%4. Retrospect.%

In order to avoid the appearance of arbitrary construction we have been sparing with references of a philosophico-historical character. In conclusion, looking back at the period passed over, we may give expression to some convictions concerning the guiding threads in the development of modern philosophy, though these here claim only the rights of subjective opinion.

A mirror of modern culture, and conscious of its sharp antithesis to Scholasticism, modern philosophy in its pre-Kantian period is pre-eminently characterized by naturalism. Nature, as a system of masses moved according to law, forms not only the favorite object of investigation, but also the standard by which psychical reality is judged and explained. The two directions in which this naturalism expresses itself, the mechanical view of the world, which endeavors to understand the universe from the standpoint of nature and all becoming from the standpoint of motion,[1] and the intellectualistic view, which seeks to understand the mind from the standpoint of knowledge, are most intimately connected. Where the general view of the All takes form and color from nature, a content and a mission can come to the mind from no other source than the external world; whether we (empirically) make it take up the material of representation from without or (rationalistically) make it create an ideal reproduction of the content of external reality from within, it is always the function of knowledge, conceived as the reproduction of a completed reality, which, since it brings us into contact with nature, advances into the foreground and determines the nature of psychical activity. As is conceivable, along with dogmatic faith in the power of the reason to possess itself of the reality before it and to reconstrue it in the system of science, and with triumphant references to the mathematical method as a guaranty for the absolute certainty of philosophical knowledge, the noetical question emerges as to the means by which, and the limits within which, human knowledge is able to do justice to this great problem. Descartes gave out the programme for all these various tendencies—the mechanical explanation of nature, the absolute separation of body and soul (despiritualization of matter), thought the essence of the mind, the demand for certain knowledge, armed against every doubt, and the question as to the origin of ideas. Its execution by his successors shows not only a lateral extension in the most various directions (the dualistic view of the world held by the occasionalists, the monistic or pantheistic view of Spinoza, the pluralistic or individualistic view of Leibnitz; similarly the antithesis between the sensationalism of Locke and Condillac and the rationalism of Spinoza and Leibnitz), but also a progressive deepening of problems, mediated by party strife which puts every energy to the strain. What a tremendous step from the empiricism of Bacon to the skepticism of Hume, from the innate ideas of Descartes to the potential a priori of Leibnitz! From the moment when the negative and positive culminations of the pre-Kantian movement in thought—Hume and Leibnitz—came together in one mind, the conditions of the Kantian reform were given, just as the preparation for the Socratic reform had been given in the skepticism of the Sophists and the [Greek: nous] principle of Anaxagoras.

[Footnote 1: Even for Leibnitz the mind is a machine (automaton spirituale), and psychical action a movement of ideas.]

Kant, who dominates the second period of modern philosophy down to the present time, is related to his predecessors in a twofold way. In his criticism he completes the noetical tendency, and at the same time overcomes naturalism, by limiting the mechanical explanation (and with it certain knowledge, it is true) to phenomena and opposing moralism to intellectualism. Nature must be conceived from the standpoint of the spirit (as its product, for all conformity to law takes its origin in the spirit), the spirit from the standpoint of the will. Metaphysics, as the theory of the a priori conditions of experience, is raised to the rank of a science, while the suprasensible is removed from the region of proof and refutation and based upon the rock of moral will. In the positive side of the Kantian philosophy—the spirit the law-giver of nature, the will the essence of spirit and the key to true reality—we find its kernel, that in it which is forever valid. The conclusions on the absolute worth of the moral disposition, on the ultimate moral aim of the world, on the intelligible character, and on radical evil, reveal the energy with which Kant took up the mission of furnishing the life-forces opened up by Christianity—which the Middle Ages had hidden rather than conserved under the crust of Aristotelian conceptions entirely alien to them, and the pre-Kantian period of modern times had almost wholly ignored—an entrance into philosophy, and of transforming and enriching the modern view of the world from this standpoint. Kant's position is as opposite and superior to the specifically modern, to the naturalistic temper of the new period, as Plato stands out, a stranger and a prophet of the future, above the level of Greek modes of thought. More fortunate, however, than Plato, he found disciples who followed further in the direction pointed out by that face of the Janus-head of his philosophy which looked toward the future: the ethelism of Fichte and the historicism of Hegel have their roots in Kant's doctrine of the practical reason. These are acquisitions which must never be given up, which must ever be reconquered in face of attack from forces hostile to spirit and to morals. In life, as in science, we must ever anew "win" ethical idealism "in order to possess it." As yet the reconciliation of the historical and the scientific, the Christian and the modern spirit is not effected. For the inbred naturalism of the modern period has not only asserted itself, amalgamated with Kantian elements, in the realistic metaphysics and mechanical psychology of Herbart and in the system of Schopenhauer, as a lateral current by the side of Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel, but, under the influence of the new and powerful development of the natural sciences, has once more confidently risen against the traditions of the idealistic school, although now it is tempered by criticism and concedes to the practical ideals at least a refuge in faith. The conviction that the rule of neo-Kantianism is provisional does not rest merely on the mutability of human affairs. The widespread active study of the philosophy of the great Koenigsberger gives ground for the hope that also those elements in it from which the systems of the idealists have proceeded as necessary consequences will again find attention and appreciation. The perception of the fact that the naturalistico-mechanical view represents only a part, a subordinate part, of the truth will lead to the further truth, that the lower can only be explained by the higher. We shall also learn more and more to distinguish between the permanent import of the position of fundamental idealism and the particular form which the constructive thinkers have given it; the latter may fall before legitimate assaults, but the former will not be affected by them. The revival of the Fichteo-Hegelian idealism by means of a method which shall do justice to the demands of the time by a closer adherence to experience, by making general use of both the natural and the mental sciences, and by an exact and cautious mode of argument—this seems to us to be the task of the future. The most important of the post-Hegelian systems, the system of Lotze, shows that the scientific spirit does not resist reconciliation with idealistic convictions in regard to the highest questions, and the consideration which it on all sides enjoys, that there exists a strong yearning in this direction. But when a deeply founded need of the time becomes active, it also rouses forces which dedicate themselves to its service and which are equal to the work.

THE END.

* * * * *

INDEX.

Abbt Absolute, the Fichte on Schelling on F. Krause on Schleiermacher on Hegel on Fortlage on Spencer on Boestrom on Strauss on Feuerbach on the theistic school on Lotze on Hartmann on See also God the Unconditioned Achillini Adamson, R. Aesthetics of Home (Lord Kames) of Burke of Baumgarten of Herder of Kant of Schiller of Schelling of Hegel of J.F. Fries of Herbart of Schopenhauer Agnosticism, of Spencer Agricola, R. Agrippa of Nettesheim Ahrens, H. Alexandrists Allihn Althusius Anderson Angiulli, A. Annet, P. Antal, G. von Antinomies, the of Kant his antinomy of aesthetic judgment and of teleological judgment Apelt, E.F. A priori, the in Kant in Kant and the post-Kantians nature, in Schelling in J.F. Fries Beneke on Herbart on J.S. Mill on Spencer's doctrine of the racial origin of Opzoomer on Cf. Ideas Aquinas, Thomas Ardigo, R. Aristotelians, the opponents of Arnauld Arnoldt, E. Associationalism of Hartley and Priestley of Hume of the Mills of Bain Ast, G.A.F. Atomism in modern physics in Gassendi and Descartes in Boyle Leibnitz on Attributes in Descartes Spinoza's doctrine of Auerbach Augustine Avenarius, R. Averroists

Baader, F. (von), and Schelling system of Bach, J. Bacmeister Bacon, Francis a beginner of modern philosophy, doctrine of, in relation to Locke

Bacon, Roger Bahnsen, J. Bain, Alexander Baku Barclay Bardili Bartholomaei Barzellotti, G. Basedow Bauer, Bruno Bauer, Edgar Baumann, J. Baumeister Baumgarten, Alex. Baumgarten, Siegmund Baeumker, Cl. Baur, F.C. Bayle, P., doctrine of, and Leibnitz Beattie, J. Beck, Sigismund Beckers, H., Bekker, Balthasar, III Belger Bellarmin Beneke, F.E. Benoit, G. von Bentham, J. Bentley, Richard Berger, J.E. von Bergmann, J. Berkeley, George, position in modern philosophy, view of mind and matter, relation to Locke on perception, on knowledge, his system, relation to Hume, relation to Scottish School, relation to Condillac, his idealism criticised by Kant, referred to Bernard, Claude Bernheim Bessarion Bezold, F. von, Biberg Biedermann, A.E. Biedermann, Fr. K. Bilfinger Billewicz, J. von, Biran, Maine de Blignieres Bluntschli Bodin(us) Body and Mind, see Mind and Body Boethius, D. Boehme, Jacob, system of, and Schelling Boehmer Boehringer, A. Bolin, W. Bolingbroke Bolzano, B. Bonald, Victor de Bonatelli, F. Bonitz, H. Bonnet Bontekoe Boole, G. Borelius, J. Borelli Borgeaud Bosanquet, B. Boestrom, C.J. Botta, V. Bouillier Bourdin Bourignon, Antoinette Bowen, F. Bowne, B.P. Boyle, R. Bradley, F.H. Brahe, Tycho Brandes, G. Brandis, C.A. Braniss, J. Brasch, M. Brentano, F. Broechner, H. Brockerhoff Brown, Thomas Browne, Peter Browne, Sir Thomas Brucker Bruder Brunnhofer Bruno, Giordano system of and Spinoza, and Schelling Bruett, M. Buchanan, George Buechner, L. Buckle Budde Buffon Burckhardt Burdach, K.F. Burgersdijck Burke, Edmund Burt, B.C. Busch, O. Butler, Joseph Butler, N.M.

Cabanis Caesalpin Caird, Edward Caird, John Cairns Calker, F.V. Camerer Campanella, Thomas system of Campe Cantoni Cantor, G. Caporali, E. Cardanus, Hieronymus Carlyle, Thomas Carneri Caro, E. Carpenter, W.B. Carriere, M. Cartesians, the Locke's relation to Leibnitz's relation to Carus, F.A. Carus, K.G. Carus, P. Caspari, O. Categories, the, Kant on Hegel's doctrine of Caterus Causation Spinoza's view of Locke on Hume's skeptical analysis of Kant on Schopenhauer on Lotze on Hartmann on See also Sufficient Reason, Teleology Cesca, Giovanni Chalybaeus Chandler, Samuel Channing, W.E. Character, the Intelligible in Kant in Schelling in Schopenhauer Charron, Pierre Christ, P. Chubb, Thomas Cieszkowski, A. von Clarke, Samuel ethics of Class, G. Classen, A. Clauberg Cogito ergo sum the Cartesian Cohen, H. Colecchi, A. Coleridge, S.T. Collard, Royer Collier, Arthur Collins, Anthony Collins, F.H. Collins, W.L. Combachius Comenius Commer, E. Common Sense, Scottish doctrine of Comte, Auguste Condillac doctrine of Condorcet Conn, H.W. Conybeare, J. Copernicus, N. Cordemoy Cosmological Argument, the in Locke in Rousseau in Leibnitz in Kant Cotes, Roger Cousin, Victor Cremonini Crescas, Chasdai Creuz, K. von Critique of Reason, the meaning of the neo-Kantians on its central position in modern thought Crousaz Crusius, C.A. Cudworth, Ralph ethics of Cumberland, Richard Czolbe, H.

D'Alembert Damiron Danzel Darjes Darwin, Charles Darwin, Erasmus Daub, K. Da Vinci, Leonardo Deism naturalism of in Herbert in English thinkers of XVIII. century in Hume in Rousseau of Reimarus in Lessing Kant's relation to See also Faith, Faith and Reason, Religion, Theology Delboeuf Delff, H. De Morgan, A.

Denifle Des Bosses Descartes, Rene system of and occasionalism and Spinoza and Locke and Leibnitz See also Spinoza Desdouits Dessoir, M. Deter Determinism in Hobbes in Spinoza of the early associationalists of Hume in Leibnitz of Schleiermacher of Herbart of Schopenhauer of J.S. Mill of Jonathan Edwards See also Character, the Intelligible; Freedom of the Will Deussen, P. Deutinger, M. De Wette Dewey, J. Diderot, Denis Diels, H. Dieterich, K. Digby, Everard Dillman Dilthey, W. doctrine of, Dippe, A. Doering, A. Dorner, A. Doubt the Cartesian in Bayle Rousseau's reverential Drobisch, M.W. Droz Druskowitz, Helene Du Bois-Reymond, E Duehring, E. Dumont, E. Duncan, G.M. Durdik

Ebbinghaus, H. Eberhard, J.A. Echtermeyer Eckhart Eclecticism, of the German Illumination of Schleiermacher of Cousin and his School Edfeldt, H. Education Locke on Rousseau on Edwards, Jonathan Ego, the certain knowledge of, in Campanella, and Descartes the individual, and the transcendental consciousness in Kant Fichte's doctrine of a complex of representations in Beneke Fortlage on Herbart's doctrine of the neo-Kantians on the individual, and the transcendental consciousness See also Soul Ellis Emerson, R.W. Empiricism founded by Bacon in Hobbes and rationalism of Locke of J.S. Mill of Opzoomer Liebmann on See also Experience, Sensationalism Encyclopedists, the Engel, J.J. Ennemoser Erasmus, Desiderius Erdmann, Benno works by Erdmann, J.E. works by philosophy of Erhardt, F. Eschenmayer, K.A. Ethelism in Crusius of Fichte of Schopenhauer in Hartmann See also Panthelism. Ethics Bacon on Hobbes's political theory of Descartes on Geulincx on Spinoza on Pascal on Malebranche on Locke on English, of XVIII. century Hume's empirical and mechanical of French sensationalists of French materialists of Rousseau of Leibnitz of Herder of Kant of Fichte of Schleiermacher of Hegel of J.F. Fries of Beneke of Herbart of Schopenhauer of Comte of Bentham of J.S. Mill, of Spencer of T.H. Green of Lotze of Hartmann recent German interest in Eucken, R. works by philosophy of Everett, C.C. Evil Weigel on the origin of Boehme on the origin of Spinoza's doctrine of Leibnitz's doctrine of Schelling's theory of Baader's theory of Fechner's view of See also Optimism, Pessimism Evolution in the sense of explication in Nicolas of Cusa and involution in Leibnitz cosmical, of Spencer biological, of Darwin Cf. also the systems of Schelling, Hegel, Hartmann Exner, F. Experience the basis of science in Bacon Kant on Green on Liebmann's view of See also Empiricism, Sensationalism External World, the reality of, in Descartes knowledge and reality of, in Locke Berkeley on Kant on the reality of the "material of duty in the form of sense" in Fichte

Faber Stapulensis (Lefevre of Etaples) Faith the reformers' view of Deistic view of Kant on Kant on moral or practical Paulsen on practical See also Deism Faith and Reason, the relation of, in modern philosophy Bayle on Locke on Deistic view of in Rousseau Leibnitz on Lessing on Baader on Schleiermacher on See also Deism Faith Philosophy, the of Hamann of Herder of Jacobi elements of, in J.F. Fries Falckenberg, R. works by Farrer, J.A. Fechner, G.T. system of Fechner, H.A. Feder, J.G.H. Feeling the basis of knowledge in Pascal the central doctrine of Rousseau central to religion in Schleiermacher See also The Faith Philosophy Ferguson, Adam Ferrari, Giuseppe Ferraz Ferri, L. Ferrier, D. Ferrier, J.F. Fester, R. Feuerbach, L. philosophy of Fichte, I.H. Fichte, J.G. and Kant system of and Schelling and Hegel and Herbart and Lotze See also Idealism, Jacobi, Kant Ficinus Filmer Final Causes, see Teleology Fiorentino, F. Fischer, E.L. Fischer, K. Ph. Fischer, Karl Fischer, Kuno works by on Spinoza on Kant his philosophy and neo-Kantianism Fiske, John Flint, K. Fludd, R. Fluegel Forberg Forge, L. de la Fortlage, Karl works by system of Fouillee, A. Fowler, Thos. Fox Bourne Franchi, A. Franck, A. Franck, Sebastian Francke Frantz, K. Eraser, A.C. Frauenstaedt, J. Frederichs, F. Frederick the Great Freedom of the Will, Hobbes's denial of Descartes's unlimited affirmation of denied by Spinoza Locke on denied by Hume in Rousseau Leibnitz on Herder on Kant on Fichte on Schelling on Herbart on Schopenhauer on J-S. Mill on See also Character, the Intelligible; Determinism Frege, G. Freudenthal, J. Fries, A. de Fries, J.F., and Kant an opponent of constructive idealism his system and Herbart Froschammer Fullerton, G.S.

Gabler Gale Galileo (Galileo Galilei) his work as a foundation for modern physics his system Galluppi, P. Galton, Francis Garve, C. Gassendi, P. Gauss Gay Geijer, E.G. Geil Genovesi, A. Gentilis, Albericus George, L. George of Trebizond Georgius Scholarius (Gennadius) Gerdil, S. Gerhardt Gerson Gersonides Geulincx, Arnold Gichtel Gierke, O. Gilbert, William Gioberti, V. Gioja, M. Gizycki, G. von Glanvil Glisson, Francis Glogau, G. God, doctrine of, in Nicolas of Cusa in Taurellus in Bruno Campanella's argument for the existence of Weigel's doctrine of Boehme's doctrine of Descartes's arguments for the existence of Spinoza's doctrine of Malebranche's view of Locke's doctrine of Berkeley ascribes ideas of sense-world to Hume's doctrine of Voltaire's doctrine of Holbach's discussion of Leibnitz's doctrine of Reimarus's doctrine of Lessing's doctrine of Herder's doctrine of Jacobi's doctrine of Kant on the arguments for the existence of Fichte's doctrine of Schelling's doctrine of F. Krause's doctrine of Baader's doctrine of Schleiermacher's doctrine of Beneke's doctrine of Herbart's doctrine of Boestrom's doctrine of the doctrine of, in Hegel's School Strauss's doctrine of Feuerbach's doctrine of the doctrine of, in the Theistic School Fechner on the relation of God and the world Lotze's doctrine of Hartmann's doctrine of See also: Cosmological Argument Deism Ontological Argument Religion Teleological Argument Theology Goehring, C. Golther, L. von Goeschel Goethe Gottsched Gracian, B. Grazia, V. de Green, T.H., works by doctrine of Grimm, E. Grimm, F.M., Baron von Groos, K. Grot, N. von Grote, John Grotius, Hugo Grubbe, S. Gruber, H. Gruen, K. Guhrauer Guenther, A. Gutberlet, C. Guthrie, M. Guettler, C. Guyau, J.M. Gwinner, W.

Haeckel, E. Haeghen, V. van der Hagemann Hall, G.S. Hallier Hamann, J.G. Hamann, O. Hamberger Hamilton, Sir William Harless, A. von Harmony Leibnitz's pre-established Wolff's development of Leibnitz's, pre-established Harms, F. Harris, W.T. Harrison, Frederic Hartenstein, G. Hartley, David Hartmann, E. von works by system of Harvey Hase, K.A. Hassbach Hausegger Hausrath Havet Haym, R. Hazard, R.G. Heath Hebler, C. Heereboord Hegel, G.W.F. and Schelling system of opponents of influence and followers of See also J.G. Fichte, Kant, Schelling Hegelians, the Old the Young See also Semi-Hegelians Hegler, A. Heiland, K. Heinze, M. Helmholtz, H. Helmont, F.M. van Helmont, J.B. van Helvetius, C.A. Hemming Hemsterhuis, F. Herbart, J.F. system of See also J.G. Fichte Herbert, Lord, of Cherbury Herder, J.G. system of Schelling and Hering Hermann, C. Hermann, W. Hermes, G. Herz, M. Heusde, P.W. van Heussler, H. Heyder, Karl Hinneberg Hinrichs Hirnhaym History Machiavelli on Herder's philosophy of Kant's view of Fichte's view of Schelling's view of F. Krause's philosophy of Hegel's philosophy of Vico's philosophy of History of Philosophy, the importance of method in Hegel's view of recent development of Hobbes, Thomas his system and Descartes and Spinoza and Locke and Hume and Pufendorf Hoeffding, H. Hoffmann, Franz Hoeijer, B. Holbach, Baron von Hoelder, A.

Hoelderlin Home, Henry, (Lord Kames) Horvath Horwicz, A. Hotho Huber, J. Huber, U. Huet(ius), P.D. Hufeland Hume, David system of and Scottish School and Kant See also Berkeley, Locke Hunt, J. Husserl, E.G. Hutcheson, Francis Huxley, T.H.

Ibbot Idealism phenomenal or individual of Berkeley in Leibnitz critical or transcendental, of Kant post-Kantian, of Beck subjective, of Fichte objective, of Schelling absolute or logical, of Hegel the opposition to constructive in Schopenhauer German, in Great Britain of Green in America ethical or ideological, of Lotze idealistic reaction in Germany against the scientific spirit Falckenberg on (ethical) idealism and the future Ideas, innate, in Descartes, Locke, Leibnitz, the rationalists and the empiricists origin of, in Descartes, Locke, Berkeley, Hume, the rationalists and empiricists, and Herbart impressions and, in Hume unconscious ideas or representations in Leibnitz Ideas of reason in Kant the logical Idea the subject of the world-process in Hegel Identity, Locke on Spinozism a system of Schelling's philosophy or system of the philosophy of, among Schelling's followers Hegel's doctrine a system of Fortlage's system of philosophy of, in Schopenhauer Immortality Hume on Voltaire on Rousseau on Leibnitz on Kant on Schleiermacher on Beneke on Herbart on Hegel's followers on Strauss on Fechner on Imperative, the Categorical in Kant in Fichte in Beneke Induction Kepler on Galileo on used before Bacon Bacon's theory of in Hobbes J.S. Mill's theory of Irwing, Von

Jacobi, F.H. system of and Fichte and the anti-idealists Jacobson, J. Jaeger, G. James, William Janet, Paul Jansenists Jastrow, J. Jesuits Jevons, W.S. Jhering, R. von Jodl, F. Joel, M. Jouffroy, T. Judgment Descartes on rationalists and empiricists both mistake nature of Kant on synthetic judgments a priori the categories and, in Kant judgments of perception and of experience in Kant Kant on aesthetic and teleological Jungius

Kaatz, H. Kaftan, J. Kaltenborn, C. von Kant, I.

position in modern philosophy and Locke and the Illumination system of the development to Fichte and Fichte and Schelling and Hegel and Schopenhauer his influence, followers, and opponents See also Berkeley, Critique of Reason, J.G. Fichte, Hume, Leibnitz, Locke, Schopenhauer, Wolff Kayserling Kedney, J.S. Kent, G. Kepler, J. philosophy of Kielmeyer Kierkegaard, S. Kieser King, Lord Kirchmann, J.H. von Kirchner Klein, G.M. Knauer, V. Knight, W. Knoodt, P. Knowledge theory of, in modern thought doctrine of, in Nicolas of Cusa declared deceptive by Montaigne mathematical basis of, in Kepler and Galileo in Bacon in Hobbes in Herbart the two views of Geulincx on Descartes on Spinoza on Malebranche on ("we see all things in God") Locke's doctrine of Berkeley on Hume's skeptical doctrine of Scottish doctrine of sensationalistic doctrine of, in France Leibnitz's theory of Kant on Fichte's Science of Schelling's philosophy of Baader on Schleiermacher's doctrine of Hegel on philosophical J.F. Fries's doctrine of Beneke on speculative Schopenhauer's doctrine of Comte's doctrine of Sir Wm. Hamilton's doctrine of J.S. Mill's doctrine of Spencer's doctrine of T.H. Green's doctrine of Feuerbach's doctrine of Lotze's doctrine of Hartmann's doctrine of the neo-Kantians on the German positivists on influence of recent science on the theory of Liebmann's doctrine of See also Agnosticism, Critique of Reason, Empiricism, Faith, Faith and Reason, Nominalism, Positivism, Rationalism and Empiricism, Relativity, Sensationalism, Skepticism Knutzen, M. Koch, A. Koeber, R. von Koegel, F. Koenig, E. Koppelmann Koestlin, Karl Krause, A. Krause, E. Krause, F. Krauth, C.P. Krohn, A. Kroman, K. Krug, W.T. Kuhn Kuntze, J.E. Kvacsala Kym, A.L.

Laas, E. Laban, F. Labriola, La Bruyere Ladd, G.T. Laffitte, P. Lagrange Lambert, J.H. Lamennais, F. de La Mettrie, J.O. de La Mothe la Vayer Land, J.P.N. Lange, F.A. Lange, J.J. La Rochefoucauld Lasson, A. Lasswitz, K. Last, E. Lavater Law (or Right) early philosophy of Montesquieu on Pufendorf on C. Thomasius on Kant's theory of legal right Fichte's theory of right Schelling's view of F. Krause's philosophy of right Hegel's philosophy of right Lazarus, M. Lechler Leclair, A. von Leibnitz, Friedrich (the father) Leibnitz, G.W. position in modern thought and occasionalism system of and the Illumination (Wolff, Lessing) and Kant See also Descartes, Locke, Spinoza Leonhardi, H.K. von Leopold Lessing, G.E. system of Lewes, G.H. Liard, L. Liberatore, M. Lichtenberg Liebig Liebmann, O. Linde, A. van der Lindemann Lipps, T. Lipsius, Justus Lipsius, R.A. Littre, E. Locke, J. position in modern philosophy system of and Berkeley and Hume and the French Illumination (and Rousseau) and Leibnitz and Kant See also Bacon, Berkeley, Descartes, Empiricism, Kant Lohmeyer Lombroso, C. Lossius Lott, F.C. Lotze, R.H. system of Loewe, J.H. Lubbock, J. Luelmann, C. Luther Lutterbeck Lyng, G.V.

Macaulay, T.B. Machiavelli, N. Mackie Mackintosh, J. Mahaffy, J.P. Maimon, S. Maimonides Mainlaender, P. Mainzer, J. Maistre, J, de Malebranche, Nicolas system of Mamiani, T. Mandeville, Bernard de Mansel, H.L. Marcus Marheineke Mariana, Juan Mariano Marion, H. Marsh, James Marsilius of Padua Martin, B. Martineau, Harriet Martineau, James Martini, Jacob Masson, David Materialism in Hobbes Spinoza's tendency toward in the early associationalists in France in XVIII. century Kant on in Schopenhauer and Spencer's philosophy in Strauss of Feuerbach the controversy over, in Germany Lange on Mathematics the philosophical use of, advocated by Nicolas of Cusa by Kepler scientific use of, ignored by Bacon Hobbes's recognition of method of, adopted by Spinoza Kant on philosophy and Kant on science and applied to psychology by Herbart and by Fechner recent, and philosophy Maudsley, Henry Maupertuis Mayer, F. Mayer, R. McCosh, J. Mechanism in modern thought in modern physical science the central doctrine of Hobbes fundamental in Spinoza applied to mind by the associationalists of J.F. Fries of ideas in Herbart in Lotze in recent physical science See also Naturalism, Physical Science, Teleology Meier, G.F. Meiners Melancthon Mellin Melville, Andrew Mendelssohn Mersenne Merz, J.T. Metaphysics Bacon on of Descartes of Spinoza of Leibnitz the Wolffian division of Kant on Hegel on of Fortlage of Herbart Comte on of Fechner of Lotze of Hartmann recent German views on Meyer, J.B. Meyer, Ludwig Michelet, C.L. Michelis, Mill, James Mill, J.S. Milton, John Mind and Body Descartes on occasionalistic view of, in Geulincx Spinoza on Hartley and Priestley on Leibnitz on J.F. Fries on Modern Philosophy value of history of characteristics of relation to the church relation to nationality beginnings of bibliography of two main schools of future of Modes (of Substance) in Descartes in Spinoza in Locke Moleschott Monads Giordano Bruno's doctrine of Leibnitz's doctrine of Wolff's development of Leibnitz's doctrine of Monchamp, G. Monck, W.H.S. Monrad, M.J. Montaigne, M. de Montesquieu More, H. More, Thomas Moreau Morelly Morgan, C.L. Morgan, Thomas Moriz Morley, J. Morris, G.S. Morselli Mueller, W. Mueller, F.A. Mueller, G.E. Mueller, H. Mueller, Johannes Mueller, Max Muensterberg, H. Muenz, W.

Nahlowsky Naigeon Natge Natorp, P. Naturalism characteristic of modern philosophy See also Mechanism, Physical Science, Teleology Nature, Philosophy of early Italian Schelling's among Schelling's followers Hegel's J.F. Fries's Herbart's See also Physical Science Nedich Nees von Esenbeck Nemes, E. Neo-Kantians Nettleship, R.L. Neudecker Newton, Isaac Nichol Nicolai, F. Nicolas of Cusa Nicole Nielsen, R. Niethammer Nietzsche, F. Niphus Nippold Nizolius, Marius Noack, L. Noire, L. Nolen Nominalism in Hobbes in Locke of Berkeley of Hume Noumena See also Phenomena, Things in themselves Novalis Nyblaeus, A.

Occam Occasionalists Oischinger Oken, L. Oldendorp Ontological argument, the in Descartes in Spinoza in Leibnitz in Kant Opel, J.O. Opposites the unity of, in Nicolas of Cusa in Schelling the reconciliation and identity of, in Hegel Optimism in Voltaire of Leibnitz of Schleiermacher Opzoomer, C.W. Oratorians Oersted, H.C. Oswald, James Oettingen, A. von

Pabst, J.H. Paley, W. Pantheism of Nicolas of Cusa of Spinoza Malebranche's "Christian" in Toland Berkeley's tendency to of Holbach in Fichte in Schelling in Schleiermacher Fortlage's transcendent of Strauss the theistic school on See also Hegel, Panthelism Panthelism of Fichte in Schelling of Schopenhauer See also Ethelism Pappenheim Paracelsus Parker Pascal, Blaise Patritius, Franciscus Paulsen, F. Paulus Pertz Pessimism of Schopenhauer of Hartmann Pesch Pestalozzi, J.H. Peters, K. Pfleiderer, E. Pfleiderer, O. Phenomena and things in themselves in Kant and representation in Kant and things in themselves in Herbart in Schopenhauer in Lotze See also Noumena, Things in themselves Physical Science concepts of modern Newton's development of its influence on philosophy in XIX century Pico, Francis, of Mirandola Pico, John, of Mirandola Pierson Pietsch, T. Planck, A. Planck, K.C. Platner Platonists Pletho, G.G. Plitt Ploucquet Pluemacher, O. Poiret, P. Pollock, F. Pomponatius, Petrus Porter, N. Positivism in Italy of Comte of Comte's followers in England in Sweden, Brazil, and Chili in Germany Prantl Prel, K. du Price, Richard Priestley, J. Prowe, L. Psychology the associational the sensationalistic of Leibnitz of Wolff of Tetens Kant on rational constructive the basis of philosophy in J.F. Fries and Beneke of Beneke of Fortlage of Herbart of Comte physiological folk-psychology

of Spencer See also Ego, Mind and Body, Soul Pufendorf, Samuel Puenjer, B., works by

Quaebicker, R. Qualities Primary and Secondary, so termed by Boyle Locke's doctrine of Kant's relation to Berkeley's co-ordination of Quesnay

Rabus, L. Ragnisco Ramus (Pierre de la Ramee) Rationalism and Empiricism in Locke in Leibnitz in Tschirnhausen in others of the German Illuminati in relation to Kant Rauwenhoff Ravaisson, F. Realism of Herbart the "transfigured," of Spencer the "transcendental realism" of Hartmann Ree, P. Regius Regulative and constitutive principles, in Kant Rehmke, J. Rehnisch Reichlin-Meldegg, K.A. von Reicke, R Reid, Thomas Reiff, J.F. Reimarus Reinhold, E. Reinhold, K.L. Relativity of Knowledge in Comte of Sir Wm. Hamilton of Mansel of Spencer Religion Bacon's view of Hobbes on Lord Herbert's doctrine of natural Pascal on deistic view of Hume on Voltaire on Holbach on Rousseau's view of Leibnitz on Reimarus on Lessing's developmental theory of Kant on Fichte on Schelling on Schleiermacher's philosophy of Hegel's philosophy of Beneke on Herbart's doctrine of Schopenhauer's doctrine of Comte's religion of humanity Spencer's view of Hegel's followers on Strauss on Feuerbach's doctrine of Hartmann's philosophy of See also Deism, Faith, Faith and Reason, God, Theology Remusat, C. de Renan, E. Renery Renouvier, C. Reuchlin, H. Reuchlin, J. Reuter, H. Reynaud, J. Ribbing, S. Ribot, Th. Riedel, O. Riehl, A. Riemann Riezler, S. Right, see Law Rio, J.S. del Ritschl, A. Ritter, H. Rixner Robertson, G.C. Robinet Robinet, J.B. Rocholl Roeder Rohmer, F. Romagnosi, G. Romanes, G.J. Romanticists, the Romundt, H. Roscher Roese, F. Rosenkrantz, W. Rosenkranz, K. Rosmini, A. Rothe, R. Rousseau, J.J. system of Royce, J. Ruediger Ruge, A. Ruge, S. Ruysbroek

Sahlin St. Martin, L.C. Saint Simon, H. de Saisset, E. Sanchez, Francis Schaarschmidt, C. Schaeffle, E.F. Schaller Schaerer, E. Schasler, M. Scheffler Scheibler Schelling, F.W.J. (von) system of immediate followers of and Hegel See also J.G. Fichte, Hegel, Kant, Spinoza Schelver Schematism, Kant's Schiller Schindler, C. Schlegel, F. Schleicher, A. Schleiden Schleiermacher, F.D.E. system of Schmid, E. Schmid, Leopold Schmidkunz, H. Schmid-Schwarzenberg Schmidt, K. Schmidt, L. Schmidt, O. Schneider, C.M. Schneider, G. Schneider, G.H. Schneider, O. Schoenlank Schopenhauer, A. and Kant system of followers of Schoppe (Scioppius) Schubert, F.W. Schubert, G.H. Schubert-Soldern, R. von Schuller, H. Schultze, Fritz Schulz, J. Schulze, G.E. (Aenesidemus-Schulze) Schuppe, W. Schurman, J.G. Schuetz Schwarz, H. Schwarz, G.E. Schwegler, A. Schwenckfeld Scottish School, the Selby-Bigge Semi-Hegelians, the Semi-Kantians, the Semler Sengler, J. Sennert, D. Sensation a source of knowledge in Locke and in Hume the sole source of knowledge in Condillac Leibnitz's view of See also Rationalism and Empiricism, Sensationalism Sensationalism in Hobbes in modern thought in general of Locke of Condillac of Bonnet of Helvetius of La Mettrie of Holbach in Italy of Feuerbach of the German positivists See also Empiricism, Experience, Sensation Sergi, G. Seth, A. Seydel, R. Seyfarth Shaftesbury Sherlock, T. Sibbern, F.C. Siber Siciliani, P. Sidgwick, H. Sidney, Algernon Siebeck Sigwart, Chr. von Sigwart, Chr. W. Silesius Sime, J. Simmel, G. Simon, J. Skepticism, in Montaigne in Charron in F. Sanchez in Bayle of Hume of Diderot, of D'Alembert the anti-Critical, of Schulze the Critical, of Maimon Smith, Adam Snell, K. Social Contract, the theory of, in Hobbes Hume on in Rousseau Kant on Solger, K.F. Sommer, H. Sommer, R. Soul, the, thought the essence of, in Descartes a congeries of ideas in Spinoza thought the essence of, in Malebranche, thought merely an activity of, in Locke a sum of inner states in Hume Leibnitz's monadological view of Kant on Herbart on See also Ego, Immortality, Mind and Body Space (and Time), Hobbes on in Leibnitz in Kant in Herbart in Schopenhauer in Spencer in Lotze Spaventa Spedding Spencer, H. system of Spicker, G. Spinoza, B. de position in modern philosophy and Descartes system of and Leibnitz and Schelling See also Descartes Spirit, Schilling's philosophy of Hegel's phenomenology of his doctrine of subjective of objective of absolute recent German philosophy of Spitta, H. Stadler, A. Stahl, F.J. Starcke, C.N. State, the, early theories of Hobbes on Spinoza on Locke on Montesquieu on Rousseau's theory of Kant's view of Fichte on Schelling on Hegel on Spencer on See also Social Contract Staudinger, F. Steckelmacher, M. Steffens, H. Steffensen, K. Steinbart Stein, H. von Stein, L. Steinthal Stephen, Leslie Stern, A. Stewart, Dugald Stirling, J.H. Stirner, Max (pseudonym, cf. K. Schmidt) Stoeckl, A. Stoehr, A. Stout, G.F. Strauss, D.F. Struempell, L. Stumpf, C. Stumpf, T. Sturm, Christoph Stutzmann Suabedissen Suarez, Francis Substance Descartes on Spinoza on Locke on Berkeley on (material) Hume's skeptical analysis of Leibnitz's doctrine of Kant on Schopenhauer on Hartmann on Sufficient Reason, the Principle of in Leibnitz in Schopenhauer Sully, James Sulzer Susemihl Suso

Taine, H. Tappan, H.P. Taubert, A. Tauler Taurellus Taute Teichmueller Teleological Argument, the in Boyle Hume on Reimarus on Leibnitz on Kant on Herbart on Teleology minimized by modern thought rejected by modern physics in Boyle Bacon on Hobbes's denial of Descartes on Spinoza's denial of Newton on Leibnitz on Kant on in Fichte Schelling on in Hegel in Trendelenburg in Hartmann See also Mechanism, Naturalism, Sufficient Reason, Teleological Argument Telesius Temple, Sir William Testa Tetens, J.N. Thaulow Theology relation of, to philosophy in Taurellus in Campanella and science in Bacon in Leibnitz Lessing's speculative

Kant's view of Schelling on Schleiermacher's view of Comte on the theological stage of thought Strauss on Feuerbach on See also Deism, Faith, Faith and Reason, God, Religion Thiele, G. Things in themselves in Kant's critics and immediate successors in Fichte Liebmann on See also Phenomena, Noumena Thomas a Kempis Thilo Thomasius, Christian Thomasius, Jacob (Father of Christian) Thomson, W. Thorild, T. Thuemmig Tieck Tiedemann Tillotson, J. Time, Kant on objective determinations of See also Space and Time Tindal, Matthew Toland, John Toennies, F. Torrey, H.A.P. Toscanelli Tracy, Destutt de Trahndorff Transcendental and Transcendent, meaning of, in Kant Trendelenburg, A. Treschow, N. Tschirnhausen Turgot Twardowski, K.

Ueberhorst Ueberweg, F. Uebinger, J. Ulrici, H. Unconditioned, the in Kant in Sir Wm. Hamilton in Mansel in Spencer See also the Absolute Unconscious, the, Hartmann's philosophy of Uphues, G.K.

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Zabarella Zart, G. Zeising, A. Zeller, E. works of position of Ziegler, T. Ziller, T. Zimmer, F. Zimmermann, R. Zimmern, Helen Zoellner

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