International Agreement and Progress.—But who shall say that the spirit of international justice has not grown more rapidly than appears from the workings of the machinery that carries it out? Beneath the selfish interests of nations is the international consciousness that some way must be devised and held to for the settlement of disputes without war; that justice between nations may be established similar to that practised within the boundaries of a single nation.

No progress comes out of war itself, though it may force other lines of conduct. Progress comes from other sources than war. Besides, it brings its burdens of crime, cripples, and paupers, and its discontent and distrust. It may hasten production and stimulate invention of destruction, but it is not constructive and always it develops an army of plunderers who prey upon the suffering and toil of others. These home pirates are more destructive of civilization than poison gases or high explosives.

The Mutual Aid of Nations.—In a previous chapter it was shown that mutual aid of individuals was the beginning of society. It now is evident that the mutual aid of nations is their salvation. As the establishment of justice between individuals through their reactions does not destroy their freedom nor their personalities, so the establishment of justice among nations does not destroy their autonomy nor infringe upon their rights. It merely insists that brutal national selfishness shall give way to a friendly co-operation in the interest and welfare of all nations. "A nation, like an individual, will become greater as it cherishes a high ideal and does service and helpful acts to its neighbors, whether great or small, and as it co-operates with them in working toward a common end."[1] {492} Truly "righteousness exalteth a nation," and it will become strong and noble as it seeks to develop justice among all nations and to exercise toward them fair dealing and friendly relations that make for peace.

Reorganization of International Law.—The public opinion of the nations of the world is the only durable support of international law. The law represents a body of principles, usages, and rules of action regarding the rights of nations in peace and in war. As a rule nations have a wholesome respect for international law, because they do not wish to incur the unfriendliness and possible hatred of their fellow nations nor the contempt and criticism of the world. This fear of open censure has in a measure led to the baneful secret treaties, such an important factor in European diplomacy, whose results have been suspicion, distrust, and war. Germany is the only modern nation that felt strong enough to defy world opinion, the laws of nations, and to assume an entirely independent attitude. But not for long. This attitude ended in a disastrous war, in which she lost the friendship and respect of the world—lost treasure and trade, lives and property.

It is unfortunate that modern international law is built upon the basis of war rather than upon the basis of peace. In this respect there has not been much advance since the time of Grotius, the father of modern international law. However, there has been a remarkable advance among most nations in settling their difficulties by arbitration. This has been accompanied by a strong desire to avoid war when possible, and a longing for its entire abandonment. Slowly but surely public opinion realizes not only the desire but the necessity of abandoning great armaments and preparation for war.

But the nations cannot go to a peace basis without concerted action. This will be brought about by growth in national righteousness and a modification of crude patriotism and national selfishness. It is now time to codify and revise international law on a peace basis, and new measures adopted in accordance to the progress nations have made in recent {493} years toward permanent peace. Such a move would lead to a better understanding and furnish a ready guide to the Court of International Justice and all other means whereby nations seek to establish justice among themselves.

The Outlook for a World State.—If it be understood that a world state means the abandonment of all national governments and their absorption in a world government, then it may be asserted truly that such is an impossibility within the range of the vision of man. Nor would it be desirable. If by world state is meant a political league which unites all in a co-operative group for fair dealing in regard to trade, commerce, territory, and the command of national resources, and in addition a world court to decide disputes between nations, such a state is possible and desirable.

Great society is a community of groups, each with its own life to live, its own independence to maintain, and its own service to perform. To absorb these groups would be to disorganize society and leave the individual helpless before the mass. For it is only within group activity that the individual can function. So with nations, whose life and organization must be maintained or the individual would be left helpless before the world. But nations need each other and should co-operate for mutual advantage. They are drawn closer each year in finance, in trade and commerce, in principles of government and in life. A serious injury to one is an injury to all. The future progress of the world will not be assured until they cease their squabbles over territory, trade, and the natural resources of the world—not until they abandon corroding selfishness, jealousy, and suspicion, and covenant with each other openly to keep the peace.

To accomplish this, as Mr. Walter Hines Page said: "Was there ever a greater need than there is now for first-class minds unselfishly working on world problems? The ablest ruling minds are engaged on domestic tasks. There is no world-girdling intelligence at work on government. The present order must change. It holds the Old World still. It keeps all {494} parts of the world apart, in spite of the friendly cohesive forces of trade and travel. It keeps back self-government of men." These evils cannot be overcome by law, by formula, by resolution or rule of thumb, but rather by long, patient study, research, and work of many master-minds in co-operative leadership, who will create a sound international public opinion. The international mind needs entire regeneration, not dominance of the powers.

The recent war was but a stupendous breaking with the past. It furnished opportunity for human society to move forward in a new adjustment on a larger and broader plan of life. Whether it will or not depends upon the use made of the opportunity. The smashing process was stupendous, horrible in its moment. Whether society will adapt itself to the new conditions remains to be seen. Peace, a highly desirable objective, is not the only consideration. There are even more important phases of human adjustment.

SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY

1. What were the results of the first (1899) and the second (1907) Hague Conference?

2. What is meant by "freedom of the seas"?

3. Should a commission of nations attempt to equalize the ownership and distribution of the natural products and raw materials, such as oil, coal, copper, etc.?

4. How did the World War make opportunity for democracy?

5. Believing that war should be abolished, how may it be done?

6. What are the dangers of extreme radicalism regarding government and social order?

7. The status of the League of Nations and the Court of International Justice.

8. National selfishness and the League of Nations.

9. The consolidation or co-operation of churches in your town.

10. The union of social agencies to improve social welfare.

11. Freedom of the press; freedom of speech.

12. Public opinion.



[1] Cosmos, The Basis of Durable Peace.



{495}

CHAPTER XXXII

THE TREND OF CIVILIZATION IN THE UNITED STATES

The Economic Outlook.—The natural resources of forest, mines, and agriculture are gradually being depleted. The rapidity of movement in the economic world, the creation of wealth by vast machinery, and the organization of labor and industry are drawing more and more from the wealth stored by nature in her treasure-houses. There is a strong agitation for the conservation of these resources, but little has been accomplished. The great business organizations are exploiting the resources, for the making of the finished products, not with the prime motive of adding to the material comforts and welfare of mankind, but to make colossal fortunes under private control. While the progress of man is marked by mastery of nature, it should also be marked by co-operation with nature on a continued utility basis. Exploitation of natural resources leads to conspicuous waste which may lead to want and future deterioration.

The development of scientific agriculture largely through the influence of the Agricultural Department at Washington and the numerous agricultural colleges and experiment stations has done something to preserve and increase the productivity of the soil. Scientific study and practical experiment have given improved quality of seed, a better grade of stock, and better quality of fruits and vegetables. They have also given improved methods of cultivation and adaptability of crops to the land, and thus have increased the yield per acre. The increased use of selected fertilizers has worked to the same end. The use of a large variety of labor-saving machines has conduced to increase the amount of the product. But all of this improvement is small, considering the amount that needs to be done. The population is increasing rapidly from {496} the native stock and by immigration. There is need for wise conservation in the use of land to prevent economic waste and to provide for future generations. The greedy consumers, with increasing desire for more and better things, urge, indirectly to be sure, for larger production and greater variety of finished products.

The Economics of Labor.—In complex society there are many divisions or groups of laborers—laborers of body and laborers of mind. Every one who is performing a legitimate service, which is sought for and remunerative to the laborer and serviceable to the public, is a laborer. At the base of all industry and social activity are the industrial wage-earners, who by their toil work the mines, the factories, the great steel and iron industries, the railroads, the electric-power plants and other industries. Since the beginning of the industrial revolution in the latter part of the eighteenth century, labor has been working its way out of slavery into freedom.

As a result laborers have better wages, better conditions of life, more of material comforts, and a higher degree of intelligence than ever before. Yet there is much improvement needed. While the hours of labor have been reduced in general to eight per day, the irregularity of employment leads to unrest and frequently to great distress. There is a growing tendency to make laborers partners in the process of production. This does not mean that they shall take over the direction of industry, but co-operate with the managers regarding output, quality of goods, income, and wages, so as to give a solidarity to productive processes and eliminate waste of time, material, and loss by strikes.

The domestic peace in industry is as important as the world peace of nations in the economy of the world's progress. A direct interest of the wage-earner in the management of production and in the general income would have a tendency to equalize incomes and prevent laborers from believing that the product of industry as well as its management should be under their direct control. Public opinion usually favors the {497} laborer and, while it advocates the freedom and dignity of labor, does not favor the right of labor to exploit industry nor concede the right to destroy. But it believes that labor organizations should be put on the same basis as productive corporations, with equal degree of rights, privileges, duties, and responsibilities.

Public and Corporate Industries.—The independent system of organized industry so long dominant in America, known by the socialists as capitalistic production, has become so thoroughly established that there is no great tendency to communistic production and distribution. There is, however, a strong tendency to limit the power of exploitation and to control larger industries in the interest of the public. Especially is this true in regard to what are known as public utilities, such as transportation, lighting, telephone, and telegraph companies, and, in fact, all companies that provide necessaries common to the public, that must be carried on as monopolies. Public opinion demands that such corporations, conducting their operations as special privileges granted by the people, shall be amenable to the public so far as conduct and income are concerned. They must be public service companies and not public exploitation companies.

The great productive industries are supposed to conduct their business on a competitive basis, which will determine price and income. As a matter of fact, this is done only in a general way, and the incomes are frequently out of proportion to the power of the consuming public to purchase. Great industries have the power to determine the income which they think they ought to have, and, not receiving it, may cease to carry on their industry and may invest their capital in non-taxable securities. While under our present system there is no way of preventing this, it would be a great boon to the public, and a new factor in progress, if they were willing to be content with a smaller margin of profit and a slower accumulation of wealth. At least some change must take place or the people of small incomes will be obliged to give up many {498} of the comforts of life of which our boasted civilization is proud, and gradually be reduced to the most sparing economy, if not to poverty. The same principle might be applied to the great institutions of trade.

The Political Outlook.—In our earlier history the struggle for liberty of action was the vital phase of our democracy. To-day the struggle is to make our ideal democracy practical. In theory ours is a self-governed people; in practice this is not wholly true. We have the power and the opportunity for self-government, but we are not practising it as we might. There is a real danger that the people will fail to assume the responsibility of self-government, until the affairs of government are handed over to an official class of exploiters.

For instance, the free ballot is the vital factor in our government, but there are many evidences that it is not fully exercised for the political welfare of the country. It frequently occurs that men are sent to Congress on a small percentage of voters. Other elective offices meet the same fate. Certainly, more interest must be taken in selecting the right kind of men to rule over them or the people will barter away their liberties by indifference. Officials should be brought to realize that they are to serve the public and it is largely a missionary job they are seeking rather than an opportunity to exploit the office for personal gain.

The expansive process of political society makes a larger number of officers necessary. The people are demanding the right to do more things by themselves, which leads to increased expenses in the cost of administration, great bonded indebtedness, and higher taxation. It will be necessary to curb expansion and reduce overhead charges upon the government. This may call for the reorganization of the machinery of government on the basis of efficiency. At least it must be shown to the people that they have a full return for the money paid by taxation. It is possible only by study, care, civic responsibility, and interest in government affairs, as well as by increased intelligence, that our democratic idealism may be put {499} into practice. Laboratory methods in self-government are a prime necessity.

The Equalization of Opportunity.—Popular education is the greatest democratic factor in existence. It is the one great institution which recognizes that equal opportunities should be granted to everybody. Yet it has its limits in establishing equal opportunities in the accepted meaning of the term. There is a false idea of equality which asserts that one man is as good as another before he has proved himself to be so. True equality means justice to all. It does not guarantee that equality of power, of intellect, of wealth, and social standing shall obtain. It seeks to harmonize individual development with social development, and to insure the individual the right to achieve according to his capacity and industry. "The right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness" is a household word, but the right to pursue does not insure success.

The excessive altruism of the times has led to the protecting care of all classes. In its extreme processes it has made the weak more helpless. What is needed is the cultivation of individual responsibility. Society is so great, so well organized, and does so much that there is a tendency of the individual to shift his responsibility to it. Society is composed of individuals, and its quality will be determined by the character and quality of the individual working especially for himself and generally for the good of all. A little more of the law of the survival of the fittest would temper our altruism to more effective service. The world is full of voluntary altruistic and social betterment societies, making drives for funds. They should re-examine their motives and processes and carefully estimate what they are really accomplishing. Is the institution they are supporting merely serving itself, or has it a working power and a margin of profit in actual service?

The Influence of Scientific Thought on Progress.—The effect of scientific discovery on material welfare has been referred to elsewhere. It remains to determine how scientific thought changes the attitude of the mind toward life. The laboratory {500} method continually tests everything, and what he finds to be true the scientist believes. He gradually ignores tradition and adheres to those things that are shown to be true by experimentation or recorded observation. It is true that he uses hypotheses and works the imagination. But his whole tendency is to depart from the realm of instinct and emotions and lay a foundation for reflective thinking. The scientific attitude of mind influences all philosophy and all religion. "Let us examine the facts in the case" is the attitude of scientific thought.

The study of anthropology and sociology has, on the one hand, discovered the natural history of man and, on the other, shown his normal social relations. Both of these studies have co-operated with biology to show that man has come out of the past through a process of evolution; that all that he is individually and socially has been attained through long ages of development. Even science, philosophy, and religion, as well as all forms of society, have had a slow, painful evolution. This fact causes people to re-examine their traditional belief to see how far it corresponds to new knowledge. It has helped men to realize on their philosophy of life and to test it out in the light of new truth and experience. This has led the church to a broader conception of the truth and to a more direct devotion to service. It is becoming an agency for visualizing truth rather than an institution of dogmatic belief. The religious traditionalists yield slowly to the new religious liberalism. But the influence of scientific thought has caused the church to realize on the investment which it has been preaching these many centuries.

The Relation of Material Comfort to Spiritual Progress.—The material comforts which have been multiplying in recent centuries do not insure the highest spiritual activity. The nations that have achieved have been forced into activity by distressing conditions. In following the history of any nation along any line of achievement, it will be noticed that in its darkest, most uncomfortable days, when progress seemed least {501} in evidence, forces were in action which prepared for great advancement. It has been so in literature, in science, in liberty, in social order; it is so in the sum-total of the world's achievements.

Granting that the increase of material comforts, in fact, of wealth, is a great achievement of the age, the whole story is not told until the use of the wealth is determined. If it leads to luxurious living, immorality, injustice, and loss of sense of duty, as in some of the ancient nations, it will prove the downfall of Western civilization. If the leisure and strength it offers are utilized in raising the standard of living, of establishing higher ideals, and creating a will to approximate them, then they will prove a blessing and an impulse to progress. Likewise, the freedom of the mind and freedom in governmental action furnish great opportunities for progress, but the final result will be determined by use of such opportunities in the creation of a higher type of mind characterized by a well-balanced social attitude.

The Balance of Social Forces.—There are two sources of the origin of social life, one arising out of the attitude of the individual toward society, and the other arising out of the attitude of society toward the individual. These two attitudes seem, at first view, paradoxical in many instances, for both individual and society must survive. But in the long run they are not antagonistic, for the good of one must be the good of the other. The perfect balancing of the two forces would make a perfect society. The modern social problem is to determine how much choice shall be left to individual initiative and how much shall be undertaken by the group.

In recent years the people have been doing more and more for themselves through group action. The result has been a multiplication of laws, many of them useless; the creation of a vast administrative force increasing overhead charges, community control or operation of industries, and the vast amount of public, especially municipal, improvements. All of these have been of advantage to the people in common, but have {502} greatly increased taxation until it is felt to be a burden. Were it not for the great war debts that hang heavily on the world, probably the increased taxation for legitimate expenses would not have been seriously felt. But it seems certain that a halt in excessive public expenditures will be called until a social stock-taking ensues. At any rate, people will demand that useless expenditures shall cease and that an ample return for the increased taxation shall be shown in a margin of profit for social betterment. A balance between social enterprise and individual effort must be secured.

Restlessness Versus Happiness.—Happiness is an active principle arising from the satisfaction of individual desires. It does not consist in the possession of an abundance of material things. It may consist in the harmony of desires with the means of satisfying them. Perhaps the "right to achieve" and the successful process of achievement are the essential factors in true happiness. Realizing how wealth will furnish opportunities for achievement, and how it will furnish the luxuries of life as well as furnish an outlet for restless activity, great energy is spent in acquiring it. Indeed, the attitude of mind has been centred so strongly on the possession of the dollar that this seems to be the end of pursuit rather than a means to higher states of life. It is this wrong attitude of life that brings about so much restlessness and so little real happiness. Only the utilization of material wealth to develop a higher spiritual life of man and society will insure continuous progress.

The vast accumulations of material wealth in the United States and the wonderful provisions for material comfort are apt to obscure the vision of real progress. Great as are the possible blessings of material progress, it is possible that eventually they may prove a menace. Other great civilizations have fallen because they stressed the importance of the material life and lost sight of the great adventure of the spirit. Will the spiritual wealth rise superior, strong, and dominant to overcome the downward drag of material prosperity and {503} thus be able to support the burdens of material civilization that must be borne?

Summary of Progress.—If one were to review the previous pages from the beginnings of human society to the present time, he would observe that mind is the ruling force of all human endeavor. Its freedom of action, its inventive power, and its will to achieve underlie every material and social product of civilization. Its evolution through action and reaction, from primitive instincts and emotions to the dominance of rational planning and reflective thinking, marks the trail of man's ascendancy over nature and the establishing of ideals of social order. Has man individual traits, physical and mental, sufficiently strong to stand the strain of a highly complex social order? It will depend upon the strength of his moral character, mental traits, and physical resistance, and whether justice among men shall prevail, manifested in humane and sound social action. Future progress will depend upon a clearness of vision, a unity of thought, the standardization of the objectives of social achievement, and, moreover, an elevation of human conduct. Truly, "without vision the people perish."

SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY

1. What measures are being taken to conserve the natural resources?

2. What plan would you suggest for settling the labor problem so as to avoid strikes?

3. How shall we determine what people shall do in group activity and what shall be left to private initiative?

4. How may our ideals of democracy be put to effective practice?

5. To what extent does future progress of the race depend upon science?

6. Is there any limit to the amount of money that may be wisely expended for education?

7. Public measures for the promotion of health.

8. What is meant by the statement that "Without vision the people perish"?

9. Equalization of opportunity.



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INDEX

Abelard, 354.

Aegean culture, 207.

Ages of culture, stone, bronze, 36.

Agriculture, beginning of, 93; modern, 440.

Akkadians, religion of, 155, 156.

Alexander, conquests of, 246.

Allia, battle of the, 387.

Altruism and democracy, 449-462.

America, peopling of, 185.

American Indians, culture of, 200; contributions to civilization, 201.

Anaxagoras, 218.

Anaximander, 217.

Anaximenes, 217.

Ancient society, Morgan, 4, 49,

Animals, domestication of, 92.

Anselm, 354.

Antiquity of man shown by race development, 69.

Arabian empire, 305; science and art, 307.

Arab-Moors in Spain, 305; cultures, 308-315; science and art, 307-310; discoveries, 312; language and literature, 313; architecture, 315; achievement, 316; decline, 317.

Arab-Moors, religious zeal of, 308.

Aristotle, 223.

Arkwright, Richard, spinning by rollers, 436.

Art, development of, 37; as a language of aesthetic ideas, 130; representative, 131; and architecture, 368.

Aryans, coming of the, 167.

Athens, Government of, 233; character of democracy, 240; decline of, 241.

Aztecs, culture of, 190.

Babylon, 146.

Bacon, Francis, 355, 460.

Bacon, Roger, 459.

Barbarians, 281.

Beautiful, the love of, develops slowly, 135-136; a permanent social force, 137.

Bill of Rights, 397, 413.

Boccaccio, 366.

Books, 128.

Bow and arrow, 87.

Brahe, Ticho, 463.

Bryce, James, 380.

Bunyan, John, 398.

Burial mounds, 76.

Cabrillo, 116.

Calvin, John, and the Genevan system, 386.

Canuleius, 255.

Cassius, Spurius, agrarian laws, 254.

Catholic Church, the, 384.

Catlin, North American Indians, 134.

Caves, 71.

Chaldea, early civilization of, 153-156.

Charlemagne, 349.

Chemistry, 308.

China, 166.

Christian influence on Roman legislation, 273.

Christian religion, social contacts of, 268.

Christianity and the social life, 271; service of, 279; opposes pagan literature, 357; competition with Graeco-Roman schools, 357.

Christians come into conflict with civil authority, 273.

Church, the wealth of, 275; development of hierarchy, 270; control of temporal power, 277; service of, 278; retrogressive attitude, 350; in France, 402; widening influences of, 446; organizing centre, 453.

Cities, rise of free, 330-332; modern, 440.

Civilization, material evidences of, 4; fundamentals of, 10-14; possibilities of, 15; can be estimated, 16; modern, 456.

Cleisthenes, reforms of, 237.

Cliff Dwellers, 194.

Clothing, manufacture of, 97.

Cnossos, 207.

Colonization, Greek, 246; Phoenician, 161.

Commerce and communication, 486.

Commerce, hastens progress, 362.

Common schools, 477.

Constitutional liberty in England, 393.

Copernicus, 461.

Crete, island of, 207.

Cro-Magnon, earliest ancestral type, 28; cultures of, 72.

Crompton, Samuel, spinning "mule," 436.

Crusades, causes of, 319, 320, 321; results of, 322-323; effect on monarchy, 324; intellectual development, 325; impulse to commerce, 326; social effect, 327.

Cultures, evidence of primitive, 28; mental development and, 32; early European, 32.

Curie, Madame, 469.

Custom, 112, 288, 295.

Dance, the, as dramatic expression, 133; economic, religious, and social functions of, 134.

Darius I, founded Persian Empire, 168.

Darwin, Charles, 467.

Democracy, 342, 392, 449.

Democracy in America, 418; characteristics of, 419-421; modern political reforms of, 421-425.

Descartes, Rene, 461.

Diogenes, 218.

Discovery and invention, 362.

Duruy, Victor, 363.

Economic life, 170-180, 290, 429.

Economic outlook, 495.

Education and democracy, 477-482.

Education, universal, 475, 478; in the United States, 476.

Educational progress, 482.

Egypt, 145, 146; centre of civilization, 157-160; compared with Babylon, 162; pyramids, 160; religion, 172; economic life, 178; science, 182.

England, beginnings of constitutional liberty in, 345.

Environment, physical, determines the character of civilization, 141; quality of soil, 144; climate and progress, 146; social order, 149.

Equalization of opportunities, 499.

Euphrates valley, seat of early civilization, 152.

Evidences of man's antiquity, 69; localities of, 71-78; knowledge of, develops reflective thinking, 77.

Evolution, 467-469.

Family, the early, 109-112; Greek and Roman, 212-213; German, 286.

Feudalism, nature of, 294-299; sources of, 294, based on land tenure, 296; social classification under, 298; conditions of society under, 300; individual development under, 302; influence on world progress, 303.

Fire and its economy, 88.

Florence, 336.

Food supply, determines progress, 83-85; increased by discovery and invention, 86.

France, free cities of, 330; rise of popular assemblies, 338; rural communes, 338; place in modern civilization, 399; philosophers of, 403; return to monarchy, 417; character of constitutional monarchy, 418.

France, in modern civilization, 399; philosophers of, 403.

Franklin, Benjamin, 465.

Freedom of the press, 484.

Freeman, E. A., 233.

French republic, triumph of, 417.

French Revolution, 405-407; results of, 407.

Galileo, 461.

Gabon, Francis, 469.

Geography, 312.

Germans, social life of, 283; classes of society, 285; home life, 286; political organization, 287; social customs, 288; contribution to law, 291; judicial system, 292.

Gilbert, William, 461.

Glacial epoch, 62.

Greece, 148, 205, 210.

Greece and Rome compared, 250.

Greek equality and liberty, 229.

Greek federation, 245.

Greek government, an expanded family, 229; diversity of, 231; admits free discussion, 231; local self-government, 232; independent community life, 231; group selfishness, 232; city state, 239.

Greek influence on Rome, 261.

Greek life, early, 205; influence of, 213.

Greek philosophy, observation and inquiry, 215; Ionian philosophy, 216; weakness of, 219; Eleatic philosophy, 220; Sophists, 221; Epicureans, 224; influence of, 225.

Greek social life, 241, 243.

Greeks, origin of, 209; early social life of, 208; character of primitive, 209; family life of, 212; religion of, 212.

Guizot, 399.

Hargreaves, James, invents the spinning jenny, 436.

Harvey, William, 461.

Hebrew influence, 164.

Henry VIII and the papacy, 387; defender of the faith, 396.

Heraclitus, 218.

Hierarchy, development of, 276.

History, 312.

Holy Roman Empire, 414.

Human chronology, 59.

Humanism, 349, 364, 366; relation of language and literature to, 367; effect on social manners, 371; relation to science and philosophy, 372; advances the study of the classics, 373; general influence on life, 373.

Huss, John, 378, 379.

Huxley, Thomas H., 471.

Ice ages, the, 62, 64.

Incas, culture of, 187.

India, 148, 166.

Individual culture and social order, 150.

Industrial development, 429-433, 439; revolution, 437.

Industries, radiate from land as a centre, 429; early mediaeval, 430; public, 497; corporate, 497.

Industry and civilization, 441.

International law, reorganization of, 492.

Invention, 86, 362, 436.

Iroquois, social organization of, 198.

Italian art and architecture, 368.

Italian cities, 332; popular government of, 333.

Jesuits, the, 385.

Justinian Code, 260.

Kepler, 463.

Knowledge, diffusion of, 480.

Koch, 470.

Koran, the, 304, 310.

Labor, social economics of, 496.

Lake dwellings, 78.

Lamarck, J. P., 467.

Land, use of, determines social life, 145.

Language, origin of, 121; a social function, 123; development of, 126-129; an instrument of culture, 129.

Latin language and literature, 261.

League for permanent peace, 489-492

Licinian laws, 256.

Lister, 469, 470.

Locke, John, 398.

Lombard League, 337.

Louis XIV, the divine right of kings, 400.

Luther, Martin, and the German Reformation, 382-385.

Lycurgus, reforms of, 244.

Lysander, 241.

Magdalenian cultures, 72.

Man, origin of, 57; primitive home of, 66, antiquity of, 73-70; and nature, 141; not a slave to environment, 149.

Manorial system, 430.

Manuscripts, discovery of, 364.

Marxian socialism in Russia, 427.

Maya race, 192.

Medicine, 308.

Medontidae, 234.

Men of genius, 33.

Mesopotamia, 154.

Metals, discovery and use of, 100.

Metaphysics, 310.

Mexico, 146.

Michael Angelo, 370.

Milton, John, 398.

Minoan civilization, 207.

Monarchy, a stage of progress in Europe, 344.

Monarchy versus democracy, 392.

Mongolian race, 167.

Montesquieu, 404.

Morgan, Lewis H., beginning of civilization, 4; classification of social development, 49.

Morton, William, T. G., 470.

Mound builders, 197.

Music, as language, 131; as a socializing factor, 133, 137.

Mutual aid, 120; of nations, 491.

Napier, John, 463.

Napoleon Bonaparte, 417.

Nationality and race, 444.

Nature, aspects of, determine types of social life, 147.

Neanderthal man, 29, 65.

Newton, Sir Isaac, 463.

Nile, valley, seat of early civilization, 152.

Nobility, the French, 400.

Occam, William of, 379.

Oriental civilization, character of, 170; war for conquest and plunder, 171; religious belief, 171-174; social condition, 175; social organization, 176-178; economic life, 178-180; writing, 181; science, 182; contribution to world progress, 184.

Parliament, rebukes King James I, 396; declaration of, 397.

Pasteur, Louis, 469, 470.

Peloponnesian War, 241.

People, the condition of, in France, 401.

Pericles, age of, 247.

Petrarch, 365, 366.

Philosophy, Ionian, 216; Eleatic, 220; sophist, 221; stoic, 225; sceptic, 225; influence of Greek on civilization, 226, 228.

Phoenicians, the, become great navigators, 161; colonization by, 161.

Physical needs, efforts to satisfy, 82-85.

Picture writing, 126.

Pithecanthropus erectus, 29.

Plato, 222.

Political ideas, spread of, 486-488.

Political liberty in XVIII century. [Transcriber's note: no page number in source]

Polygenesis, monogenesis, 66.

Popular government, expense of, 328, 414.

Power manufacture, 437.

Pre-historic human types, 63, 65, 66.

Pre-historic man, types of, 28,

Pre-historic time, 60-61.

Primitive man, social life of, 31, 32; brain capacity of, 29.

Progress and individual development, 23; and race development, 22; influence of heredity on, 24; influence of environment on, 25; race interactions and, 26; early cultural evidence of, 32; mutations in, 33; data of, 34; increased by the implements used, 35; revival of, throughout Europe, 348; and revival of learning, 372-373.

Progress, evidence of, 456.

Public opinion, 485.

Pueblo Indians, culture of, 194; social life, 195; secret societies, 196.

Pythagoras, 219.

Race and language, 124.

Races, cause of decline, 201, 202.

Racial characters, 70.

Recounting human progress, methods of 37-52; economic development, 39-40.

Reform measures in England, 415.

Reformation, the, character of, 375; events leading to, 376-380; causes of, 380-382; far-reaching results of, 388-391.

Religion and social order, 113-116.

Religious toleration, growth of, 447.

Renaissance, the, 349, 370.

Republicanism, spread of, 425.

Research, foundations of, 472; educational process of, 479.

Revival of learning, 364.

River and glacial drift, 74.

Roebuck, John, the blast furnace, 436.

Roman civil organization, 258.

Roman empire, and its decline, 264.

Roman government, 258; law, 259; imperialism, 267.

Roman social life, 264.

Rome a dominant city, 257; development of government, 258.

Rome, political organization, 252; struggle for liberty, 243; social conditions, 255; invasion of the Gauls, 255; Agrarian laws, 254, 256; plebeians and patricians, 256; optimates, 256; influence on world civilization, 266.

Rousseau, 404.

Savonarola, 380.

Scholastic philosophy, 353.

Schools, cathedral and monastic, 356; Graeco-Roman, 357.

Science, in Egypt, 182; in Spain, 306; nature of, 307, 458; and democracy, 464, 465.

Scientific classification, 460; men, 465; progress, 470; investigation, trend of, 473.

Scientific methods, 459.

Scientific research, 463.

Semites, 160.

Shakespeare, 398.

Shell mounds, 73.

Shelters, primitive, 99.

Social conditions at the beginning of the Christian era, 269.

Social contacts of the Christian religion, 268.

Social development, 13, 23, 49, 104, 114, 347, 443.

Social evolution, depends on variation, 347; character of, 443.

Social forces, balance of, 501.

Social groups, interrelation of, 454.

Social life, 31, 133, 145, 147, 171, 178-180, 208, 241, 243, 247, 255, 258, 283, 285, 289, 298, 300, 327, 371.

Social life of primitive man, 31, 32; development of social order, 41-45; intellectual character of, 47; religious and moral condition of, 46, 47; character of, 108; moral status of, 117.

Social opportunities, 455.

Social order, 8, 41, 122, 149, 150, 176-178, 193, 196, 444, 445.

Social organization, 145, 176-178, 210, 250-252, 432, 433, 444.

Social unrest, 502.

Society, 5, 175, 205, 255, 256, 268-273, 285, 301, 316, 443, 445, 446, 450, 451, 452.

Society, complexity of modern, 452.

Socrates, 221.

Solon, constitution of, 235.

Spain, attempts at popular government in, 341.

Sparta, domination of, 241; character of Spartan state, 242.

Spencer, Herbert, 471.

Spiritual progress and material comfort, 500.

State education, 482.

States-general, 341.

Struggle for existence develops the individual and the race, 106.

Summary of progress, 503.

Switzerland, democracy in cantons, 342.

Symonds, J. A., 366.

Teutonic liberty, 281; influence of, 282, 291, 292; laws, 291.

Theodosian Code, 260.

Toltecs, 192.

Towns, in the Middle Ages, 329.

Trade,434.

Trade and its social Influence, 104.

Transportation, 102.

Tylor, E. B., Primitive Culture, 114.

Tyndall, John, 471.

Unity of the human race, 66.

Universities, mediaeval, 475; English, 476; German, 476; American, 476; endowed, 484.

Universities, rise of, 360; nature of, 361; failure in scientific methods, 361.

Venice, 335.

Village community, 44.

Village sites, 77.

Voltaire, 404.

Waldenses, 378.

Warfare and social progress, 119.

Watt, James, power manufacture, 436.

Weissman, A., 467.

Western civilisation, important factors in its foundation, 268.

Whitney, Ely, the cotton gin, 436.

Wissler, Clark, culture areas, 26; trade, 104.

World state, 493.

World war, breaks the barriers of thought, 488.

World War, iconoclastic effects of, 427.

Writing, 181.

Wyclif, John, and the English reformation, 378, 386.

Zeno, 220.

Zenophanes, 220.

Zwingli and the reformation in Switzerland, 385.



Transcriber's notes:

In the Table of Contents, the "PART III" division precedes Chapter VII, but in the body of the book it precedes Chapter VIII.

Page numbers in this book are enclosed in curly braces. For its Index, a page number has been placed only at the start of that section. In the HTML version of this book, page numbers are placed in the left margin.

Footnote numbers are enclosed in square brackets. Each chapter's footnotes have been renumbered sequentially and moved to the end of that chapter.