in slipper-shaped coffins (possibly Sassanian) of the same ware, rudely decorated with human figures (warriors) in relief, on panels (Warka). The blue glaze has often changed to a dark green, especially in the case of the Warka slipper-coffins. The lids are cemented to the coffins. Internments are now full length, the old custom of contraction having been entirely abandoned [1]. Gold ornaments and pieces of gold leaf, gold fillets, &c., are not unfrequently found with the bodies, besides armlets, toe and finger rings, &c., of silver and bronze, the finger-rings usually of ordinary Roman types; pottery, lamps, and glass vessels. These coffins are often in brick vaults, usually placed haphazard in the ground, as in earlier times. Bricks small, hard, and yellow.

[1] The western custom of cremation was never adopted, in spite of the Hellenization of culture. It offended both Babylonian and Iranian sentiment, although the Parthians were never very orthodox followers of Ahuramazda, and venerated (at least platonically) the most popular deities of the Greek pantheon.

2. Sassanian Period; c. 220-650 A.D.

Characteristics. Reaction towards Oriental motives in art: a typical antika of the period is the Sassanian seal of cornelian, chalcedony, or haematite, in shape sometimes a ring, more often a flat sphere with one-third cut off to form a seal-base, perforated for stringing (see XIV, Fig. 8), and inscribed in Pehlevi (see XV, Fig. 20) a script that to the unitiated looks very like Cufie Arabic: the language is Old-Persian, which was spoken by the court officials at Ctesiphon, the language of the people being Aramaic. Sculpture barbarized, but with a picturesque character of its own (Nakhsh-i- Rustam, Tak-i-Bostan), sometimes reminiscent of Indian work. Architecture: Parthian-Roman traditions (Ctesiphon). Pottery usually glazed blue (thicker glaze). Unglazed bowls with Hebrew and Mandaitic magical inscriptions. Bronze no longer used except for coins. Objects from mounds very like those of preceding age, but less of Roman origin. Not much known of burials; the Warka slipper-coffins usually regarded as Parthian may possibly be of early Sassanian age.

VII. LATER IRON AGE: Muhammadan Period; c. 650-1500 A.D.[1]

Characteristics. Development of art under Persian influence till Tartar conquest in thirteenth century: the destruction and depopulation of the country at that time brought all real artistic development to an end. Flourishing period: the 'Abbasid Khalifate: ninth century: Harun al-Rashid. Ruins of the ancient city and palaces of Samarra: halls with modelled and painted plaster-decorations, not only geometrical but also (Persian heterodox influence) representing trees, birds, &c. No more sculpture in round or relief of human figures or animals. The only survival of classical tradition would appear to be to some extent in architecture: Greek architects.

Coins: thin gold, and silver, with Cufic inscriptions only (see XV, Fig. 21). Mounds of this period may be known by fragments of marble- carving with Cufic inscriptions, plasterwork, Arab and Persian vase and tile fragments in thick blue, green, yellow, or brown glaze, metallic lustre-glaze, &c., variegated glass bangles, and rings; bits of cloudy white glass (from lamps); fragments of wood, carved and inlaid with bone, nacre, &c., in geometrical patterns; textile fragments, (which are naturally not commonly found in older mounds), &c.

Nothing is said with regard to burials as these may not be touched.

[1] The limit of age which constitutes an 'antiquity' for legal purposes is fixed in most antiquity-laws at 1500 A.D.



APPENDIX

LAWS OF ANTIQUITIES

The following brief notes on the Laws of Antiquities in force in the various territories with which this book is concerned must not be taken as absolving the traveller from the necessity of consulting the full text of the laws. At the time of going to press, the Turkish Law presumably prevails in such parts of the Turkish Empire as are not occupied by the troops of the Entente; in the remainder, temporary regulations are in force which will doubtless be modified when the new governments are established; and it is possible that the Turkish Law itself may be brought into greater harmony with modern ideas.

The Greek Law of Antiquities.

[Greek], 24 July 1899, Athens, [Greek] 1889.

All antiquities found are the property of the Government and are controlled by an Archaeological Commission, consisting of the Ephor General of Antiquities and the ephors of the archaeological collections in Athens. Fixed antiquities must be reported by the discoverer to the Ephor General or one of the ephors of antiquities or other official. Damaging of ruins or remains of monuments is forbidden. Owners of the land on which portable antiquities desirable for the National Museums are found are compensated to the extent of half their value. Any person who finds antiquities on his land must report them within five days, on pain of confiscation. The same applies to any one who finds antiquities on another person's land, or in any other way comes into possession of antiquities. Informers against breaches of the law are rewarded by the amount of the compensation due to those who keep the law. Objects not considered worth keeping by the Museums are returned to the owner of the land. Excavations, even on private property, must be authorized by the Ministry of Education. The Government has the right of expropriating land for purposes of excavation. In Government excavations, the owner of the land receives one-third of the value of the objects considered worth keeping by the Museums. Secret excavation is punished by confiscation of the finds, imprisonment and temporary loss of civil rights. In authorized excavations by a landowner or his representative the excavator receives half the value of the finds taken by the Museums. Any one attempting to excavate on another man's land is punished by imprisonment. Antiquities found in the country may not be exported (on pain of imprisonment or fine and temporary loss of civil rights) without permission, which is only granted for objects not considered by the Archaeological Commission to be of use to the Museums. Such objects on export are subject to a tax of 10 percent. ad valorem unless declared entirely valueless by the Commission. Antiquities imported into the country must be declared in the Customs House and reported to the Ephor General of Antiquities, a descriptive catalogue in duplicate being sent, and cannot be re- exported without permission, which is obtained by producing the articles with the original catalogue to the Ephor General; if not reported they are regarded as having been found in the country.

The Turkish Law of Antiquities.

Loi sur les Antiquites promulguee le 29 Sefer 1324 (10 Avril 1322). Extrait du Levant Herald du 8, 9, 11 et 13 Juin 1906. Constantinople, Imprimerie du Levant Herald, Pera, 1906.

Antiquities are controlled by the Director-General of the Imperial Museums and a Commission, the Directors of Public Instruction in the provinces acting as agents. All ancient monuments and objects (including those of Islamic date) are the property of the Government. Any fixed antiquities discovered must be reported under pain of fine within 15 days to the official in charge of antiquities, or in his absence to the nearest civil or military official. Punishment by fine and imprisonment is inflicted for destroying or injuring monuments, measuring or making impressions without authorization.

Transportable antiquities found on a man's land must be reported by him within a week. The landowner receives half the value of objects thus reported and bought by the State; objects not reported are confiscated, and the landowner fined. This clause applies to those who find antiquities on land belonging to other private persons or to the State. Excavation is the exclusive privilege of the Museums, but firmans may be obtained by scientific societies and specialists. Unauthorized excavation is punished by imprisonment and confiscation. The State has the right of making preliminary soundings and of expropriation. Applications for leave to excavate must be made to the Minister of Public Instruction. All finds belong to the State. Unauthorized dealing in antiquities is punishable by fine, imprisonment, and confiscation. Exportation of antiquities found in the Empire is forbidden. Antiquities imported must be reported to the directorate of antiquities, and may not be sent from one part of the Empire to another, or re-exported, without permission from the Director-General.

The Cypriote Law of Antiquities.

To Consolidate and Amend the Law relating to Ancient Monuments and Antiquities, and to provide Museums. Law no. IV of 1905. See Sir J. T. Hutchinson and S. Fisher, The Statute Laws of Cyprus, 1878-1906 (London, 1906), pp. 595-608.

Objects later than the Turkish conquest, and coins of Byzantine or later times, are not deemed to be antiquities. All undiscovered antiquities of movable character are the property of the Government; all immovable antiquities are also the property of the Government, unless some person shall be the owner of them. All antiquities must be reported by the person in possession of them to the Museum Committee, on pain of confiscation; antiquities found except in the course of authorized excavations must be reported within five days to the District Commissioner, One-third of such movable antiquities is taken by the Government, one-third by the finder, and one-third by the owner of the land. Damage to ancient monuments is punished by fine or imprisonment or both. Unauthorized excavation, even on land belonging to the excavator, and the purchasing of objects illegally excavated, are punished by fine or imprisonment or both. Application for leave to excavate must be made to the Chief Secretary for Government. All antiquities found in excavation belong to the Government; only duplicates, and objects not required by the Museum, are given to the excavator. The Government has the right to expropriate land for the purpose of excavations. The Museum Committee may acquire the interests of any private person in an antiquity on payment of compensation. If the sum agreed on is not paid within six months, the Museum Committee loses all right to its acquisition. Export of antiquities is forbidden except with the permission of the High Commissioner, which is granted only for objects not required by the Museum or for antiquities the interests in which the Museum Committee has failed to acquire in the manner described.

The Egyptian Law of Antiquities.

La Nouvelle Loi sur les Antiquites de l'Egypte et ses annexes. Service des Antiquites. Le Caire, Imprimerie de l'Institut francais d'archeologie orientala. 1913.

All antiquities belong to the State. The State has the right of expropriating ground containing antiquities. Transportable antiquities when found must be reported to nearest administrative authority or agents of the Service of Antiquities: the finder receives half the objects thus reported or their value. Excavation, dealing in antiquities, and exportation are forbidden unless under authorization. Destruction of and damage to antiquities is punishable by fine and imprisonment. Applications for leave to export or to excavate should be made to the Director-General of Service of Antiquities. A tax of 1 1/2 per cent. is levied on the declared value of objects passed for export. Leave to excavate is granted only to savants recommended by Governments or learned societies, or to private persons presenting proper guarantees. The excavator pays the cost of guarding the site. The Government takes half the portable objects found.

General Principles of a Model Law of Antiquities for the Near and Middle East.

The following statement of Principles which should form the foundation of the Laws of Antiquities to be enacted for the various Provinces formerly under Turkish rule was drawn up by an International Committee in Paris and recommended to the Commission for regulating the Mandates under the League of Nations. It follows closely the Recommendations of the Archaeological Joint Committee on the same subject. It was proposed at the same time that the Treaty with Turkey should enjoin the adoption by that Power of a Law of Antiquities on the same lines:

Principes du reglement devant etre adopte par chacune des Puissances mandataires.

1. 'ANTIQUITY' signifie toute construction, tout produit de l'activite humaine, anterieur a l'annee 1700.

2, Toute personne qui, ayant decouvert une antiquite, la signalera a un employe du Departement des Antiquites du pays, sera recompensee suivant la valeur de l'objet, le principe a adopter devant etre d'agir par encouragement plutot que par menace.

3. Aucun objet antique ne pourra etre vendu sauf au Departement des Antiquites du pays, mais si ce Departement renonce a l'acquerir la vente en deviendra libre. Aucune antiquite ne pourra sortir du pays sans un permis d'exportation dudit Departement.

4. Toute personne qui, expres ou par negligence, detruira ou deteriorera un objet ou une construction antique, devra etre passible d'une peine a fixer par l'autorite du pays.

5. Aucun deblaiement ni aucune fouille ayant pour objet la recherche d'antiquites ne seront permis sous peine d'amendc, sauf aux personnes autorisees par le Departement des Antiquites du pays.

6. Des conditions equitables devront etre fixees par chaque Puissance mandataire pour l'expropriation temporaire ou permanente des terrains qui pourraient offrir un interet historique ou archeologique.

7. Les autorisations pour les fouilles ne devront etre accordees qu'aux personnes qui offrent des garanties suffisantes d'experience archeologique. Aucune des Puissances mandataires ne devra, en accordant ces autorisations, agir de facon a ecarter, sans motif valable, les savants des autres nations.

8. Les produits des fouilles pourront etre divises entre le fouilleur et le Departement des Antiquites de chaque pays dans une proportion fixee par ce Departement. Si, pour des raisons scientifiques, la division ne semble pas possible, le fouilleur devra recevoir, au lieu d'une partie de la trouvaille, une juste indemnite.



INDEX

Abu Shahrein, 85, 88, 90. Achaemenian period in Mesopotamia, 93. Aegean, prehistoric age in the 36 f: pottery in Palestine, 73. Aeneolithic; see Chalcolithic. Akkadian period, 90. Alphabets: see Inscriptions. Aramaic inscriptions, 62, 66; in Mesopotamia, 93. Archaeological Joint Committee, 38. Arches, corbelled, 40. Arcosolium tombs, 71 f. Asia Minor, 47 ff. Assyrian period, 91. Attic pottery, 44 f.

Babylon. 85, 90, 92 f. Babylonian period, 91. Bandar Bushir, 85. Barometer, 10, 33. Bavian, 83. Beads: Cypriote, 56: Egyptian, 78 f.; Greek, 41; Hittite, 60; Mesopotamian, 88 ff.; Syrian, 64. Belt Jibrin, 73. Bitumen in Mesopotamia, 84, 88. Black-figured Greek pottery, 44. Bricks, 14 f.; in Egypt, 82; in Mesopotamia, 84-93. Bronze Age: in Asia Minor, 48; in Cyprus, 56; in Greece, 36 f.; in Mesopotamia, 88; in Syria, 60. Bronze, forgeries in, 24. Brooches (fibulae): Greek, 40, 44; in Syria, 61 f. Bubastites, 79. Buildings, recording of, 14. Burials: see Tombs. Buying, advice about. 24 f.

Calah, 92. Camera, 10 f. Casting in plaster, 19. Caves, 15, 72. Cemeteries, 15, 55, 70, 78: see also Tombs. Chalcolithic period: in Mesopotamia, 85: in Syria, 59 f. Cisterns in Palestine, 77. Coins; in Cyprus, 58; in Egypt, 79; in Mesopotamia, 84, 92 ff.; forgeries of, 24; making impressions of, 19 f; recording finds of, 9. Combs, Egyptian, 78. Committee, Archaeological Joint, 28. Compass, prismatic, 10. Copper: in Mesopotamia, 88 f.; in Syria, 60. Copying, 17 ff. Corbelled arches, 40. 'Corinthian' pottery, 41. Crete, 36; pottery from, in Palestine, 73. Crusaders' churches in Palestine, 76. Ctesiphon, 84, 94. Cuneiform inscriptions: in Asia Minor, 51; in Mesopotamia, 90 ff.

Cup-markings in Palestine, 77. Cyclopean walls, 40 Cylinders and cylinder-sealings: in Cyprus, 56; in Egypt, 78; Hittite, 60, 62, 64; in Mesopotamia, 89 ff. Cyprus, 54 ff.; Law of Antiquities, 97; pottery from, in Palestine, 73.

Dipylon period, 40. Dolmens in Palestine, 77. Drawing and copying, 17 f.

Egypt, 78-82; Law of Antiquities, 98. Egyptian hieroglyphics, 20; pottery in Palestine, 73; scarabs imitated in Syria, 62; stone bowls, Mesopotamian pottery types resembling, 88. Eridu, 85, 88. Excavations: laws controlling, 95 ff.; unauthorized, 7.

Fara, 85, 88 f. Fibulae: see Brooches. Figurines: Cypriote, 55; Greek, 35, 40 f., 44 f.; Syrian, 60, 62, 64. Finds, importance of not breaking up, 9. Flint implements, 29 ff.: see also Stone Age. Forgeries, 24 f.

Geometric bronze age ware in Greece, 36; period, 40. Glass; in Cyprus, 57; in Egypt, 78 ff.; in Mesopotamia, 91; in Syria, 64. Glaze, Egyptian, 78 f.; imitated in Babylonia, 91. Greece, 35 ff., Law of Antiquities, 95.

Hatra, 84. Hebrew alphabets, 66. Hieroglyphics, copying of, 17, 20; Hittite, 51, 62. Hill sanctuaries in Palestine, 76. Hittite antiquities: in Asia Minor, 51; in Syria, 59 ff.

Inscriptions: copying of, 17, 20 f.; Aramaic, 63, 66, 93; cuneiform, 51, 87, in Cyprus, 57, Greek, 44, 51 f; Hittite, 51, 62; Latin, 53; Lycian,51; Lydian, 51; in Palestinian tombs, 71; Semitic, 62, 66 f., 87. Institutions, archaeological, 26 f. Iron Age: in Asia Minor, 50; in Cyprus, 56; in Greece, 40; in Mesopotamia, 91-93; in Syria, 60, 62. Itinerary, recording of, 13 f.

Jewellery, forged, 24.

Kassite period, 91. Khirbet (khirbah), 68 ff. Khorsabad, 92. Kohl-pots, 62,78 f. Kok tombs, 71 f. Kuyunjik, 85, 92.

Laconian pottery, 45. Lagash, 88. Lamps, Aegean, 37. Latin inscriptions in Asia Minor, 53. Laws of Antiquities, 7, 95 ff. Levelling, 33. Licences for acquiring antiquities, 9. Lycian inscriptions and monuments, 51. Lydian inscriptions, 51.

Ma'abed, Tell el-, 85. Mastabas, 78. Mapping, 13. Mesopotamia, 83 ff. Minoan Age. 36; pottery in Palestine, 73. 'Minyan' ware, 37. Mortar, bitumen, 84, 90, 92. Mosaic, 77, 79. Mounds, 14: see also Tell. Muqayyar, Tell, 85. Museums, use of, 7 f. 'Mycenaean' Age, 37; pottery in Palestine, 73.

Naksh-i-Rustam, 94. Neolithic Age: see Stone Age. Niffer, 90. Nimrud, 92. Nineveh, 85, 92. Numerals, West Semitic, 67.

'Obeid, Tell el-, 85, 88 f. Obsidian: Aegean, 37; Mesopotamian, 85, 88. Olive-presses in Palestine, 77. Orientalizing Greek antiquities, 41, 44. Outfit, 10 f.

Packing of antiquities, 22 f. Palestine, 65 ff. Papyri, forged, 24. Paraffin-wax, 22 f. Parthian period in Mesopotamia, 93. Pehlevi script, 93 f. Persian period: in Mesopotamia, 92; in Syria, 62. Photography, 10 f., 21 f. Phrygian inscriptions, 55. Pins: Greek, 40, 44; Hittite, 60, 62; Mesopotamian, 91. Place-names, Eastern, 68 f., 83. Planning, 14, 16 f. Plaster casting, 19 f. Pottery, passim; hand-made and wheel-made, 29, 49 f; importance of, 29. 84; packing of, 23. Preservation of antiquities, 22 f. 'Proto-Corinthian' pottery, 41. Ptolemaic period, 79.

Red-figured Greek pottery, 44. Rhodian jar-handles: in Egypt, 79; in Palestine, 73. Rock-cut tombs, 70 f. Rock-sculptures in Mesopotamia, 83.

Saites, 79. Samarra, 94. Sanctuaries: in Cyprus, 54 f.; in Palestine, 76. Sargonid period, 90. Sassanian period, 93 f. Scarabs: in Cyprus, 56; in Egypt, 78; in Syria, 62, 64; forged, 24. Schools of archaeology, 8, 26 f. Sculpture, squeezing of, 18. Seals: Aegean, 37; Hittite, 62; Mesopotamian, 86, 89, 91; Sassanian, 93; Syrian, of Persian period, 64: see also Cylinders, Scarabs. Semitic inscriptions, 62, 65-7, 87. Shahrein, Tell Abu, 85, 88, 90. Shuruppak, 88. Sinjerli, 59, 62. Sites, identification of, 68. Societies, archaeological, 8, 26 f. Squeezing, 17 ff. Stone Age, 29 ff.; in Asia Minor, 48; in Cyprus, 56; in Greece, 35 f.; in Mesopotamia, 84 f., 88; in Palestine, 76; in Syria, 59 f. Sumerian period, 88 ff. Susa, 85. Syria, Central and North, 59ff.

Tak-i-Bostan, 94. Tall: see Tell. Telephotography, 12. Tell (mound), 68 f., 83. Telloh, 88 ff. Tepe Musyan, 85. Terra-cottas; see Figurines. Trees, sacred, 77. Tombs and burials: in Cyprus, 55; in Mesopotamia. 89-94; 'of the Kings', at Jerusalem, 71; rockcut, in Palestine, 70 f.; in Syria, 59 f: see also Cemeteries. Turkish Law of Antiquities, 96.

Ukheidir, 84. Ur, 85, 90. 'Urfirnis' ware, 37. Ushabtis, 78 f.

Warka, 85, 93 f. Wine-presses in Palestine, 77.

Zurghul, 85, 89.

THE END