2. Works.

Satirae (or Satiricon), a character-novel, often called, from its central and most entertaining incident, The Supper of Trimalchio. 'This is the description of a Christmas dinner-party given by a sort of Golden Dustman and his wife, people of low birth and little education, who had come into an enormous fortune. The dinner itself, and the conversation on literature and art that goes on at the dinner-table, are conceived in a spirit of the wildest humour.' —Mackail.

The chief interest of the Satiricon for us is the glimpse which it affords of everyday manners and conversation under the Empire among all orders of society, from the highest to the lowest.

PHAEDRUS (temp. Augustus to Nero).

1. Life.

[Sidenote: PHAEDRUS.]

The Latin Fabulist, of whom we know nothing except what may be gathered or inferred from his fables. He was originally a slave, and was born in Thrace, possibly in the district of Pieria. He was brought to Rome at an early age, and there became acquainted with Roman literature. His patron appears to have been Augustus, who gave him his freedom. After publishing two books of fables he incurred the resentment of Augustus and was imprisoned. This was due probably to the bold outspokenness of many of his fables. He survived the attacks made on him, and Book V was written in his old age.

2. Works.

Fables, in five Books, written in iambic senarii, like those of Terence and Publius Syrus. The full title of his work is Phaedri Augusti liberti fabularum Aesopiarum libri. 'Phaedrus constantly plumes himself on his superiority to his model Aesop, but his animals have not the lifelike reality of those of the latter. With Phaedrus the animals are mere lay-figures: the moral comes first, and then he attaches an animal toit.' —Tyrrell.

'The chief interest of the Fables lies in the fact that they form the last survival of the urbanus sermo (the speech of Terence) in Latin poetry.' —Mackail.

'Phaedrus is the only important writer during the half-century of literary darkness between the Golden and the Silver Age.' —Tyrrell.

T. MACCIUS PLAUTUS, circ. 254-184 B.C.

1. Life.

[Sidenote: PLAUTUS.]

Plautus was born in the little Umbrian town of Sarsina, of free but poor parents. He came to Rome and made a small fortune as a stage-carpenter, but lost it by rash investment. He was then reduced to working for some years in a corn-mill, during which time he wrote plays, and continued to do so until his death.

2. Works.

Comedies. About 130 plays were current under the name of Plautus, but only 21 (Fabulae Varronianae) were, as Varro tells us, universally admitted to be genuine. Of these, all except one are extant.

Though his comedies are mainly free versions of Greek originals—of Philemon, Diphilus and Menander, the writers of the New Comedy 320-250 B.C.—the characters in them act, speak, and joke like genuine Romans, and he thereby secured the sympatliy of his audience more completely than Terence could ever have done.

'In point of language his plays form one of the most important documents for the history of the Latin language. In the freedom with which he uses, without vulgarising, popular modes of speech, he has no equal among Latin writers.' —Sellar.

For Horace's unfavourable judgment of Plautus see Epist. I. i. 170-176, and A. P. 270-272; Cicero's criticism is more just: Duplex omnino est iocandi genus: unum illiberale petulans flagitiosum obscenum (vulgar, spiteful, shameful, coarse), alterum elegans urbanum ingeniosum facetum (in good taste, gracious, clever, witty). Quo genere non modo Plautus noster et Atticorum antiqua comoedia (i.e. of Aristophanes), sed etiam philosophorum Socraticorum libri referti sunt. —De Off. I. civ.

GAIUS PLINIUS SECUNDUS, 23-79 A.D.

1. Life.

[Sidenote: PLINY THE ELDER.]

Born at Comum (Como) in the middle of the reign of Tiberius, Pliny passed his life in high public employments, both military and civil, which took him successively over nearly all the provinces of the Empire. He had always felt a strong interest in science, and he used his military position to secure information that otherwise might have been hard to obtain. Vespasian (70-78 A.D.), with whom he was on terms of close intimacy, made him admiral of the fleet stationed at Misenum. It was while here that news was brought him of the memorable eruption of Vesuvius in 79 A.D. 'In his zeal for scientific investigation he set sail for the spot in a man-of-war, and lingering too near the zone of the eruption was suffocated by the rain of hot ashes. The account of his death, given by his nephew, Pliny the Younger, in a letter to the historian Tacitus (Ep. vi. 16), is one of the best known passages in the classics.' —Mackail.

2. Works.

A Natural History, in thirty-seven Books, is Pliny's only extant work. (For his numerous other writings see Pliny the Younger, Ep. iii.5.) 'It is a priceless storehouse of information on every branch of natural science as known to the ancient world.' —Mackail.

His work has been called the first popular encyclopedia of natural science.

Plinius Aetatis Suae Doctissimus. —Gellius.

C. PLINIUS CAECILIUS SECUNDUS, 62-113 A.D.

1. Life.

[Sidenote: PLINY THE YOUNGER.]

Pliny the Younger was the son of C. Caecilius and of Plinia, the sister of the elder Pliny. He was born at Comum (Como), also the birthplace of his celebrated uncle. His father died when he was eight years old, and he was placed under the care of a guardian, Verginius Rufus, one of the most distinguished Romans of the day, since he had held the crown within his grasp and had declined to wear it, 68 A.D. Verginius was not much of a student, but Pliny learned from him high ideals of duty and noble thoughts about the Rome of earlier days, and never lost his unbounded admiration and respect for his guardian (Ep. ii.1). Under his uncle's watchful care he received the best education Rome could give, and studied rhetoric under the great Quintilian. His bachelor uncle on his death in 79 left him his heir, adopting him in his will. Gifted with wealth, enthusiasm, taste for publicity, and a wide circle of influential friends, Pliny could not be content with the career of a simple eques. Accordingly he began the course of office that led to the Senate and the Consulship, and finally in 111 A.D. was appointed by Trajan governor of Bithynia, where he discharged his duties with skill and ability. His service seems to have been terminated only with his death.

2. Works.

Epistulae, Letters in nine Books, to which is added Pliny's correspondence with Trajan during his governorship of Bithynia. These and his Panegyricus, in praise of Trajan, are his only extant works.

It is on his Letters that Pliny's fame now rests, and both in tone and style they are a monument that does him honour. In many cases they were written for publication, and thus can never have the unique and surpassing interest that belongs to those of Cicero, but they give a varied and interesting picture of the time. 'In the Letters the character of the writer, its virtues and its weakness, is throughout unmistakeable. Pliny, the patriotic citizen,—Pliny, the munificent patron,—Pliny, the eminent man of letters,—Pliny, the affectionate husband and humane master,—Pliny, the man of principle, is in his various phases the real subject of the whole collection.' —Mackail.

'Pliny is an almost perfect type of a refined pagan gentleman.' —Cruttwell.

SEXTUS PROPERTIUS, circ. 50-15 B.C.

1. Life.

[Sidenote: PROPERTIUS.]

Of his life little or nothing is known, except what is recorded by himself. He was an Umbrian by birth, and probably a native of Asisium (Assisi), a town on the W. slope of the Apennines, not far from Perusia. Like Vergil and Tibullus, he lost his family property in the confiscation of lands by the Triumvirs in 42 B.C.; but his mother's efforts secured for him a good education, to complete which she brought him to Rome. He entered on a course of training for the Bar, but abandoned it in favour of poetry (IV. i. 131-4).

Mox ubi bulla rudi dimissa est aurea collo, Matris et ante deos libera sumpta toga, Tum tibi pauca suo de carmine dictat Apollo Et vetat insano verba tonare foro.

His earliest poems (Book I, Cynthia), published at the age of about twenty, brought him into notice and gained him admission to the literary circle of Maecenas. He lived in close intimacy with Vergil, Ovid, and most of his other literary contemporaries, with the remarkable exception of Horace, to whom the sensitive vanity and passionate manner of the young elegiac poet were alike distasteful. He died young, before he was thirty-five, about 15 B.C.

2. Works.

Elegies, in four Books. (Some editors divide Book II into two Books, El. 1-9 Book II, and El. 10-34 Book III, so that III and IV of the MSS. and of Postgate become IV andV.)

Books I and II are nearly all poems on Cynthia.

Book III contains, besides poems on Cynthia, themes dealing with friendship (El. 7. 12. 22) and events of national interest (El. 4. 11. 18). The poet struggles to emancipate himself from the thraldom of Cynthia and to accomplish work more worthy of his genius.

Book IV contains poems on Roman antiquities (El. 2. 4. 9. 10), written at the suggestion of Maecenas, the paean on the great victory at Actium (El.6), and the noblest of his elegiacs, the Elegy on Cornelia (El.11).

3. Style.

The aim of Propertius was to be the Roman Callimachus: Umbria Romani patria Callimachi (IV. i.64).

The flexibility and elasticity of rhythm of the finest Greek elegiacs he made his own. The pentameter, instead of being a weaker echo of the hexameter, is the stronger line of the two, and has a weightier movement. In Book I he ends the pentameter freely with words of three, four, and five syllables, and we find long continuous passages in which there is scarcely any pause: e.g. in I. xx. 33-37:

Hic erat Arganthi Pege sub vertice montis Grata domus Nymphis umida Thyniasin, Quam supra nullae pendebant debita curae Roscida desertis poma sub arboribus, Et circum irriguo surgebant lilia prato Candida purpureis mixta papaveribus.

'In some respects both Tibullus and Ovid may claim the advantage over Propertius: Tibullus for refined simplicity, for natural grace and exquisiteness of touch; Ovid for the technical merits of execution, for transparency of construction, for smoothness and polish of expression. But in all the higher qualities of a poet Propertius is as much their superior.' —Postgate.

AURELIUS PRUDENTIUS CLEMENS, 348-circ. 410 A.D.

1. Life.

[Sidenote: PRUDENTIUS.]

Prudentius (as he tells us in the brief metrical autobiography prefixed to his poems) was born in the N. of Spain, and, like so many of the Roman poets, began his public life as an advocate. He was afterwards appointed by Theodosius (379-395 A.D.) judge over a district in Spain. His active and successful discharge of this office induced Theodosius (or Honorius, 395-423 A.D.) to promote him to some post of honour about the Emperor's person. His later years he devoted to the composition of sacred poetry, and published his collected works 405 A.D., after which date we know no more of his history.

2. Works.

His best known works are his Cathemerina, a series of poems on the Christian's day and life, of which the most graceful and pathetic is the Funeral Hymn, e.g.

Iam maesta quiesce querella, Lacrimas suspendite matres, Nullus sua pignora plangat, Mors haec reparatio vitae est,

and his Peristephanon (peri stephann liber) in praise of Christian martyrs. 'These represent the most substantial addition to Latin lyrical poetry since Horace.' —Mackail. We also have his Contra Symmachum in two Books of indifferent hexameter verse, in which he combats Symmachus (Consul 391 A.D.), the last champion of the old faith, and claims the victories of the Christian Stilicho as triumphs alike of Rome and of the Cross.

'Prudentius has his distinct place and office in the field of Latin literature, as the chief author who bridged the gulf between pagan poetry and Christian hymnology.' —North Pinder.

MARCUS FABIUS QUINTILIANUS, circ. 35-95 A.D.

1. Life.

[Sidenote: QUINTILIAN.]

Quintilian is the last and perhaps the most distinguished of that school of Spanish writers (Martial, the two Senecas, and Lucan) which played so important a part in the literary history of the first century. Born at Calagurris, asmall town on the Upper Ebro, he was educated at Rome, and afterwards returned to his native town as a teacher of rhetoric. There he made the acquaintance of the proconsul Galba (68-9), and was brought back by him to Rome in 68 A.D., where for twenty years he enjoyed the highest reputation as a teacher of eloquence. Among his pupils were numbered Pliny the Younger and the two sons of Flavius Clemens, grand-nephews of Domitian, destined for his successors. In 79 A.D. he was appointed by Vespasian professor of rhetoric, the first teacher who received a regular salary from the imperial exchequer. Domitian (81-96 A.D.) conferred upon him an honorary consulship, and the last ten years of his life were spent in an honoured retirement, which he devoted to recording for the benefit of posterity his unrivalled experience as a teacher of rhetoric.

2. Works.

Institutio Oratoria, the Training of an Orator, in twelve Books. This great work sums up the teaching and criticism of his life, and gives us the complete training of an orator, starting with him in childhood and leading him on to perfection.

Thus:—

Book I gives a sketch of the elementary training of the child from the time he leaves the nursery. Quintilian rightly attaches the greatest importance to early impressions.

Book II deals with the general principles and scope of the art of oratory, and continues the discussion of the aims and methods of education in its later stages.

Books III-VII are occupied with an exhaustive treatment of the matter of oratory, and are highly technical. 'Now that the formal study of the art of rhetoric has ceased to be a part of the higher education these Books have lost their general interest.' —Mackail.

Books VIII-XI treat of the manner (style) of oratory. In Book X, cap. i, in the course of an enumeration of the Greek and Latin authors likely to be most useful to an orator, Quintilian gives us a masterly sketch of Latin literature, 'in language so careful and so choice that many of his brief phrases have remained the final words on the authors, both in prose and verse, whom he mentions in his rapid survey.' —Mackail.

Book XII treats of the moral qualifications of a great speaker. The good orator must be a good man.

'Quintilian with admirable clearness insists on the great truth that bad education is responsible for bad life, and expresses with equal plainness the complementary truth that education, from the cradle upwards, is something which acts on the whole intellectual and moral nature, and that its object is the production of the good man.' —Mackail.

3. Style.

The style of Quintilian is modelled on that of Cicero, whom he is never tired of praising, and is intended to be a return to the usages of the best period. In spite of some faults characteristic of the Silver Age (e.g. his excessive use of antithesis) 'for ordinary use it would be difficult to name a manner that combines so well the Ciceronian dignity with the rich colour and high finish added to Latin prose by the writers of the earlier empire.' —Mackail.

For the death of his son, aged ten, a boy of great promise, for whose instruction he wrote the work, see Preface to BookVI.

Quintiliane, vagae moderator summe iuventae, Gloria Romanae, Quintiliane, togae.

Mart. II. xc. 1-2.

Nihil in studiis parvum est. Cito scribendo non fit ut bene scribatur, bene scribendo fit ut cito.

—Quintilian.

GAIUS SALLUSTIUS CRISPUS, 86-35 B.C.

1. Life.

[Sidenote: SALLUST.]

A member of a plebeian family, Sallust was born 86 B.C. at Amiternum, in the country of the Sabines. As tribune of the people in 52 B.C. he took an active part in opposing Milo (Cicero's client) and the Pompeian party in general. In 48 B.C. he commanded a legion in Illyria without distinction, and next year Caesar sent him to treat with the mutinous legions in Campania, where he narrowly escaped assassination. He afterwards followed Caesar to Africa, and apparently did good service there, for he was appointed in 46 the first governor of the newly formed province of Numidia. In 45 he returned to Rome a very rich man, and built himself a magnificent palace, surrounded by pleasure grounds (the famous Gardens of Sallust, in the valley between the Quirinal and the Pincius), which in after years emperors preferred to the palace of the Caesars. After Caesar's death Sallust retired from public life, and it is to the leisure and study of these ten years that we owe the works that have made him famous.

2. Works.

(1) De Catilinae Coniuratione (or Bellum Catilinae), a monograph on the famous conspiracy, in which Sallust writes very largely from direct personal knowledge of men and events.

(2) Bellum Iugurthinum (111-106 B.C.) The writing of this monograph involved wide inquiry and much preparation.

(3) Historiae, in five books, dealing with the events from 78 B.C. (death of Sulla) to 67 B.C., of which only a few fragments are extant.

3. Style.

'Sallust aimed at making historical writing a branch of literature. He felt that nothing had yet been done by any Roman writer which would stand beside Thucydides. It was his ambition to supply the want. That could only be done by offering as complete a contrast to the tedious annalist as possible, and Sallust neglected no means of giving variety to his work. From Thucydides he probably borrowed the idea of his introductions, the imaginary speeches and the character portraits; from Cato the picturesque descriptions of the scenes of historical events and the ethnographical digressions.' —Cook.

'The style of Sallust is characterised by the use of old words and forms (especially in the speeches). He makes use of alliteration, extensively employs the Historic Infinitive, and shows a partiality for conversational expressions which from a literary point of view are archaic. His abrupt unperiodic style of writing (rough periods without particles of connexion) has won for Sallust his reputation for brevity. His style is, however, the expression of the writer's character, direct, incisive, emphatic, and outspoken; to have been a model for Tacitus is no slight merit.' —Cook.

Nec minus noto Sallustius epigrammate incessitur: 'Et verba antiqui multum furate Catonis, Crispe, Iugurthinae conditor historiae.'

Quint. VIII. iii. 29.

'The last of the Ciceronians, Sallust is also in a sense the first of the imperial prose-writers.' —Mackail.

Primus Romana Crispus in Historia (Mart. XIV. cxci.)

L. ANNAEUS SENECA THE YOUNGER, circ. 4 B.C.-65 A.D.

1. Life.

[Sidenote: SENECA.]

The son of Seneca the Elder, the famous rhetorician, was born at Corduba (Cordova), in Spain, and brought to Rome by his parents at an early age. His life was one of singularly dramatic contrasts and vicissitudes. Under his mother Helvia's watchful care he received the best education Rome could give. Through the influence of his mother's family he passed into the Senate through the quaestorship, and his successes at the bar awakened the jealousy of Caligula (37-41 A.D.) By his father's advice he retired for a time and spent his days in philosophy. On the accession of Claudius (41-54 A.D.) he was banished to Corsica at the instance of the Empress Messalina, probably because he was suspected of belonging to the faction of Agrippina, the mother of Nero. After eight years he was recalled (49 A.D.) by the influence of Agrippina (now the wife of Claudius), and appointed tutor to her son Nero, then a boy of ten. When Nero became emperor, at the age of seventeen (54 A.D.), Seneca, in conjunction with his friend Burrus, the prefect of the praetorian guards, became practically the administrator of the Empire. 'The mild and enlightened administration of the earlier years of the new reign, the famous quinquennium Neronis, may indeed be largely ascribed to Seneca's influence; but this influence was based on an excessive indulgence of Nero's caprices, which soon worked out its own punishment.' —Mackail. His connivance at the murder of Agrippina (59 A.D.) was the death-blow to his influence for good, and the death of Burrus (63 A.D.) was, as Tacitus says (Ann. xiv. 52), 'ablow to Seneca's power, for virtue had not the same strength when one of its champions, so to speak, was removed, and Nero began to lean on worse advisers.' Seneca resolved to retire, and entreated Nero to receive back the wealth he had so lavishly bestowed. The Emperor, bent on vengeance, refused the proffered gift, and Seneca knew that his doom was sealed. In the year 65, on the pretext of complicity in the conspiracy of Piso, he was commanded to commit suicide, and Tacitus (Ann. xv. 61-63) has shown his love for Seneca, in spite of all his faults, by the tribute he pays to the constancy of his death.

2. Works.

His chief works are:—

(1) Dialogorum Libri XII, of which the most important are the De Ira and the Consolatio to his mother Helvia, whom he tenderly loved.

(2) De Clementia, in three Books, addressed to Nero, written in 55-6 A.D., to show the public what sort of instruction Seneca had given his pupil, and what sort of Emperor they had to expect.

(3) De Beneficiis, in seven Books. Seneca proves that a tyrant's benefits are not kindnesses, and sets forth his views on the giving and receiving of benefits.

(4) Epistulae morales ad Lucilium. 124 letters are extant, and form the most important and most pleasing of his works.

(5) Tragedies. Nine are extant, derived from plays by Sophocles and Euripides. The only extant Latin tragedies.

'As a moral writer Seneca stands deservedly high. Though infected with the rhetorical vices of the age his treatises are full of striking and often gorgeous eloquence, and in their combination of high thought with deep feeling have rarely, if at all, been surpassed.' —Mackail.

'Seneca is a lamentable instance of variance between precept and example.' —Cruttwell.

SILIUS ITALICUS, circ. 25-100 A.D.

1. Life.

[Sidenote: SILIUS.]

A letter of Pliny (iii. 7) is the chief source of our knowledge of the life of Silius. Pliny tells us that Silius had risen by acting as a delator (informer) under Nero, who made him consul 68 A.D. He goes on to say 'He had gained much credit by his proconsulship in Asia (under Vespasian, circ. 77 A.D.), and had since by an honourable leisure wiped out the blot which stained the activity of his former years.' Martial also, who has the effrontery to speak of him as a combined Vergil and Cicero, tells us of his luxurious and learned retirement in Campania, and of his reverence for his master Vergil, 'whose birthday he kept more religiously than his own.' According to Martial (xi. 49) the tomb of Vergil had been practically forgotten, and was in the possession of some poor man when Silius bought the plot of ground on which it stood:

Iam prope desertos cineres et sancta Maronis Nomina qui coleret, pauper et unus erat. Silius optatae succurrere censuit umbrae, Silius et vatem, non minor ipse, colit.

2. Works.

The Punica, an Epic poem in seventeen Books, on the Second Punic War, closes with Scipio's triumph, after the Battle of Zama, 202 B.C.

Silius closely followed the history as told by Livy, and without any inventive or constructive power of his own copies, with tasteless pedantry, Homer and Vergil. 'He cannot perceive that the divine interventions which are admissible in the quarrel of Aeneas and Turnus are ludicrous when imported into the struggle between Scipio and Hannibal. Who can help resenting the unreality when at Saguntum Jupiter guides an arrow into Hannibal's body, which Juno immediately withdraws, or when, at Cannae, Aeolus yields to the prayer of Juno and blinds the Romans by a whirlwind of dust?'—Cruttwell.

The Punica is valuable for its historical accuracy, but it is one of the longest and one of the worst Epic poems ever written.

Scribebat carmina maiore cura quam ingenio.

Pliny, Epist. iii. 7.

P. PAPINIUS STATIUS, circ. 60-100 A.D.

1. Life.

[Sidenote: STATIUS.]

Statius was born at Naples, but early removed to Rome, where he was carefully educated and spent the greater part of his life. His father was a scholar, rhetorician, and poet of some distinction, and acted for a time as tutor to Domitian. Statius had thus access to the Court, and repaid the patronage of Domitian by incessant and shameless flattery. After the completion of his Thebais he retired to Naples, which was endeared to him by its associations with Vergil, and there satisfied his real love of nature.

2. Works.

(1) The Thebais, an Epic poem in twelve Books, on the strife between the brothers Eteocles and Polynices, and the subsequent history of Thebes to the death of Creon.

The Thebaid became very famous: Juvenal (Sat. vii. 82-4) tellsus

Curritur ad vocem iucundam et carmen amicae Thebaidos, laetam cum fecit Statius urbem promisitque diem (i.e. for a public recitation of his poem).

'Its smooth versification, copious diction, and sustained elegance made it a sort of canon of poetical technique. Among much tedious rhetoric and cumbrous mythology there is enough imagination and pathos to make the poem interesting and even charming.' —Mackail.

(2) The Silvae, in five Books, are occasional poems, descriptive and lyrical, on miscellaneous subjects. These may well be considered his masterpiece. 'Genuine poetry,' says Niebuhr, 'imprinted with the character of the true poet, and constituting some of the most graceful productions of Roman literature.'

Among the best known are the touching poem to his wife Claudia (iii.5), the marriage song to his brother-poet Arruntius Stella (i.2), the Propempticon Maecio Celeri (iii.2), the Epicedion (funeral song) on the death of his adopted son (v.5), and the short poem (v.4) on Sleep.

The greatest poet of the Decline.

GAIUS SUETONIUS TRANQUILLUS, circ. 75-160 A.D.

1. Life.

[Sidenote: SUETONIUS.]

The little we know of his life is chiefly gathered from the Letters of Pliny the Younger, and from scattered allusions in his own works. The son of an officer of the Thirteenth Legion, Suetonius in early life practised as an advocate, and subsequently became one of Hadrian's private secretaries (magister epistularum), but was dismissed from office in 121 A.D. After his retirement from the service of the Court he devoted the rest of his long life to literary research and compilation, and published a number of works on a great variety of subjects, so that he became famous as the Varro of the imperial period.

2. Works.

His extant works are:

(1) De Vita Caesarum, the Lives of the Twelve Caesars, in eight Books (I-VI Julius-Nero; VII Galba, Otho, and Vitellius; VIII Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian). This is his most interesting and most valuable work. His Lives are not works of art: he is simply a gatherer of facts, collected from good sources with considerable care and judgment. 'He follows out with absolute faithfulness his own theory, which makes it necessary to omit no possible detail that can throw light upon the personality of his subject.' —Peck.

(2) De Viris Illustribus, a history of Latin literature up to his day. The greater part of the section De grammaticis et rhetoribus is extant, as well as the Lives of Terence, Horace, and Lucan (partly), from the section De poetis, and fragments of the Life of Pliny the Elder from the section De historicis.

Extracts made from this work by Jerome (circ. 400 A.D.) in his Latin version of Eusebius' Chronicles are the source from which much of our information as to Latin authors is derived.

'Suetonius is terse, and in that respect he resembles Tacitus; he is deeply interesting, and there he shows some likeness to Livy; but his style is one of his own creation. His chief desire is to present the facts stripped of any comment whatever, grouped in such a way as to produce their own effect without the adventitious aid of rhetoric; and then to leave the reader to his own conclusions.' —Peck.

Probissimus, honestissimus, eruditissimus vir.

Pliny, Epist. ad Trai. 94.

PUBLILIUS SYRUS, circ. 45 B.C.

1. Life.

[Sidenote: SYRUS.]

All we know of him is that he was an enfranchised Syrian slave, anative of Antioch, and wrote for the stage mimes (farces) which were performed with great applause. Mime-writing was also practised at this time by the Knight Laberius, and Caesar is said to have patronised these writers in the hope of elevating their art.

2. Works.

Sententiae (Maxims). We possess 697 lines from his mimes (unconnected and alphabetically arranged), acollection made in the early Middle Ages, and much used in schools. As proverbs of worldly wisdom, and admirable examples of the terse vigour of Roman philosophy, they are widely known, e.g.

Cuivis potest accidere quod cuiquam potest.

CORNELIUS TACITUS, circ. 54-120 A.D.

1. Life.

[Sidenote: TACITUS.]

The personal history of Tacitus is known to us only from allusions in his own works, and from the letters of his friend the younger Pliny. He was born early in the reign of Nero, probably in Rome; his education, political career, and marriage into the distinguished family of Agricola prove that he was a man of wealth and position. He studied rhetoric under the best masters (possibly under Quintilian), and had, as Pliny tells us (Epist. II. i.6), agreat reputation as a speaker. He passed through the usual stages of an official career and was appointed consul suffectus under Trajan, 98 A.D., when he was a little over forty. From 89 to 93 A.D. he was absent from Rome, probably in some provincial command, and during these years he may have acquired some personal knowledge of the German peoples. In 100 A.D. he was associated with Pliny in the prosecution for extortion of Marius Priscus, proconsul of Africa, of whom Juvenal says (Sat. viii. 120):

Cum tenues nuper Marius discinxerit Afros.

Since Marius has so lately stripped to their girdles (i.e. thoroughly plundered) the needy Africans.

From this date Tacitus seems to have devoted himself entirely to literary pursuits and to have lived to or beyond the end of Trajan's reign, 116 A.D.

2. Works.

(1) Dialogus de Oratoribus, an inquiry into the causes of the decay of oratory, his earliest extant work. In the style of this work the influence of Quintilian and Cicero is strongly seen.

(2) De Vita et Moribus Iulii Agricolae liber, an account of the life of his father-in-law, particularly of his career in Britain, published shortly after the accession of Trajan, 98 A.D. 'The Sallustian epoch of Tacitus finds its expression in the Agricola and Germania.' —Teuffel.

The Agricola is perhaps the most beautiful biography in ancient literature.

(3) The Germania, or Concerning the Geography, the Manners and Customs, and the Tribes of Germany, published in 98 or 99. 'The motive for its publication was apparently the pressing importance, in Tacitus' opinion, of the "German question," and the necessity for vigorous action to secure the safety of the Roman Empire against the dangers with which. it was threatened from German strength.' —Stephenson.

'The Germania is an inestimable treasury of facts and generalisations, and of the general faithfulness of the outline we have no doubt.' —Stubbs.

(4) Historiae, consisting originally of fourteen Books, is a narrative of the events of the reigns of Galba, Otho, Vitellius, Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian, 69-96 A.D. Only Books I-IV and the first half of Book V are extant, and give the history of 69 and most of 70 A.D.

'The style of the Historiae still retains some traces of the influence of Cicero: it has not yet been pressed tight into the short sententiae which were its final and most characteristic development, but shows in a marked degree the influence of Vergil.' —Cruttwell.

In the Historiae, as Tacitus himself says, 'the secret of the imperial system was divulged—that an emperor could be made elsewhere than at Rome'; or, in other words, that the imperial system was a military and not a civil institution.

(5) The Annales, ab excessu divi Augusti, in sixteen Books, containing the history of the reigns of Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, Nero, 14-68 A.D. There are extant only Books I-IV, parts of V and VI, and XI-XVI.

'The old criticism, tracing the characteristics of the style of Tacitus to poetic colouring (almost wholly Vergilian) and to the study of brevity and of variety, is well founded. They may be explained by the fact that he was the most finished pleader of an age which required above all that its orators should be terse, brilliant, and striking, and by his own painful consciousness of the dull monotony and repulsive sadness of great part of his subject, which needed the help of every sort of variety to stimulate the flagging interest of the reader.' —Furneaux.

His aim as an historian is best given in his own words: 'Ihold it the chief office of history to rescue virtue from oblivion, and to hold out the reprobation of posterity as a terror to evil words and deeds' (Ann. iii.65).

The greatest of Roman historians.

PUBLIUS TERENTIUS AFER, circ. 185-159 B.C.

1. Life

[Sidenote: TERENCE.]

Terence was born probably at Carthage, reached Rome as a slave-boy, and passed there into the possession of a rich and educated Senator, P. Terentius Lucanus, by whom he was educated and manumitted, taking from him the name of Publius Terentius the African. 'Asmall literary circle of the Roman aristocracy admitted young Terence to their intimate companionship; and soon he was widely known as making a third in the friendship of Gaius Laelius with the first citizen of the Republic, the younger Scipio Africanus. Six plays had been subjected to the criticism of this informal academy of letters and produced on the stage, when Terence undertook a prolonged visit to Greece for the purpose of further study. He died of fever in the next year, 159 B.C., at the early age of twenty-six.' —Mackail.

2. Works.

Comedies.—All the six plays written and exhibited at Rome by Terence are extant. They are the Andria (exhibited 166 B.C., when the poet was only eighteen years of age), the Heauton Timoroumenos, Eunuchus, Phormio, Hecyra, Adelphoe.

'With Terence Roman literature takes a new departure. The Scipionic circle believed that the best way to create a national Latin literature was to deviate as little as possible, in spirit, form, and substance, from the works of Greek genius. The task which awaited Terence was the complete Hellenising of Roman comedy: accordingly his aim was to give a true picture of Greek life and manners in the purest Latin style. He was not a popular poet, in the sense in which Plautus was popular: he has none of the purely Roman characteristics of Plautus in sentiment, allusion, or style; none of his extravagance, and none of his vigour and originality.' —Sellar. Terence is, accordingly, in substance and form, as Caesar styles him, adimidiatus Menander (halved Menander):

Tu quoque, tu in summis, o dimidiate Menander, Poneris, et merito, puri sermonis amator.

A Roman only in language, but as puri sermonis amator worthy to be ranked by the side of Caesar himself and the purest Latin authors.

ALBIUS TIBULLUS, circ. 54-19 B.C.

1. Life.

[Sidenote: TIBULLUS.]

Tibullus was a Roman eques, and was probably born at Pedum, aLatin town just at the foot of the Apennines, and a few miles north of Praeneste, where his father possessed an ample estate. Much of his inherited property was lost; and it is possible that, like Vergil, Horace, and Propertius, he was a victim to the confiscations of the Triumvirs in 42 B.C. He, however, retained or recovered enough to afford him a modest competence. In 31-30 B.C. he served on the staff of his life-long friend and patron M. Valerius Messalla, the eminent general and statesman, not less distinguished in literature than in politics. The rest of his short life the poet spent on his ancestral farm at Pedum, amid the country scenes and employments congenial to his nature and habits.

2. Works.

Elegies, in four Books (or three, Postgate). Tibullus published in his lifetime two Books of elegiac poems: after his death a third volume was published, containing a few of his own poems, together with poems by other members of the literary circle of Messalla. Books I and II consist mainly of poems addressed to Delia and to Nemesis (cf. Ov. Am. III. ix. 31-32):

Sic Nemesis longum, sic Delia nomen habebunt; Altera cura recens, altera primus amor.

And to Messalla, e.g. El. I. vii. 55-6:

At tibi succrescat proles, quae facta parentis Augeat et circa stet veneranda senem.

3. Style.

'Tibullus is pre-eminently Roman in his genius and poetry. He is the natural poet of warm, tender, and simple feeling. Neither Greek mythology nor Alexandrine learning had any attractions for his purely Italian genius. His language may be limited in range and variety, but it is terse, clear, simple, and popular. His constructions are plain and direct.' —North Pinder.

'To Tibullus belongs the distinction of having given artistic perfection to the Roman elegy.' —Sellar.

Elegia quoque Graecos provocamus, cuius mihi tersus atque elegans maxime videtur auctor Tibullus.

'In elegy also we rival the Greeks, of which Tibullus appears to me the purest and finest representative.' —Quint. Inst. Or. X. i.93.

'Tibullus might be succinctly and perhaps not unjustly described as a Vergil without the genius.' —Mackail.

'Tibullus and Vergil are alike in their human affection and their piety, in their capacity of tender and self-forgetful love, in their delight in the labours of the field and their sympathy with the herdsman and the objects of his care.' —Sellar.

Quid voveat dulci nutricula maius alumno, Qui sapere et fari possit quae sentiat, et cui Gratia, fama valetudo contingat abunde, Et mundus victus, non deficiente crumena!

Horace to Tibullus, Epist. I. iv. 8-11.

Si tamen e nobis aliquid nisi nomen et umbra Restat, in Elysia valle Tibullus erit. . . . . . Ossa quieta, precor, tuta requiescite in urna, Et sit humus cineri non onerosa tuo.

Ovid, Am. III. ix. 59-60, 67-8.

C. VALERIUS FLACCUS, fl. 70 A.D.

1. Life.

[Sidenote: VALERIUS FLACCUS.]

He lived in the reign of Vespasian (70-78 A.D.), to whom he dedicated his poem, in which he refers to Vespasian's exploits in Britain and to the capture of Jerusalem by Titus, 70 A.D. There are also references to the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 A.D. Quintilian is the only Roman writer who mentions him (X.i. 90): Multum in Valerio Flacco nuper amisimus, which shows that he must have died circ. 90 A.D.

2. Works.

The Argonautica, an Hexameter poem in eight Books, apparently unfinished. The poem is in part a translation, in part a free imitation of the Alexandrine epic of Apollonius Rhodius (222-181 B.C.) 'His descriptive power, particularly shown in touches of natural scenery, his pure diction and correct style have inclined some critics to set Valerius Flaccus above his Greek model.' —North Pinder. The rhetorical treatment of the subject, so characteristic of the period of the decline, is, however, too prominent throughout his work. Both his rhythm and language are closely modelled on Vergil.

VALERIUS MAXIMUS, fl. 26 A.D.

1. Life.

[Sidenote: VALERIUS MAXIMUS.]

All that we know of him is that he visited Asia in company with Sextus Pompeius (the friend of Ovid and of Germanicus), circ. 27-30 A.D.

2. Works.

Facta et Dicta Memorabilia, in nine Books. Each Book is divided into chapters on separate subjects (e.g. De Severitate, De Verecundia, De Constantia), under each of which he gives illustrations from Roman history and from the history of other nations, in order to show the native superiority (as he thinks) of Romans to foreigners, and especially to Greeks. As an historian he is most untrustworthy, but there are many gaps in Roman history (e.g. owing to the lost books of Livy) which he helps to supply. His style shows all the faults of his age and rhetorical training; his work was probably intended to be a commonplace-book for students and teachers of rhetoric.

M. TERENTIUS VARRO, 116-27 B.C.

1. Life.

[Sidenote: VARRO.]

Born at Reate, in the Sabine territory, which was the nurse of all manly virtues, Varro was brought up in the good old-fashioned way. 'For me when a boy,' he says, 'there sufficed a single rough coat and a single under-garment, shoes without stockings, ahorse without a saddle.' Bold, frank, and sarcastic, he had all the qualities of the country gentleman of the best days of the Republic. On account of his personal valour he obtained in the war with the Pirates, 67 B.C., where he commanded a division of the fleet, the naval crown. In politics he belonged, as was natural, to the constitutional party, and bore an honourable and energetic part in its doings and sufferings. On the outbreak of the Civil War he served as the legatus of Pompeius in command of Further Spain, but was compelled to surrender his forces to Caesar, 69 B.C. When the cause of the Republic was lost Caesar, who knew Varro's worth, employed him in superintending the collection and arrangement of the great library at Rome designed for public use. After Caesar's death Varro was exposed to the persecution of Antonius, whose drunken revels and excesses at Varro's villa at Casinum are vividly described by Cicero (Phil. ii. 103 sqq.) Through the influence of his many friends Varro obtained the protection of Octavianus, and was enabled to live at Rome in peace until his death, 27 B.C., in his ninetieth year.

2. Works.

Of all the works of Varro, embracing almost all branches of knowledge and literature, only two have come down tous:

(1) The De Re Rustica, in three Books, in the form of a dialogue, written in his eightieth year. It was a subject of which he had a thorough practical knowledge, and is the most important of all the treatises upon ancient agriculture now extant. Book I treats of agriculture; Book II of stock-raising; Book III of poultry, game, and fish.

(2) De Lingua Latina, in twenty-five Books, of which only V-X have been preserved. These contain much valuable information not found elsewhere, but Varro's notions of etymology are extremely crude.

Of his other works, we have much cause to regret the loss of his Antiquities of Things Human and Divine, the standard work on the religious and secular antiquities of Rome down to the time of Augustus, and his Imagines, biographical sketches, with portraits, of seven hundred famous Greeks and Romans, the first instance in history of the publication of an illustrated book.

'Varro belongs to the genuine type of old Roman, improved but not altered by Greek learning, with his heart fixed in the past, deeply conservative of everything national, and even in his style of speech protesting against the innovations of the day.' —Cruttwell.

Omnium facile acutissimus, et sine ulla dubitatione doctissimus. —Cicero.

Studiosum rerum tantum docet, quantum studiosum verborum Cicero delectat. —St. Augustine.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS, circ. 19 B.C.-31 A.D.

1. Life.

[Sidenote: VELLEIUS PATERCULUS.]

All we know of him is derived from his own pages. He descended from a distinguished family in Campania, and his father was a Praefectus equitum. He accompanied C. Caesar, the grandson of Augustus, on his mission to the East, and was present at the interview with the Parthian king. Two years afterwards, 4A.D., he served under Tiberius in Germany as Praefectus equitum. For the next eight years Paterculus served under Tiberius in Pannonia and Dalmatia. Tiberius' sterling qualities as a soldier gained him the friendship of many of his officers, and Velleius by his energy and ability secured that of Tiberius in return. The last circumstance of his life that he records is the election to the praetorship of his brother and himself as candidates of Caesar (Tiberius) in 14 A.D.

2. Works.

The Historia Romana in two Books. The beginning of Book I is lost; chapters 1-8 in our text are occupied with a rapid survey of universal history, especially of the East and of Greece. Chapter 8 breaks off at the rape of the Sabine women, and there is a great gap in the text before we reach in c. 9the defeat of Perseus at Pydna in 168 B.C. Chapters 9-13 carry the narrative down to the destruction of Carthage and Corinth in 146 B.C. Book II continues the history and ends at the death of Livia 27 A.D.

'The pretentiousness of his style is partly due to the declining taste of the period, partly to an idea of his own that he could write in the manner of Sallust. It alternates between a sort of laboured sprightliness and a careless, conversational manner full of endless parentheses. Yet Velleius has two real merits: the eye of a trained soldier for character, and an unaffected, if not a very intelligent, interest in literature.' —Mackail.

P. VERGILIUS MARO, 70-19 B.C.

1. Important Events in Vergil's Life, and Chief Works.

[Sidenote: VERGIL.]

B.C. 70. Born at Andes, near Mantua. " 65. Birth of Horace. " 55. Assumes the Toga Virilis at Cremona. Death of Lucretius. " 53. Studies philosophy at Rome under the Epicurean Siron. " 42. Eclogues II, III, V, and perhaps VI, written. " 41. Suffers confiscation of his estate. Takes refuge in Siron's villa. Estates restored by Octavianus through Pollio. EclogueI. " 40. Vergil evicted a second time. Eclogues IV, VI,IX. Becomes a member of the literary circle of Maecenas. " 39. Eclogues VIII and X. " 38. Introduces Horace to Maecenas. " 37. Begins the Georgics at the suggestion of Maecenas. " 29. Completed Georgics read to Octavianus. Aeneid begun. " 27. Augustus Emperor. " 26. Banishment and death of his friend Gallus. " 25. Marriage of Marcellus to Julia, daughter of Augustus. " 23. Death of Marcellus: Aeneid, Book VI, read to the Imperial family. " 19. Journey of Vergil to Greece: is taken ill, dies at Brundusium, and is buried at Naples:

Mantua me genuit, Calabri rapuere, tenet nunc Parthenope: cecini pascua, rura, duces.

2. Works.

(1) Bucolica (Pastoral Poems), ten Eclogues (selected pieces), written 42-39 B.C. These are closely modelled on Theocritus, and have all the weaknesses of imitative poetry. 'The Eclogues of Vergil have less of consistency but more of purpose than the Idylls of Theocritus. They are an advocacy of the charm of scenery and the pleasures of the country addressed to a luxurious and artificial society of dwellers in a town.' —Myers.

(2) Georgica, in four Books, written 37-30 B.C., at the suggestion of Maecenas, 'the Home Minister of Augustus, and public patron of art and letters in the interest of the new government.' —Mackail. 'The details of his subject Vergil draws mainly from his Greek predecessors, Hesiod, Xenophon, Aratus, and Nicander, but it is to Lucretius he is chiefly indebted. The language of Lucretius, so bold, so genial, so powerful, and in its way so perfect, is echoed a thousand times in the Georgics.' —Nettleship.

Book I treats of agriculture, Book II of the cultivation of trees, Book III of domestic animals, Book IV of bees (including the Myth of Aristaeus, ll. 315-558).

The purpose of the Georgics is to ennoble the annual round of labour in which the rural life was passed and to help the policy of Augustus by inducing the people to go back to the land.

'The motto of the Georgics might well be said to be Ora et labora.' —Tyrrell.

'The Georgics represent the art of Vergil in its matured perfection, and in mere technical finish are the most perfect work of Latin literature.' —Mackail.

(3) The Aeneid, in twelve Books, written 29-19 B.C.

The choice of the subject was influenced by the wish of Augustus to establish the legendary tradition of the connection of the gens Iulia with Aeneas through his son Iulus, and by Vergil's own desire to write an epic on the greatness of Rome, in the manner of Homer. Thus 'the centre of the mythical background was naturally Aeneas, as Augustus was the centre of the present magnificence of the Roman Empire. We surpass all other nations, says Cicero (De Nat. Deor. ii.8), in holding fast the belief that all things are ordered by a Divine Providence. The theme of the Aeneid is the building up of the Roman Empire under this Providence. Aeneas is the son of a goddess, and his life the working out of the divine decrees.' —Nettleship.

Tu regere imperio populos, Romane, memento; Hae tibi erunt artes; pacisque imponere morem.

Aen. vi. 851-2.

'At a verse from the Aeneid, the sun goes back for us on the dial; our boyhood is recreated, and returns to us for a moment like a visitant from a happy dreamland.' —Tyrrell.

'In merely technical quality the supremacy of Vergil's art has never been disputed. The Latin Hexameter, the stateliest measure ever moulded by the lips of man, was brought by him to a perfection which made any further development impossible.' —Mackail.

'As Homer among the Greeks, so Vergil among our own authors will best head the list; he is beyond doubt the second epic poet of either nation.' —Quint. X. i.85.

'The chastest poet and royalest, Vergilius Maro, that to the memory of man is known.' —Bacon.



APPENDIX VII.

NOTE

The following Chronological Outlines of Roman History and Literature are intended to illustrate the passages selected for translation. Important events and writers in contemporary History and Literature are added, in order to emphasise the comparative method of treating History.

The names of those Latin authors from whose works passages have been selected are printed in capitals in the Literature Column.

A fuller outline of the Imperial Period will be given in a later volume.

PERIODS OF LATIN LITERATURE.

PERIOD I. The Growth of Latin Literature 250-80 B.C. PERIOD II. The Golden Age of Latin Literature 80 B.C.-14 A.D. PERIOD III. The Silver Age of Latin Literature 14-117 A.D. PERIOD IV. The Later Empire from 117 A.D.

CHRONOLOGICAL OUTLINES OF ROMAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE

———————————————————— B.C. ROME. OTHER NATIONS. B.C. LITERATURE. B.C. ———————————————————— PART I.—REGAL PERIOD, 753-509 B.C. ———————————————————— Foundation of Carthage 878 Amos c. 760

753 Foundation of Rome Rise of Corinth 745 Isaiah c. 720

753-716 ROMULUS. Roman Senate of 200. Spolia opima (1) Captivity of Israel 721 Hesiod c. 700

716-673 NUMA POMPILIUS. Religious Institutions Carentum founded 708

673-640 TULLUS HOSTILIUS. Destruction of Alba Destruction of Sennacherib's host 701 Tyrtaeus (Sparta) c. 680 Legend of Horatii and Curiatii Cyrene founded 641 Archilochus. 650

640-616 ANCUS MARTIUS. Conquest of Latin Towns Josiah's reformation 625 Jeremiah c. 625 Ostia, first maritime colony Periander, tyrant of Corinth 625-585

616-578 TARQUINIUS PRISCUS. Public Works: the Circus Maximus, Cloaca Maxima, and Temple of Jupiter Draco, the law-giver at Athens 621 Alcaeus } Sappho } 600 Solon } Massilia founded 600

578-534 SERVIUS TULLIUS. The Census, basis of Comitia Centuriata. The Servian Wall includes the Quirinal, Viminal and Esquiline hills, i.e. Rome of Republican times. Captivity of Judah 606-536 Solon at Athens 594 Thales 590 Peisistratus at Athens 560-527 Ezekiel 585 Croesus in Lydia 560-546 Aesop c. 570

534-509 TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS. Conquest of Gabii. Tyranny leading to expulsion of the Tarquins and abolition of the monarchy Cyrus enters Babylon 538 Theognis 540 Return of Jews under Zerubbabel 536 Pythagoras 530 Expulsion of Peisistratidae 510 Anacreon 530 ———————————————————— PART II.—EARLY REPUBLIC, 509-366 B.C. ———————————————————— 509 Two Consuls (Praetors) first appointed Darius Hystaspes 521-486 Aeschylus 525-456 Lex Valeria establishes right of appeal Pindar 518-c. 443

507 Rome taken by Etruscans under Porsena Ionian Revolt 501-493 Heracleitus 500

498 Latin War. Dictator first appointed. Miltiades at Athens 493-489 Simonides (Ceos) 490 Battle of Lake Regillus Ionians defeated at Lade 494

494 First Session of the Plebs. Tribuni Plebis Battle of Marathon 490

489 Volscian War (Coriolanus) Aristides and Themistocles 490-470 Parmenides 490

486-5 Agrarian Law. Spurius Cassius put to death Xerxes 485-465 Bacchylides 470

477 Destruction of the Fabii at Cremera Thermopylae. Salamis. Himera 480 Anaxagoras 460

458 War with Aequians—Battle of Mt. Algidus Plataea (Pausanians). Mycale 479 Sophocles 496-406 Cincinnatus Dictator Hiero I at Syracuse 478-467 Euripides 480-406

451 First Decemvirate. Ten Tables Pericles at Athens 469-429 Herodotus c. 484-425

450 Second Decemvirate. Two new Tables. (Appius Claudius) Cimon at Athens 466-449 Phidias (Parthenon) 448

448 Second Secession of the Plebs, resulting in the Valerio-Horatian Laws Athenian defeat at Coronea 447 Empedocles 445 Ezra and Nehemiah c. 444

445 Military tribunes with consular power appointed Athenian colony to Thurii 444 Era of the Sophists 440 (Gorgias, Protagoras)

443 Censors first appointed

439 Spurius Maelius killed

437 War with Etruscans. Cossus wins Spolia opima (2) War of Corinth and Corcyra 435 Antiphon c. 480-411

424 Capua taken by the Samnites Peloponnesian War 431-405 Thucydides c. 471-402 Sphacteria (Demosthenes, Cleon) 425 Zeuxis } Parrhasius} painters c. 420 Alcibiades at Athens 424-404 Syracusan Expedition 415-413 Lysias c. 445-378

406-396 War with Veii. Camillus Dictator Battle of Aegospotami 405 Aristophanes c. 450-385

406 Roman soldiers first receive pay Lysander enters Athens 404 Cratinus 449 Critias and Thirty Tyrants 404 Eupolis 429 Democracy restored (Thrasybulus) 403

390 Invasion of the Gauls. Battle of the Allia Artaxerxes II 405-359 Burning of Rome (Brennus) Expedition of Cyrus the Younger (The Anabasis of Xenophon) 401 Manlius Capitolinus. Camillus Parens Patriae Xenophon c. 430-355 History based on documents begins Socrates condemned 399 Socrates 468-399

389 Rome rebuilt Dionysius I of Syracuse, Wars of Syracuse and Carthage 405-368 Plato 420-348 Isocrates 436-338

376-366 The Licinian Laws Pelopidas and Epaminondas (Thebes) 378-362 Isaeus 420-348 Supremacy of Thebes (Leuctra) 371 First Plebeian Consul Death of Epaminondas (Mantinea) 362 First Praetor (Judge) appointed ———————————————————— PART III.—THE CONQUEST OF ITALY, 366-266 B.C. ———————————————————— 361 Second Invasion of the Gauls Dionysius II of Syracuse 368-343 Diogenes (Cynic) c. 419-324 Legend of Manlius Torquatus Battle of Mantinea 362 Ludi Scenici at Rome 365

356 C. Marcius Rutilus, First Plebeian Dictator Philip of Macedon 359-336

349 War with Gauls. Legend of M. Valerius Corvus Dion at Syracuse 357-353 Praxiteles (sculptor) fl. 360

348 Treaty of Rome with Carthage Olynthus taken by Philip 348 Aeschines 389-314

343-341 First Samnite War Demosthenes 384-322 Battle of Mt. Gaurus (M. Valerius Corvus) Aristotle 384-322

340-338 The Latin War. Devotion of Decius Mus I. Battle of Chaeronea 338 Apelles (painter) 336 Battle of Mt. Vesuvius

339 Leges Publiliae. Supremacy of Comitia Tributa Alexander the Great 336-323

326-304 Second Samnite War (C. Pontius) Battle of Issus 333 Menander 344-292

321 Caudine Forks. The Yoke Foundation of Alexandria 332

311 Appius Claudius, Censor. The Via Appia Battle of Arbela 331

311-309 Etruscan War. First Battle at Lake Vadimo Alexander's Successors } Battle of Ipsus (301) } 323-301

305 Battle of Bovianum

298-290 Third Samnite War Ptolemy I (Soter) 323-285 Euclid fl. 300 Agathocles at Syracuse 317-289 Theophrastus c. 384-277

295 Battle of Sentinum. Devotion of Decius Mus II. Demetrius Poliorcetes 308-283 Zeno, the Stoic c. 366-264

287 Last Secession of the Plebs Rhodes powerful 300-200 Epicurus 341-270

287 Lex Hortensia. Legislative power of Comitia Tributa finally established Political distinction between the Patricians and Plebeians now at an end Aetolian League 284-167 Theocritus fl. 280

283 Renewed Etruscan and Gallic War Achaean League 280-146 Bion and Moschus fl. 270 Second Battle at Lake Vadimo

281-275 War with Tarentines and Pyrrhus

280 Battle of Heraclea. Victory of the phalanx Gauls in Greece 280-278

279 Battle of Asculum. Fabricius the Just Ptolemy II (Philadelphus) 285-247 Septuagint c. 277

278 Rome and Carthage allied

277 Pyrrhus masters nearly all Sicily

275 Battle near Beneventum (M'. Curius Dentatus) Pyrrhus returns to Epirus

273 Treaty of Rome with Egypt. Recognition of Rome as one of the great powers Aratus (astronomer) fl. 270

272 Pyrrhus killed at Argos. Surrender of Tarentum

266 All Italy (south of the Apennines) Roman ———————————————————— PART IV.—THE CONTEST WITH CARTHAGE, 264-202 B.C. ———————————————————— 264-241 First Punic War

263 Hiero of Syracuse joins Rome Hiero of Syracuse 269-219

261 Romans build a fleet

260 Naval victory of Duilius near Mylae Aratus, General of Achaean League 245 Callimachus fl. 260 Columna Rostrata

256 Naval victory of Regulus at Ecnomus ———————————————————— LATIN LITERATURE. B.C. ———————————————————— PROSE. ———————————————————— VERSE. ———————————————————— PERIOD I.—THE GROWTH OF LATIN LITERATURE, 250-80 B.C. ———————————————————— 255 Regulus defeated by Xanthippus of Sparta

250 Roman victory at Panormus (Metellus)

249 Carthaginian victory at Drepana (Claudius)

248-241 Hamilcar Barca in Sicily Ptolemy III (Euergetes) 247-222

241 Victory of Lutatius off the Aegates Insulae Peace with Carthage Sicily made a Roman Province (1) Livius Andronicus (fl. 240)

241-238 War of Carthage with her Mercenaries Corsica and Sardinia made a Roman Province (2) Naevius (fl. 235)

236-228 Hamilcar in Spain. Hannibal's oath

230-229 Illyrian War. (Queen Teuta) Athens joins Achaean League 229

228 Corinth admits the Romans to the Isthmian Games Roman Embassy to Greece 228 Hasdrubal succeeds Hamilcar in Spain Founds New Carthage. The Iberus (Ebro) fixed as the Carthaginian boundary

225-223 Gallic rising (Boii and Insubres) Reforms of Cleomenes at Sparta 226-5 Great victory near Telamon

222 Victory over the Insubres at Clastidium Aratus and Antigonus take Sparta 221 M. Marcellus wins the spolia opima (3) Subjugation of Gaul south of the Alps Antiochus the Great (Syria) 224-187

221 Hannibal succeeds Hasdrubal in Spain

219 Hannibal takes Saguntum (ally of Rome) Ptolemy IV (Philopator) 222-205

218-202 Second Punic War Philip V (Macedon) 221-179 PLAUTUS (254-184)

218 Hannibal crosses the Alps Battles of the Ticinus and Trebia

217 Battle of Lake Trasimene. Death of Flaminius Q. Fabius Maximus, Dictator Philip allied with Hannibal 216 Fabius Pictor (fl. 216) ENNIUS (239-169)

216 Battle of Cannae. Death of Paulus

216-211 Revolt of Capua

215 Marcellus saves Nola First Macedonian War 214-205

214-212 Siege and Capture of Syracuse by Marcellus Death of Archimedes 212

212 P. & Cn. Scipio defeated by Hasdrubal Loss of Spain south of the Ebro Hannibal seizes Tarentum

211-206 P. Cornelius Scipio (Africanus Maior) in Spain Rome allied with Aetolians 211

210 Scipio surprises New Carthage

208 Hasdrubal (son of Hamilcar) eludes Scipio and crosses the Pyrenees to join Hannibal Philopoemen, General of Achaean League 208-183

207 Defeat and Death of Hasdrubal at the Metaurus (Nero)

204 Scipio goes to Africa: blockades Utica Peace of Rome with Philip 205

203 Hannibal recalled: leaves Italy

202 Battle of Zama. Peace made ———————————————————— PART V.—FORMATION OF EMPIRE BEYOND ITALY, 200-183 B.C. ———————————————————— 200-196 Second Macedonian War

197 Battle of Cynoscephalae (Flaminius)

196 Proclamation of the Freedom of Greece

195 Hannibal takes refuge with Antiochus Cato (234-149)

200-191 War with Insubrian and Boian Gauls Gallia Cisalpina a Roman Province (3) Antiochus in Greece 192

191-190 War with Antiochus of Syria

191 Battle of Thermopylae (Cato)

190 Battle of Magnesia. (L. Scipio and Domitius) Hannibal with Prusias, King of Bithynia 190-183 PACUVIUS (220-132)

184 Censorship of Cato

183 Deaths of Hannibal, Scipio and Philopoemen

179 T. Sempronius Gracchus in Spain War of Antiochus and Egypt 172-168

171-168 Third Macedonian War (Perseus)

168 Battle of Pydna (Aemilius Paulus) Judas Maccabaeus (a treaty with Rome, 161) 166-161 TERENCE (185-159) Egypt accepts the protectorate of Rome

149-146 Third Punic War (Scipio Africanus Minor) Destruction of Carthage LUCILIUS (180-103)

148-146 War with Andriscus (the pseudo-Philip) and the Achaeans. Destruction of Corinth (Mummius)

148 Macedonia made a Roman Province (4) Illyricum made a Roman Province (5)

149-140 War with Viriathus, the Lusitanian Hero Judaea free from Syrian control (Simon Maccabaeus) 142

143-133 Numantine War

133 Destruction of Numantia (Scipio Africanus Minor) Accius (c. 170-90) Roman Province in Spain (7) Achaia made a Roman Province (8)

133 Attalus III bequeaths the Kingdom of Pergamum to Rome. This becomes the Roman Province of Asia (9) ———————————————————— PART VI.—PERIOD OF CIVIL STRIFE IN ITALY, ETC. 133-44 B.C. ———————————————————— 133-121 Attempted reforms (Leges Semproniae) of the Gracchi

133 Agrarian Law of Tiberius Gracchus John Hyrcanus subdues Idumea and Samaria 129 Murder of Tib. Gracchus (P. Scipio Nasica) First civil bloodshed in Rome

131 Two plebeian Consuls (the first time)

129 Death of Scipio Africanus Minor (Carbo suspected)

123-2 Tribunate of C. Gracchus Roman Colony sent to Carthage 123

121 Death of C. Gracchus Conquest of S. Gaul. Province of Narbonensis (10) Mithridates (Pontus) 120-63 Afranius (fl. 100)

118 Death of Micipsa, King of Numidia

111-106 The Jugurthine War (Metellus, Marius, Sulla) Conquests of Mithridates on the Black Sea 112-110

106 Jugurtha betrayed to Sulla

105 The Cimbrians defeat the Romans at Arausio

102 Marius defeats Teutones at Aquae Sextiae

101 Marius (with Catulus) defeats Cimbri at Vercellae

100 Marius Consul a sixth time Sulla on the Euphrates 92

91 Tribunate of M. Livius Drusus

91-81 The Social or Marsic War Tigranes (Armenia) 95-60

90 Lex Iulia, granting the civitas to the Italian States not in rebellion

89 Battle of Asculum

88-86 First Civil War (between Marius and Sulla) ———————————————————— PERIOD II.—THE GOLDEN AGE OF LATIN LITERATURE, 80 B.C.-14 A.D. ———————————————————— 88 Sulla occupies Rome. First invasion of Rome by a Roman army

87-84 Cinnan revolution. Marius' reign of terror

88-84 First Mithridatic War. (Sulla)

88 Massacre of Romans in Asia

86 Victory at Chaeronea. Sulla takes Athens Death of Marius

85 Victory at Orchomenus Tigranes at war with Rome 86-85 LUCRETIUS (97-53)

84 Peace of Dardanus with Mithridates

83-82 Second Civil War (between Marius and Sulla)

82 Death of the younger Marius. Sulla Felix

83-81 The Sullan Proscriptions Second Mithridatic War (Murena) Pompeius in Africa: triumphs as an Eques 81

81-79 Sulla Dictator. Leges Corneliae

80 Cilicia made a Roman Province (11)

78 Death of Sulla

78-72 War with Sertorius in Spain (Pompeius) Pharisees supreme in Judaea 78 Sisenna (fl. 78)

75 Mithridates in alliance with Sertorius

74 Bithynia made a Roman Province (12) Nicomedes leaves Bithynia to Rome 75 VARRO (116-27)

72 Betrayal and murder of Sertorius

73-71 War with Spartacus and his gladiators

71 Death of Spartacus (Crassus and Pompeius)

74-63 Third Mithridatic War (Lucullus, Pompeius)

72 Victory of Cabira (Pontus). Lucullus reforms the province of Asia (hence unpopular with Equites) CATULLUS (84-54)

70 First Consulship of Pompeius and Crassus Overthrow of the Sullan Constitution

69 Victory at Tigranocerta (capital of Armenia) NEPOS (100-24)

67 Mutiny of Lucullus' soldiers. Mithridates recovers Pontus Rome interferes in Palestine 65 SALLUST (86-34) Lex Gabinia. Pompeius destroys the Pirates

66 Lex Manilia. Lucullus superseded by Pompeius Victory of Nicopolis (Armenia). Peace with Tigranes CICERO (106-43)

64 Syria made a Roman Province (13)

63 Pompeius takes Jerusalem Death of Mithridates

63 Cicero Consul. Catiline's conspiracy crushed Cicero saluted as Pater Patriae

61 Pompeius' great Triumph

60 First Triumvirate (Pompeius, Caesar, Crassus)

59 Caesar's first Consulship. The Leges Iuliae

58-50 Caesar in Gaul (in Britain 55 and 54 B.C.) Gaul divided into three Provinces (14, 15, 16) CAESAR (102-44)

58-57 Cicero's banishment and return A. Hirtius (ob. 43)

56 Conference of the Triumvirs at Luca

55 Second Consulship of Pompeius and Crassus

53 Disaster at Carrhae. Death of Crassus

52 Pompeius sole Consul till August 1st

51-50 Cicero Governor of Cilicia

49-45 Third Civil War (between Caesar and Pompeius)

49 Caesar crosses the Rubicon

49 Caesar's successful campaign round Lerida (Spain)

49 Massilia surrenders to Caesar

49 Defeat and death of Curio in Africa

48 Caesar's unsuccessful investment of Dyrrachium Cleopatra 69-30

48 Battle of Pharsalus. Murder of Pompeius

47 Alexandrine War. Settlement of Asia

46 Battle of Thapsus. Death of Cato

45 Caesar sole Consul. Battle of Munda (Spain) PUB. SYRUS (fl. 45)

44 Murder of Caesar ———————————————————— IMPERIAL PERIOD. ———————————————————— 43 Second Triumvirate (Lepidus, Antonius, Octavianus) Herod the Great in Judaea 37-4 Pollio (fl. 40) VERGIL (70-19)

42 Battle of Philippi (Brutus and Cassius)

31 Battle of Actium (Antonius and Cleopatra) Egypt a Roman Province (17) HORACE (65-8) 27 B.C.-14 A.D. OCTAVIANUS AUGUSTUS TIBULLUS (54-19)

23 Death of Marcellus LIVY (59 B.C.-18 A.D.) PROPERTIUS (49-15)

20 Parthians restore standards BIRTH OF CHRIST B.C. 4 OVID (43 B.C.-18 A.D.)

A.D. 9 Destruction of army under Varus (Arminius) ———————————————————— PERIOD III.—THE SILVER AGE, 14-117 A.D. ———————————————————— 14-37 TIBERIUS

37-41 CALIGULA

41-54 CLAUDIUS Pontius Pilate in Judaea 26-36 V. PATERCULUS (fl. 20) MANILIUS (fl. 12)

43-51 Conquest of Britain CRUCIFIXION 30 VAL. MAXIMUS (fl. 26) PHAEDRUS (fl. 30-40)

Boadicea in Britain 61 SENECA (4 B.C.-65 A.D.) PERSIUS (34-62)

54-68 NERO Rome burnt 64

68-69 GALBA, OTHO, VITELLIUS PETRONIUS (ob. 66) LUCAN (39-65)

70-78 VESPASIAN. (Colosseum built)

79-81 TITUS Titus destroys Jerusalem 70 PLINY I. (23-79) VAL. FLACCUS (ob. 90)

79 Eruption of Vesuvius (Herculaneum and Pompeii)

81-96 DOMITIAN Agricola subdues Britain 78-85

93 Death of Agricola (father-in-law of Tacitus) QUINTILIAN (c. 35-95)

96-98 NERVA FRONTINUS (c. 41-103) STATIUS (ob. 95)

98-116 TRAJAN Greatest extent of Roman Empire TACITUS (c. 55-120) PLINY II. (61-113) SILIUS (25-101) MARTIAL (c. 40-102)

117-138 HADRIAN Hadrian's wall 121 FLORUS (fl. 137) JUVENAL (c. 55-138)

138-160 ANTONINUS PIUS SUETONIUS (c. 75-160) JUSTINUS (c. 150)

161-180 MARCUS AURELIUS Wall of Antonine 140 A. GELLIUS (fl. 169) ———————————————————— PERIOD IV.—THE LATER EMPIRE, FROM 117 A.D. ————————————————————

274-337 CONSTANTINE THE GREAT Council of Nicaea 325 NEMESIANUS (fl. 284) TER. MAURUS (c. 300) AUSONIUS (fl. 379)

395-1453 Byzantine Empire Romans leave Britain 409-420

408-410 Alaric the Goth at Rome (Stilicho) Hengist and Horsa (Kent) 449 EUTROPIUS (fl. 375) CLAUDIAN (fl. 400)

451 Attila the Hun defeated at Chalons Constantinople taken by Turks 1453

455 Genseric the Vandal at Rome Augustine (354-430) PRUDENTIUS (fl. 404)

476 Odoacer at Rome. Western Empire ends Rutilius (fl. 416)



INDEX

The numbers refer to pages throughout.

Ablative Absolute, 12, 58 Aegates Insulae, battle off, 114 Alban Lake, its rise, 79 Alesia, siege of, 202 Allia, battle of the, 81, 82 Analysis, help through, 6, 23, 47 Andriscus, war with, 156 Antiochus, his overthrow, 149 Antonius, attacked by Cicero, 230; causes the murder of Cicero, 230, 232 Appius Claudius, his speech against peace with Pyrrhus, 102 Aquae Sextiae, Teutones annihilated at, 164 Archelaus, defeated at Chaeronea, 172; at Orchomenus, 173 Archimedes, his engineering skill, 137; the Tomb of Archimedes, 54 Arpinum, birthplace of Cicero and Marius, 163 Asculum (Apulia), battle of, 103 Asculum (Picenum), outbreak of Social War at, 108; battle near, 169

Beneventum, battle near, 103 Bovianum, battle of, 98

Caesar, personal appearance and physical powers, 186; captured by pirates, studies oratory at Rhodes, 187; curule aedile, propraetor, 192; first triumvirate, consul, 195; campaigns in Gaul and Britain, 196-202; civil war with Pompeius, 209-224; dines with Cicero, 225; his death, 226; his character, 227-229; life of, 293-296 Camillus, capture of Veii, 80; delivers Rome from the Gauls, 85; stays migration to Veii, 86 Capua, the revolt and punishment of, 133, 134 Carrhae, battle of, 206, 207 Carthage, its foundation, 109; the building of, 110; wars between Rome and, 108-146; destruction of, 155 Cassivellaunus, submission of, to Caesar, 199 Catiline, his conspiracy, 193; his end, 194 Cato Major, his character, 151, 152; life of, 296 Cato Uticensis, his character, 224; his death, 223 Caudine Forks, the Romans entrapped and sent under the yoke, 95,96 Chaeronea, battle of, 172 Cicero, his first and only campaign, 169; impeaches Verres, 188; speech against Catiline, 193; his banishment and return, 203, 204; his recantation, 205; governor of Cilicia, 208; speech against Antonius, 230; his death, 232; his character, 231, 233; life of, 297-300 Cincinnatus, called from the plough,74 Claudius Pulcher, his defeat off Drepana, 113 Cognates, 4, 5, 44, 45, 267-8 Colline Gate, battle at the, 174 Compound Words, 3-5 Conjunctions, 274-6 Corinth, destruction of, 156 Coriolanus and his mother Veturia,72 Corvus, M. Valerius, hero of Mt. Gaurus,91 Cossus, A. Cornelius, wins spolia opima,77 Crassus, member of First Triumvirate, 195; his defeat at Carrhae, 206, 207 Cremera (River), Fabii destroyed at the,73 Cynoscephalae, battle of, 147

Dardanus, peace of, 173 Decius Magius, his defiance of Hannibal, 133 Decius Mus (the elder), his self-sacrifice at battle of Mt. Vesuvius,92 Decius Mus (the younger), his self-sacrifice at battle of Sentinum,99 Dentatus, M'. Curius, an old-time Roman, 105 Drepana, battle off, 113 Drusus, M. Livius, his tribuneship, 167 Duilius, his naval victory near Mylae, 112 Dyrrachium, Caesar's lines of circumvallation, 216; plan of, opposite 216

Elissa (Dido), foundress of Carthage, 109 English Derivatives, help through, 1, 2, 21, 29,30

Fabii, destruction of, 73 Fabius Maximus Cunctator, his character, 127; and his Master of the Horse, 128 Fabricius the Just, 101 Flamininus proclaims the freedom of Greece, 148 Flaminius, his defeat at Lake Trasimene, 124-126; his death, 126 Floralia, origin of, 88 French Derivatives, help through, 2, 3, 29,30

Gaurus (Mount), battle of, 91 Gergovia, siege of, 201 Gracchi, The, 160, 161

Hannibal, his oath, 115; his character, 116, 117; lays siege to Saguntum, 118; his dream and its interpretation, 119; his march from Spain to Italy, 120-122; his victory at the Trebia, 123; at Lake Trasimene, 124-126; at Cannae, 129, 130; the advice of Maharbal, 131; at Capua, 133, 134; leaves Italy, 144; his overthrow at Zama, 145, 146; his death, 150 Hasdrubal, his defeat and death at the Metaurus, 143 Heraclea, battle of, 100 Horatius Cocles, his defence of the Sublician bridge, 67,68

Jugurtha, his betrayal, 162

Lepidus, M. Aemilius, speech against Sulla, 178 Lerida, campaign round, 213 Liciuius, first plebeian consul, 87 Lucullus, character and early career, 181; his wealth, 182; surnamed Ponticus, 184 Lutatius, his victory off the Aegates Insulae, 114

Magnesia, battle of, 149 Maharbal urges Hannibal to advance on Rome, 131 Manlius Capitolinus, his fate, 84 Manilus, L., and his son Torquatus,89 Marcellus saves Nola from Hannibal, 135; his lament over Syracuse, 138; his death, 139 Marius, Cicero on, 163; annihilates Teutones at Aquae Sextiae, 164; seven times consul, 165; outlived his fame, 165 Marius the Younger, death of, 175 Massilia, siege of, 214 Menenius Agrippa, harangues the Plebs,71 Metaphors, 13, 14 Metaurus, Nero's march to the, 142; battle of the, 143 Mithridates, his youth and early training, 171; his preparations for conquest, 171 Mucius (Scaevola), loss of his right hand,69 Mummius Achaicus destroys Corinth, 156 Mylae, naval battle near, 112

Nero, his march to the Metaurus, 142; his victory over Hasdrubal, 143 Nervii, The, overthrown by Caesar, 196 Numantia destroyed, 158 Numa Pompilius, 62

Order of words in Latin, 9, 10

Papirius Cursor and his Master of the Horse,94 Parallelism, use of, in Ovid, 27 Parataxis, use of, in Ovid, 26 Participles, how to translate, 11, 12 Passive in English for Latin Active, 11 Paulus L. Aemilius, his victory at Pydna, 153, 154 Period, the, 7-9 Perseus, King of Macedon, his overthrow, 153, 154 Pharsalus, battle of, 217-219; plan of, opposite 218 Philip, King of Macedon, his overthrow, 147 Philopoemen, death of, 150 Phrases for Latin Prose Composition, 45 Pompeius, character and career to 66 B.C., 185; campaign against the pirates and Mithridates, 189-191; coalition with Caesar, 195; civil war with Caesar, 209-222; dream on the eve of Pharsalus, 217; ill-advised at Pharsalus, 218; his death, 220; Cato's eulogy on, 221; his grave, 222 Porsenna, Lars, attack upon Rome, 67-69 Prefixes, 4, 22, 277-281 Punctuation a help to translation, 6 Pydna, battle of, 153, 154 Pyrrhus, his aims, 100; defeats the Romans at Heraclea, 100; victorious at Asculum but routed near Beneventum, 103; his death and eulogy, 104

Regillus, Lake, battle of, 70 Regulus, his embassy, 111 Res, different meanings of, 11, 33-34,41 Rome, position of, 65 Romulus, the passing of, 61 Rutilius, defeat and death of, 169

Sacriportus, battle of, 174 Saguntum, siege of, 118 Scansion and Metre, a help to translation,6 Scipio Major, prevents Nobles from abandoning Italy, 131; his character, 140; takes New Carthage, 141; his victory at Zama, 145, 146; his death, 150 Scipio Minor, destroys Carthage, 135; Numantia, 158 Sentinum, battle of, 99 Sertorius, and his Fawn, 179; his career and death, 180 Spartacus, war with, 183 Style, helps to, 13, 14 Suffixes, 4, 282-286 Sulla, his character and bearing, 170; his proscriptions, 175; his brilliant tactics at Chaeronea, 172; capture of Athens and the Piraeus, 173; victory at Orchomenus, 173; concludes peace with Mithridates, 173; defeats Marians at Sacriportus, 174; and at battle of the Colline Gate, 174; surnamed Felix, 175; dictator, abdication and death, 176; his legislation, 177 Syracuse, description of, 136; siege and fall of, 137, 138

Tarentum, Horace in praise of, 106 Tarquinius Superbus, purchase of the Sibylline books,63 Tarquinius, Sextus, at Gabii, 64 Teutones, annihilated at Aquae Sextiae, 164 Thermopylae, battle of, 149 Translation, helps to, 5-12 Trasimene, battle of, 124-126 Trebia, battle at, 123

Veii, conquest of, 80 Veneti, naval battle with, 197 Vercingetorix, Gallic rising under, 200; his last fight, 202 Verginia, the consequences of her death,76 Verres, prosecuted by Cicero, 188 Vesuvius, Mount, battle of, 92, 93 Viriathus, war with, 157 Vocabulary, helps to, 1-5 Vowel changes of Verbs, 3-4

Zama, battle of, 145, 146

PRINTED BY SPOTTISWOODE AND CO. LTD. LONDON AND ETON.

* * * * * * * * * * * * * *

Format of E-Text

In Appendixes I-IV, boldface markup of Latin words and word elements was omitted for readability. English translations retain their italic markup.

In the Demonstrations, sentence breaks were marked with in the body text corresponding to Roman numerals in the margin. These numerals are shown between paired lines as IV , or in braces {IV} when the lines were not used.

Internal references using page numbers are supplemented in double brackets as [[Selection C17]] or [[Introduction 6 (2)]].

Line Numbers

Reading passages were printed with marginal line numbers starting from 1 at the top of each page. A page might contain one or more selections, but readings never crossed page breaks. Line numbers have been variously handled:

All markings of line 1 were omitted.

In the six Demonstrations, line numbers are not used in the explanatory text, so they were omitted. In the Miscellaneous Passages, which have no linenotes, line numbers were omitted in all prose and in the shorter verse selections.

In prose passages labeled B, C, D, line numbers by multiples of 5 were printed in the margin. They are shown here in {braces} within the body text. Where a word was split at line break, the number comes after the complete word.

In verse passages, lines have been renumbered to match the actual line numbers as cited in the text. Selections from the Hallam edition of Ovid's Fasti (see below) are numbered from 1 within each passage.

Any cross-references containing line numbers have been correspondingly changed.

The Hallam Edition of Ovid's Fasti

This expurgated edition was produced in 1882 for the use of boys at Harrow. Hallam's Preface says:

I have cut out all passages unfit for a boy to read, and renumbered all the lines in text and references, and it seemed best not to put the old numbering side by side with the new, except in the Grammatical Appendices. It has been necessary to alter the text, though very slightly, in about six places.

In some books, cuts are substantial: ii. 701-710 (reading D5B, page 64) is 543-552 in Hallam. For this e-text, the original line number is shown in double brackets after the cited Hallam number; when the original number was used, the Hallam number is shown in the same way.

Errata (noted by transcriber)

CONTENTS

149 A. ... Frontinus, Strat. ii. 4 [ii. 4.]

LIST OF AUTHORS

Livy, 32, 40 ... 246, 265 [265,]

INTRODUCTION

Satan exalted sat."' [final ' missing] 13. Additional Hints. [final . missing]

DEMONSTRATIONS

I: [Table] ... subsidio misit. [. missing] II: even although [text unchanged] III: P. Corn. Sulla, the Praetor, [final comma missing] dimidia [Rt]med-, mid- = middle [mid-,] VI: cylindro = a cylinder, kulindros. [. for ,] [Footnote 19: Also the birthplace of Marius. Cf. p. 163.] ["p" (for "page") invisible]

TRANSLATION PASSAGES

D9 Linenote 24. ... Plunged headlong in the tide. —Macaulay [mismatched close quote at end]

D23B Linenote 20 ... Cf. the Saxon Chronicle. [final . missing]

D24 Linenote 23. [32]

D30 Linenote 11. ... spectator, umpire. [final . missing]

D33A Linenote 4. cui, i.e. [final . missing]

D43 THE WAR WITH THE TARENTINES AND PYRRHUS. (3). [closing ) missing]

C19 [Footnote 32: See p. 124, l. 2, note.] [p, 124]

C24B Parallel Passage. [, for .]

C27B Linenote 19. ... Cf. our 'commercial travellers.' [closing ' missing]

C28 Context. The plebs in Nola ... [extraneous open quote at 'The...]

C31 Linenote 22. formis ... [line number missing]

C43 Linenote 18. ... (in carcere, l. 19) [l. 23]

B6 Audieratque pavens: "Fas haec contingere non est [' for "] ... vanum depone furorem." [closing " missing]

B9A Linenote 7. ... the solemn festival [festvial]

B17B SUETONIUS, Divus Iulius,77. [SEUTONIUS]

B36 Linenote 21. [19]

B40 Caesar In Britain. [printed as if note to (nonexistent) line 24]

B46 Linenote 19-20. ut imperi ... extremum [spelling unchanged: body text has "imperii"]

B51 qui si improbasset [_syllable "im" crossed out by hand: readings of this passage include both "probasset" and "in(im-)probasset"]

B63 Cato Uticensis. ... 'Victrix causa ... Catoni.' —W.F. [opening ' missing]

MISCELLANEOUS PASSAGES

SENECA, Medea 920. [passage is more often numbered 931] STATIUS, Silvae, III. ii. 1-20, 42-53, 61-66. [II. ii.] PERSIUS, Sat. v. 19-25, 30-40. [text shown as printed: passage quoted is ll. 30-40] ANDROMEDA (2) B. [. missing] Tibullus: Birthday Wishes. B. [final . missing] Trimalchio's Supper B. 'quod dixero ... "Numquid alius scit hanc condituram vitreorum?" Vide modo. Postquam negavit, iussit illum Caesar decollari; quia enim, si scitum esset, aurum pro luto haberemus.' [as printed: 'quod dixero ... 'Numquid alius scit hanc condituram vitreorum?' Vide modo. Postquam negavit, iussit illum Caesar decollari; quia enim, si scitum esset, aurum pro luto haberemus.] MARTIALIS APOPHORETA (2). IX Catella Gallicana. [, for .]

APPENDIXES

V LIVY, xxii. 6: 'En' inquit 'hic ... foede civium dabo. [closing ' missing] VI Sallust: His style is, however ['His style]

APPENDIX VII (Chronological Outlines)

Carthaginian victory at Drepana [Cathaginian]

149-146 B.C.: Destruction of Carthage 148 B.C.: Macedonia made a Roman Province (4) Illyricum made a Roman Province (5) 133 B.C.: Roman Province in Spain (7) Achaia made a Roman Province (8)

[Province #6 is missing. By this text's numbering, Africa (146 BC) should have been #4, with Macedonia and Illyricum as #5 and #6.]

Wall of Antonine [text unchanged]

[Text shown in {braces} is conjectural. In the printed book, the rightmost part of some pages was lost in the gutter.]

ROMULUS. Roman Senate of 200. Spolia opima {(1)} SERVIUS TULLIUS. The Census, basis of Com{itia} Centuriata. The Servian Wall includes {the} Quirinal ... TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS. Conquest of Gabii. Tyran{ny} leading to expulsion of the Tarquins and aboli{tion} of the monarchy Two new Tables. (Ap{pius} Claudius) ... resulting in {the} Valerio-Horatian Laws

INDEX

Mummius Achaicus destroys Corinth, 156 [, missing]

THE END