[Linenotes: 1. Iam = presently. 1-2. regiae moles = princely piles. moles, lit. masses, of huge buildings. 2-4. undique ... lacu = and fish-ponds (stagna) of wider extent than the L. lake will be sights to see (visentur).—Wickham. 4. platanus caelebs = the bachelor plane, so called because vines were not wedded to it (i.e. trained upon it).—Gow. 6. omnis copia narium = all that is sweet to smell. Lit. all the fulness of the nostrils. 10. ictus (sc. solis). The point is that formerly trees were stripped to admit the sun to the vines and olives: nowadays the sun is excluded. —Gow. 11. intonsi (= antiqui) = old-fashioned. Cf. Cic.'s use of barbatus. 13. census erat brevis = list of property was short. 14. commune (= to koinon) = the common (public) stock. 14-15. decempedis metata privatis = measured with ten-foot rods for private owners. In old days the portics were always publicae. 17. fortuitum caespitem = the chance-cut (handy) turf. 20. novo saxo = with fresh-hewn stone, i.e. hewn on purpose. —W.]

Parallel Passages. Livy xxxix. 6. 40. 41; Sallust, Catiline 12,13.

'Cato saw the greatness of Rome in the olden time, and he endeavoured without success to bring this old time back.' —Ihne.

C46

THIRD MACEDONIAN WAR, 171-168 B.C.

Pydna (Aemilius Paulus), 168 B.C. (1)

Movebat imperii maiestas, gloria viri, ante omnia aetas, quod maior sexaginta annis iuvenum munia in parte praecipua laboris periculique capessebat. Intervallum, quod inter caetratos at phalanges erat, implevit legio, atque aciem hostium interrupit. A {5} tergo caetratis erat, frontem adversus clipeatos habebat: chalcaspides appellabantur. Secundam legionem L. Albinus consularis ducere adversus leucaspidem phalangem iussus; ea media acies hostium fuit. In dextrum cornu, unde circa fluvium {10} commissum proclium erat, elephantos inducit et alas sociorum; et hinc primum fuga Macedonum est orta. Nam sicut pleraque nova commenta mortalium in verbis vim habent, experiendo, cum agi, non quemadmodum agatur edisseri oportet, sine ullo {15} effectu evanescunt, ita tum elephantorum impetum sustinere non poterant, et commenta Macedonum nomen tantum sine usu fuerunt. Elephantorum impetum subsecuti sunt socii nominis Latini, pepuleruntque laevum cornu. {20}

LIVY, xliv. 41.

Context. Perseus, son of Philip, became King of Macedonia on the death of his father in 179 B.C. He did all he could to prepare for the inevitable struggle with Rome by strengthening Macedonia, posing as the Liberator of Greece, and forming marriage alliances with Seleucus of Syria (the successor of Antiochus), and Prusias of Bithynia. In 174 B.C., the Romans were informed that Perseus was secretly negotiating with Carthage, and after fruitless embassies war was declared. The Senate, after three years of unsuccessful warfare (171-168 B.C.), appointed L. Aemilius Paulus (son of the hero who died at Cannae) to the supreme command in Macedonia.

[Linenotes: 4. caetratos = Targeteers, armed with the small round shield. 5-7. A tergo ... habebat (sc. legio prima) = the (first) Legion thus took the Targeteers in the rear, while it faced towards the Shieldmen. —Rawlins. 6. clipeatos = Shieldmen, armed with the large round shield. 7. chalcaspides = Brazen Shields, Right Division of phalanx. 9. leucaspidem = White Shields, Left Division of phalanx. 10. in dextrum cornu (sc. Romanum), i.e. nearest to the sea. 13-15. commenta ... oportet = lit. the contrivances of men, though in theory (in verbis) they had some importance (vim) yet upon trial (experiendo) when there is need of action and not of discussion (edisseri) how to act.... 17. commenta Macedonum. Perh. with reference to Perseus' contrivances (e.g. by the use of dummy elephants) to prepare his men and horses to make a stand against real elephants.]

C47

THIRD MACEDONIAN WAR, 171-168 B.C.

Pydna (Aemilius Paulus), 168 B.C. (2)

In medio secunda legio immissa dissipavit phalangem; neque ulla evidentior causa victoriae fuit, quam quod multa passim proelia erant, quae fluctuantem turbarunt primo, deinde disiecerunt phalangem, cuius confertae et intentis horrentes {5} hastis intolerabiles vires sunt; si carptim aggrediendo circumagere immobilem longitudine et gravitate hastam cogas, confusa strue implicantur: si vero aut ab latere aut ab tergo aliquid tumultus increpuit, ruinae modo turbantur. Sicut tum adversus catervatim {10} incurrentes Romanos et interrupta multifariam acie obviam ire cogebantur, et Romani, quacumque data intervalla essent, insinuabant ordines suos.... Diu phalanx a fronte, alateribus, ab tergo caesa est; postremo, qui ex hostium manibus elapsi erant, {15} inermes ad mare fugientes, quidam aquam etiam ingressi, manus ad eos, qui in classe erant tendentes, suppliciter vitam orabant; et cum scaphas concurrere undique ab navibus cernerent, ad excipiendos sese venire rati, ut caperent potius quam occiderent, {20} longius in aquam, quidam etiam natantes, progressi sunt. Sed cum hostiliter e scaphis caederentur, retro, qui poterant, nando repetentes terram, in aliam foediorem pestem incidebant. Elephanti enim, ab rectoribus ad litus acti, exeuntes obterebant {25} elidebantque.

LIVY, xliv. 41, 42.

[Linenotes: 1. In medio ... immissa = On the centre the second legion charged (immissa), i.e. into the interstices of the phalanx, which was not preserving its usual close order. —Rawlins. 4-6. fluctuantem ... vires sunt = first demoralised the phalanx so as to make it waver, (fluctuantem), and then shattered it. Its (aggressive) force, so long as it keeps close order and bristles with couched (intentis) spears, is irresistible (intolerabiles). 6. carptim aggrediendo = by repeated harassing attacks. 10. ruinae modo = in hopeless confusion. —R. 17. classe. The Roman fleet under Octavius was co-operating with the army.]

Results of the Battle. Perseus was captured, and his kingdom was divided into four independent parts. The Macedonian phalanx had fought its last great battle.

Character of Paulus. 'He was a model of the Roman of the best time. He was not, like his contemporary Cato, aonesided worshipper of everything old; but he was a Conservative in the best sense of the word, anxious to preserve old institutions, but at the same time to improve them.' —Ihne.

C48

THIRD PUNIC WAR, 149-146 B.C.

Destruction of Carthage, 146 B.C.

Manilio deinde consule terra marique fervebat obsidio. Operti portus, nudatus est primus et sequens, iam et tertius murus, cum tamen Byrsa, quod nomen arci fuit, quasi altera civitas resistebat. Quamvis profligato urbis excidio tamen fatale Africae nomen {5} Scipionum videbatur. Igitur in alium Scipionem conversa respublica finem belli reposcebat. Sed quem ad modum maxime mortiferi morsus solent esse morientium bestiarum, sic plus negoti fuit cum semiruta Carthagine quam cum integra. Compulsis {10} in unam arcem hostibus portum quoque mari Romanus obstruxerat. Illi alterum sibi portum ab alia urbis parte foderunt, nec ut fugerent; sed qua nemo illos nec evadere posse credebat, inde quasi enata subito classis erupit, cum interim iam diebus, {15} iam noctibus nova aliqua moles, nova machina, nova perditorum hominum manus quasi ex obruto incendio subita de cineribus flamma prodibat. Deploratis novissime rebus triginta sex milia virorum se dederunt quod minus credas—duce Hasdrubale. {20}

FLORUS, II. xv. 11-17 (sel.).

Context. An Embassy was sent from Rome in 157 B.C. to inquire into the affairs of Africa. Among its members was M. Porcius Cato, who, astonished and alarmed at the flourishing condition of Carthage, returned to Rome with the firm conviction that Carthage must be destroyed—delenda est Carthago. A pretext was soon found in the war (151 B.C.) between Carthage and Masinissa, King of Numidia, the ally of Rome. Though the Carthaginians surrendered all their arms and munitions of war, Rome declared that they would have to leave their city and settle ten miles from the sea. The Carthaginians resolved to die rather than give up the sacred soil of their country.

[Linenotes: 5. profligato = almost finished. 6. in alium Scipionem, i.e. P. Corn. Scipio Aemilianus Africanus Minor, the younger son of Aemilius Paulus (of Pydna) and adopted by P. Scipio, the son of the conqueror of Hannibal. 12. alterum portum, i.e. they pierced the narrow strip of land separating the round naval port (Cothon) from the sea. 18. deploratis = was looked upon as lost, lit. wept for bitterly. 20. duce Hasdrubale: 'Hasdrubal seems to have deserved the name of the last Carthaginian in the best sense of the word, as a representative of the intensity of the strength, endurance, and patriotism of his race.' —Ihne.]

'The plough was drawn over the site of destroyed Carthage, and a solemn curse was pronounced against anyone who should ever undertake to build a new town on that spot.' —Ihne.

Africa made a Roman Province.

C49

WAR WITH ANDRISCUS AND THE ACHAEANS, 148-146 B.C.

Destruction of Corinth (L. Mummius Achaicus), 146 B.C.

Eodem anno, quo Carthago concidit, L. Mummius Corinthum post annos DCCCCLII, quam ab Alete Hippotis filio erat condita, funditus eruit. Uterque imperator devictae a se gentis nomine honoratus, alter Africanus, alter appellatus est Achaicus; nec {5} quisquam ex novis hominibus prior Mummio cognomen virtute partum vindicavit. Diversi imperatoribus mores, diversa fuere studia: quippe Scipio tam elegans liberalium studiorum omnisque doctrinae et auctor et admirator fuit, ut Polybium Panaetiumque, {10} praecellentes ingenio viros, domi militiaeque secum habuerit. Neque enim quisquam hoc Scipione elegantius intervalla negotiorum otio dispunxit semperque aut belli aut pacis serviit artibus: semper inter arma ac studia versatus aut corpus periculis {15} aut animum disciplinis exercuit. Mummius tam rudis fuit, ut capta Corintho cum maximorum artificum perfectas manibus tabulas ac statuas in Italiam portandas locaret, iuberet praedici conducentibus, si eas perdidissent, novas eos reddituros. {20}

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS, i. 13.

Context. In 149 B.C. an adventurer named Andriscus claimed to be Philip, the son of Perseus, and mastered Macedonia and part of Thessaly. He totally defeated the praetor Juventius, but in 148 B.C. his army was routed and himself taken prisoner by Q. Caecilius Metellus. The Romans, no longer needing the help of Greek troops, determined to break up the Achaean League. Alast desperate struggle for freedom ensued, but the Greeks were easily defeated (146 B.C.) by L. Mummius on the Isthmus, and Corinth itself was plundered and destroyed.

[Linenotes: 2-3. quam ... condita. Aletes, son of Hippotes and a descendant of Heracles, is said to have taken possession of Corinth by the help of the oracle of Zeus at Dodona, and therefore named the city Dios Korinthos. 10. Panaetium, a native of Rhodes and a celebrated Stoic philosopher, settled in Rome, where he became the intimate friend of Laelius and Scipio Africanus Minor. 13. dispunxit = he devoted, gave up (lit. marked off). 19. locaret = he hired (lit. place out, i.e. give out on contract). conducentibus = to the contractors.]

The Destruction of Corinth. 'The flames which consumed Miletus (destroyed by the Persians 494 B.C.) and Athens (burnt by Xerxes 480 B.C.) were the signal for the great rising of the people, the dawn of a magnificent day of Greek splendour: after the fall of Corinth came the long dark night.' —Ihne.

Macedonia made a Roman Province. Greece placed under the control of the Roman governor of Macedonia.

C50

WAR WITH VIRIATHUS IN SPAIN, 149-140 B.C.

The Lusitanian Hannibal.

Sed tota certaminum moles cum Lusitanis fuit et Numantinis. Quippe solis gentium Hispaniae duces contigerunt. Lusitanos Viriathus erexit, vir calliditatis acerrimae. Qui ex venatore latro, ex latrone subito dux atque imperator et, si fortuna {5} cessisset, Hispaniae Romulus, non contentus libertatem suorum defendere, per quattuordecim annos omnia citra ultraque Hiberum et Tagum igni ferroque populatus, castra etiam praetoria et praesidia aggressus Claudium Unimanum paene ad internecionem {10} exercitus cecidit et insignia trabeis et fascibus nostris quae ceperat in montibus suis tropaea fixit. Tandem eum iam Fabius Maximus consul oppresserat; sed a successore Popilio violata victoria est. Quippe qui conficiendae rei cupidus, fractum ducem et extrema {15} deditionis agitantem per fraudem et insidias et domesticos percussores aggressus hanc hosti gloriam dedit ut videretur aliter vinci non posse.

FLORUS, II. xvii. 13-17 (sel.).

Context. After the defeat of Perseus (168 B.C.) and before the outbreak of the third Punic War (149 B.C.) a suitable opportunity seemed to present itself to Rome for continuing the interrupted conquest of Spain; but 'for eight long years Viriathus, although a barbarian and of humble origin, defied the armies of Rome, and thereby secured for himself a position in history almost equal to that of Hannibal and Mithridates.' Ihne.

[Linenotes: 1. cum Lusitanis. The Lusitani (S.of the R. Tagus = mod. Portugal, and part of Estremadura and Toledo) were not finally subdued till after the capture of Numantia by Scipio in 133 B.C. 6. cessisset (= concessisset) = had permitted. 10-12. Claudium Unimanum ... fixit, i.e. in 147 B.C. 'The captured fasces of the lictors were exhibited, with other trophies (e.g. trabeis, l. 11), far and wide on the Spanish mountains.' —Ihne. 13. Fabius Maximus consul, i.e. Quintus Fabius Maximus Servilianus, who allowed himself to be decoyed into an ambush 141 B.C., and was compelled to grant an honourable peace, which Rome soon found a pretext for breaking. 17. percussores = assassins, lit. strikers (per + cutio = quatio). Cf. the fate of Sertorius, 72 B.C.]

The War with Viriathus. 'It was sad and disgraceful for the Roman arms, but in a far higher degree for Roman morals. It sowed, moreover, the seeds of the Numantine War, in which both the warlike ability and the moral virtues of the Roman nation appear more deteriorated than even in the war with Viriathus.' —Ihne.

C51

NUMANTINE WAR, 143-133 B.C.

Destruction of Numantia, 133 B.C.

Tanti esse exercitum quanti imperatorem vere proditum est. Sic redacto in disciplinam milite a Scipione commissa acies, quodque nemo visurum se umquam speraverat, factum ut fugientes Numantinos quisquam videret. Dedere etiam se volebant, {5} si toleranda viris imperarentur. Cum fossa atque lorica quattuorque castris circumdatos fames premeret, aduce orantes proelium, ut tamquam viros occideret, ubi non impetrabant, placuit eruptio. Sic conserta manu plurimi occisi, et cum urgueret {10} fames, novissime consilium fugae sedit; sed hoc quoque ruptis equorum cingulis uxores ademere, summo scelere per amorem. Itaque deplorato exitu in ultimam rabiem furoremque conversi, postremo Rhoecogene duce se suos patriam ferro veneno {15} subiecto igne undique peregerunt. Macte fortissimam et meo iudicio beatissimam in ipsis malis civitatem! Asseruit cum fide socios, populum orbis terrarum viribus fultum sua manu aetate tam longa sustinuit. Novissime maximo duce oppressa civitas nullum de {20} se gaudium hosti reliquit. Unus enim vir Numantinus non fuit qui in catenis duceretur; praeda, ut de pauperrimis, nulla: arma ipsa cremaverunt. Triumphus fuit tantum de nomine.

FLORUS, II. xviii. 11-17 (sel.).

Context. In 143 B.C. the Celtiberians (of Middle Spain), encouraged by the successes of the Lusitanians, took up arms once more. Their most important town was Numantia, situated near the sources of the R. Durius (Douro), strongly fortified by nature and by art. Consul after consul failed to take it, until in 134 B.C. Scipio Africanus Minor, the conqueror of Carthage, was sent out to Spain to reduce the stubborn city.

[Linenotes: 2-3. Sic redacto ... a Scipione. 'Scipio's first task, when he arrived in Spain, was to accustom the army which he found there, once more to Roman discipline. Luxury and indulgence were rife, and cowardice—the most unroman of all vices—had begun to creep in.' —Ihne. 7. lorica = a breastwork, serving as a screen. Usu. = a cuirass. 11. sedit = was decided on, lit. settled. 16. Macte = a blessing on or hail to thee. Mactus prob. from [Rt]mak, e.g. in mak-ar = blessed, but cf. mag-nus. 18. Asseruit = it protected. assero (ad + sero) = lit. join-to.]

Destruction of Numantia. Scipio, of his own accord, razed the town to the ground, and received the added surname of Numantinus.

Roman Province in Spain.

C52

Rome the Invincible.

Dixitque tandem perfidus Hannibal: 'Cervi, luporum praeda rapacium, Sectamur ultro, quos opimus Fallere et effugere est triumphus. 52 Gens, quae cremato fortis ab Ilio Iactata Tuscis aequoribus sacra Natosque maturosque patres Pertulit Ausonias ad urbes, 56 Duris ut ilex tonsa bipennibus Nigrae feraci frondis in Algido, Per damna, per caedes ab ipso Ducit opes animumque ferro 60 Non Hydra secto corpore firmior Vinci dolentem crevit in Herculem, Monstrumve submisere Colchi Maius Echioniaeve Thebae. 64 Merses profundo: pulchrior evenit; Luctere: multa proruet integrum Cum laude victorem geretque Proelia coniugibus loquenda.' 68

HORACE, Odes, IV. iv. 49-68.

[Linenotes: 51. ultro = aggressively, needlessly. —Wickham. 51-52. opimus triumphus = a rare (lit. rich, noble) triumph. Cf. spolia opima. 53-56. 'This stanza is a rsum of the story of the Aeneid.' —W. 53. gens (sc. illa), i.e. the Roman stock. 57-60. 'The idea of this stanza is that their very calamities only gave them fresh heart and vigour. They rise like the Phoenix from its pyre.' —W. 58. frondis with feraci. Cf. fertilis frugum. 59-60. ab ipso ... ferro = from the very edge of the steel itself, the holm-oak (= the Roman stock) draws fresh power and spirit. 61-62. Cf. the saying of Pyrrhus, recorded by Floras i. 18, 'Isee that I was born under the constellation of Hercules, since so many heads of enemies, that were cut off, arise upon me afresh out of their own blood, as if from the Lernaean serpent.' 63-64. i.e. of the armed warriors which sprang from the dragon's teeth sown by Jason at Colchis or by Cadmus at Thebes. 63. submisere = produced, raised. 64. Echioniae Thebae. Echion was one of the five survivors of the Spartoi (sown men). He helped Cadmus to found Thebes. 65. Merses (= si mersaris) = plunge it if you will. evenit = it emerges (comes forth). 66-67. multa cum laude = amid loud applause, of a feat in a wrestling match. —W. 68. coniugibus = i. by Roman wives or ii. by Carthaginian widows. So Conington, 'Whose story widow'd wives shall tell.']



CIVIL STRIFE IN ITALY, AND FOREIGN WARS, ENDING IN REVOLUTION 133-44 B.C.

B1

THE GRACCHI.

Nam postquam Tiberius et C. Gracchus, quorum maiores Punico atque aliis bellis multum rei publicae addiderant, vindicare plebem in libertatem et paucorum celera patefacere coepere, nobilitas noxia atque eo perculsa, modo per socios et nomen Latinum, {5} interdum per equites Romanos, quos spes societatis a plebe dimoverat, Gracchorum actionibus obviam ierat, et primo Tiberium, dein paucos post annos eadem ingredientem Gaium, tribunum alterum, alterum triumvirum coloniis deducendis, cum M. {10} Fulvio Flacco ferro necaverat. Et sane Gracchis cupidine victoriae haud satis moderatus animus fuit. Sed bono vinci satius est quam malo more iniuriam vincere. Igitur ea victoria nobilitas ex lubidine sua usa multos mortales ferro aut fuga exstinxit plusque {15} in reliquum sibi timoris quam potentiae addidit. Quae res plerumque magnas civitates pessum dedit, dum alteri alteros vincere quovis modo et victos acerbius ulcisci volunt.

SALLUST, Jugurtha, 42.

[Linenotes: 1-3. quorum maiores ... addiderant, e.g. their grandfather P. Scipio Africanus Maior, and their father Tib. Sempronius Gracchus (in Spain and Sardinia). 3-4. paucorum scelera ... coepere. (i) Tib. Gracchus by his Agrarian Law tried to counteract the selfish land-grabbing of the ruling class (in excess of the 500 iugera limit of the Licinian Laws, 367 B.C.). (ii) C. Gracchus exposed the corrupt Senatorian Courts, transferred their judicial power to the Equites, and carried the Sempronian Law, 'one of the cornerstones of individual liberty.' 5. per socios ... Latinum, by working on Roman jealousy against the Italians, for whom equality was claimed. 6. spes societatis, i.e. the hope of sharing with the nobility in office, and in provincial appointments. 10. triumvirum c. d., one of the three Commissioners for establishing Colonies of Roman citizens on the ager publicus. 11. Fulvio Flacco, slain with C. Gracchus, 121 B.C. 17. pessum dedit = has destroyed. pessum (prob.) = pedis + versum = towards the feet, to the ground, cf. pessum ire.]

The aim of the Gracchi. 'Their object was to reduce the excessive power of the nobility, and to make the sovereignty of the people, which had become merely nominal, areality.' —Ihne.

Their political mistake. 'Their error consisted in the belief that such a change was possible by returning to the simple forms of the old Comitia. They overlooked the necessity of remodelling the Roman people itself by giving the popular assemblies a form which would in reality make them represent the people.' —Ihne.

B2

CICERO ON THE GRACCHI.

A. On the Death of Tiberius Gracchus, 133 B.C.

Nec plus Africanus, singularis et vir et imperator, in exscindenda Numantia rei publicae profuit quam eodem tempore P. Nasica privatus, cum Ti. Gracchum interemit.

De Off. i. 76.

[Linenotes: 2. Numantia, destroyed by P. Scipio Africanus Minor Numantinus, 133 B.C. 3. P. Nasca, a partisan leader of the Senate. privatus = not in office. Cicero speaks very differently of the Gracchi when it suits his purpose, e.g. in de lege agraria, ii. 10, duos (Gracchos) clarissimos, ingeniosissimos, amantissimos plebei Romanae viros ... quorum consiliis, sapientia, legibus multas esse video partes constitutas.]

B. On the Lex Frumentaria of C. Gracchus, 123 B.C.

Et quidem C. Gracchus, cum largitiones maximas {5} fecisset et effudisset aerarium, verbis tamen defendebat aerarium. Quid verba audiam, cum facta videam? L. Piso ille Frugi semper contra legem frumentariam dixerat. Is lege lata consularis ad frumentum accipiendum venerat. Animum advertit {10} Gracchus in contione Pisonem stantem: quaerit audiente populo Romano qui sibi constet, cum ea lege frumentum petat, quam dissuaserit. 'Nolim' inquit 'mea bona, Gracche, tibi viritim dividere libeat, sed si facias, partem petam.' Parumne declaravit vir {15} gravis et sapiens lege Sempronia patrimonium publicum dissipari? Lege orationes Gracchi, patronum aerari esse dices.

Tusc. Disput. iii. 20, 48.

[Linenotes: 8. L. Piso ille Frugi = L. Calpurnius Piso Frugi (the man of worth), a convinced and honourable opponent of C. Gracchus. 8-9. legem frumentariam, by which corn was sold to Roman citizens at about half the market price. 'One of the worst measures ever proposed by a well-meaning statesman.' —Ihne. 12. qui = how, old abl. of qui.]

C. On C. Gracchus as an Orator.

Sed ecce in manibus vir et praestantissimo ingenio et flagranti studio et doctus a puero, C. Gracchus. Noli enim putare quemquam. Brute, pleniorem et uberiorem ad dicendum fuisse.

Brutus, 125.

[Linenote: 20. doctus a puero. CORNELIA MATER GRACCHORUM (inscribed upon her statue erected by the Roman people), the daughter of the Conqueror of Zama, was mainly responsible for their training and education; so Cic. Brut. 104 Fuit Tib. Gracchus diligentia matris a puero doctus et Graecis literis eruditus. 'From her they had received that sensitive nature and that sympathy with the weak and suffering, which animated their political action.' —Ihne.]

B3

THE JUGURTHINE WAR, 111-106 B.C.

The Betrayal of Jugurtha, 106 B.C.

Postea, tempore et loco constituto, in colloquium uti de pace veniretur, Bocchus Sullam modo, modo Iugurthae legatum appellare, benigne habere, idem ambobus polliceri. Illi pariter laeti ac spei bonae pleni esse. Sed nocte ea, quae proxuma fuit ante {5} diem colloquio decretum, Maurus, adhibitis amicis ac statim immutata voluntate remotis, dicitur secum ipse multa agitavisse, voltu et oculis pariter atque animo varius: quae scilicet tacente ipso occulta pectoris patefecisse. Tamen postremo Sullam accersi {10} iubet et ex illius sententia Numidae insidias tendit. Deinde ubi dies advenit et ei nuntiatum est Iugurtham haud procul abesse, cum paucis amicis et quaestore nostro quasi obvius honoris causa procedit in tumulum facillumum visu insidiantibus. Eodem {15} Numida cum plerisque necessariis suis inermis, uti dictum erat, accedit; ac statim signo dato undique simul ex insidiis invaditur. Ceteri obtruncati, Iugurtha Suilae vinctus traditur et ab eo ad Marium deductus est. {20}

SALLUST, Jugurtha, 113.

[Linenotes: 2. Bocchus, King of Mauretania, and father-in-law of Jugurtha, coveted the West of Numidia, and was ready to accept it either from the Romans or from Jugurtha, as the price of his alliance. Sullam, appointed Quaestor 107 B.C. by Marius, who superseded Metellus in the conduct of the Jugurthine War. 9. quae scilicet ... patefecisse, i.e. the external signs of his irresolution,—the calling and then dismissing his people (adhibitis ... remotis, ll. 6,7), and the changes of his countenance (voltu ... varius, ll. 8,9). Scilicet is here used with the Infinitive patefecisse, the verbal sense of the word (= scire + licet) being prominent. 10. accersi (= arcessiri), frequent in Sallust. 16. necessariis (necesse) = friends. Cf. anankaioi (anank). 19. Iugurtha Sullae ... traditur. Sulla is said to have been so proud of this stratagem that he had the scene engraved upon a signet-ring, an act of vainglory which estranged Marius from him. (Plutarch, Sulla,3.)]

Jugurtha. 'Having resisted the whole power of the great Republic for six years, having kept his ground against the best generals of the time, against a Metellus, aMarius, and a Sulla, he was deluded by treacherous promises of peace and betrayed by his own ally and father-in-law.' —Ihne.

B4

A. Arpinum—Birthplace of Cicero and Marius.

Hic novus Arpinas, ignobilis et modo Romae 237 Municipalis eques, galeatum ponit ubique Praesidium attonitis et in omni monte laborat. . . . . . . . . . . . . Sed Roma parentem, 243 Roma patrem patriae Ciceronem libera dixit. Arpinas alius Volscorum in monte solebat 245 Poscere mercedes alieno lassus aratro, Nodosam post haec frangebat vertice vitem, Si lentus pigra muniret castra dolabra; Hic tamen et Cimbros et summa pericula rerum Excipit et solus trepidantem protegit urbem. 250

JUVENAL, Sat. viii. 237-239, 243-250.

[Linenotes: 239. in omni monte, i.e. in every part of Rome, on each of the seven hills. 244. patrem patriae: under the Empire the title pater patriae became a formal one, always accorded to the new Emperor. libera = while yet free, emphatic. The State was no longer free when Augustus received this title, 2B.C.—Duff. 247. frangebat vertice vitem = he had the vine-switch (rattan) broken on his head, i.e. served as a common soldier. —D. 248. dolabra = half-hatchet for cutting stakes, and half-pickaxe for digging the fossa. For dolabra, cf. Dolabella. 249. Cimbros, annihilated by Marius and Catulus near Vercellae, 101 B.C. 250. Excipit = faced (lit. is ready to receive); metaphor from field-sports. —D.]

B. From a poem by Cicero on his fellow-townsman Marius.

Hic Iovis altisoni subito pinnata satelles Arboris e trunco serpentis saucia morsu Surrigit ipsa feris transfigens unguibus anguem Semianimum et varia graviter cervice micantem. 4 . . . . . . . Hanc ubi praepetibus pennis lapsuque volantem Conspexit Marius, divini numinis augur, Faustaque signa suae laudis reditusque notavit, Partibus intonuit caeli pater ipse sinistris: Sic aquilae clarum firmavit Iuppiter omen.

[Linenotes: 1. Iovis pinnata satelles, i.e. the Eagle. Cf. Pindar, Pyth. i.6: heudei d' ana skapt (= skptr) Dios aietos, and sleeps on the staff of Zeus his eagle. 3. Surrigit (= surgit) = raises up; very rare in this sense. The v.l. Sbigit (for sŭbigit) = carries aloft.]

Compare Plutarch's story of the eagle's nest, with seven young ones in it, which fell into the lap of Marius when a boy, predicting (so the diviners said) that Marius would be seven times Consul.

B5

The Annihilation of the Teutones at Aquae Sextiae, 102 B.C.

Cimbri et Teutones ab extremis Germaniae profugi, cum terras eorum inundasset Oceanus, novas sedes toto orbe quaerebant, exclusique et Gallia et Hispania cum in Italiam demigrarent, misere legatos in castra Silani, inde ad Senatum {5} petentes ut populus Martius aliquid sibi terrae daret. Sed quas daret terras populus Romanus, agrariis legibus inter se dimicaturus? Repulsi igitur, quod nequiverant precibus, armis petere coeperunt. Sed nec primum impetum barbarorum Silanus, nec {10} secundum Mallius, nec tertium Caepio sustinere potuerunt: omnes fugati, exuti castris. Actum erat, nisi Marius illi saeculo contigisset.... Ille mira statim velocitate occupatis compendiis praevenit hostem, prioresque Teutones sub ipsis Alpium radicibus {15} adsecutus in loco quem Aquas Sextias vocant, proelio oppressit. Vallem fluviumque medium hostes tenebant, et nostris aquarum nulla erat copia. Consultone id egerit imperator an errorem in consilium verterit, dubium; certe necessitate acta virtus {20} victoriae causa fuit. Nam flagitante aquam exercitu, 'Si viri estis' inquit, 'en, illic habetis.' Itaque tanto ardore pugnatum est, ea caedes hostium fuit ut victor Romanus cruento flumine non plus aquae biberit quam sanguinis barbarorum. {25}

FLORUS, III. iii. 1-9 (sel).

[Linenotes: 5. Silani = M. Junius Silanus, defeated by Cimbri, 109 B.C. 11. Mallius—Caepio, defeated by Cimbrians at Arausio, on the Rhone, 105 B.C. Plutarch, Lucullus 27, says: 'The 6th Oct., on which day the battle was fought, was marked in the calendar as a black day, like the fatal day of the Allia, 390 B.C.' 12. Actum erat, sc. de republica. 14. compendiis = short ways; cf. our compendium = an abridgement. 16. Aquas Sextias, founded by Sextius Calvinus 122 B.C. = Aix, 18 miles N. of Marseilles. 23. caedes hostium. 150,000 (Vell.) and 200,000 (Liv. Ep. lxviii.). 'By the great victories of Aquae Sextiae and of Vercellae (over the Cimbri, 101 B.C.), the movement of the German races southward was for the present stopped. Rome was saved, and the saviour of Rome was Marius, the champion of the people.' —Ihne.]

Parallel Passages. Propert. IV. iii. 41-44; Livy Ep. lxviii.

References. Plutarch, Marius, 15. Ihne, Hist. Rome, vol. v. pp. 98-105.

B6

MARIUS, 157-86 B.C.

A. His Flight from Sulla: Consul for the 7th time.

Atque aliquis magno quaerens exempla timori, 'Non alios,' inquit, 'motus tum fata parabant, Cum post Teutonicos victor Libycosque triumphos Exsul limosa Marius caput abdidit ulva. 70 Stagna avidi texere soli laxaeque paludes Depositum, Fortuna, tuum: mox vincula ferri Exedere senem longusque in carcere paedor. Consul et eversa felix moriturus in urbe Poenas ante dabat scelerum. Mors ipsa refugit 75 Saepe virum, frustraque hosti concessa potestas. Sanguinis invisi: primo qui caedis in ictu[35] Deriguit ferrumque manu torpente remisit; Viderat immensum tenebroso in carcere lumen Terribilesque deos scelerum Mariumque futurum 80 Audieratque pavens: "Fas haec contingere non est Colla tibi: debet multas his legibus aevi Ante suam mortes: vanum depone furorem." Si libet ulcisci deletae funera gentis, Hunc, Cimbri, servate senem.' 85

LUCAN, Pharsalia, ii. 67-85.

[Footnote 35: Postgate, actu.]

[Linenotes: 67. exempla timori = precedents to hear out his fears. —Haskins. 70. Exsul. 88-7 B.C. For details see Plut. Marius, caps. 38-40. 72. Fortuna, i.e. the evil destiny of Rome, protecting him because the gods were angry with Rome. Cf. 16-17 debet ... mortes. 73. in carcere, i.e. at Minturnae, S.E. of Latium. There were extensive marshes in the neighbourhood. paedor = filth. 82. legibus aevi = the laws that govern time = fatis. —H.]

B. Marius outlived his fame.

Quid illo cive tulisset Natura in terris, quid Roma beatius umquam, Si circumducto captivorum agmine et omni 280 Bellorum pompa animam exhalasset opimam, Cum de Teutonico vellet descendere curru?

JUVENAL, Sat. x. 278-282.

Marius outlived his powers and his reputation.

'Had he now died, he would have gone down to posterity as one of the greatest men of his people, as a second Romulus or Camillus, unstained with any blood save that of foreign foes.' —Ihne.

Parallel Passages. Ov. P. Ep. iv. 3. 45-48; Juv. x. 276-278.

References. Plut. Marius, caps. 38-end. Ihne, vol. iv. pp. 336-7, vol. v. pp. 111-12.

B7

Cicero on Civil Strife.

Etenim recordamini, Quirites, omnes civiles dissensiones, non solum eas quas audistis, sed et has quas vosmetipsi meministis atque vidistis. L. Sulla P. Sulpicium oppressit: ex Urbe eiecit C. Marium, custodem huius urbis, multosque fortes viros partim {5} eiecit ex civitate, partim interemit. Cn. Octavius consul armis ex Urbe collegam suum expulit: omnis his locus acervis corporum et civium sanguine redundavit. Superavit postea Cinna cum Mario: tum vero, clarissimis viris interfectis, lumina civitatis {10} exstincta sunt. Ultus est huius victoriae crudelitatem postea Sulla: ne dici quidem opus est, quanta deminutione civium et quanta calamitate reipublicae.... Atque illae tamen omnes dissensiones, quae non ad delendam, sed ad commutandam rempublicam {15} pertinebant—non illi nullam esse rempublicam, sed in ea quae esset se esse principes, neque hanc urbem conflagrare, sed se in hac urbe florere voluerunt—eius modi fuerunt, ut non reconciliatione concordiae, sed internecione civium diiudicatae sint. {20}

CICERO, In Cat. iii. 10.

[Linenotes: 4. P. Sulpicium, distinguished orator, bought over by Marius. As Tribunus Plebis 88 B.C. carried the Leges Sulpiciae. 6. Cn. Octavius, one of Sulla's chief supporters. Consul 87 B.C. Expelled his colleague Cinna. Murdered in his curule chair. 9-11. Superavit ... exstincta sunt, i.e. 87-6 B.C. The Reign of Terror. Marius Consul for the 7th time. Cf. Vell. Pat. ii. 22 'Nihil illa victoria fuisset crudelius, nisi mox Sullana esset secuta.' 10. lumina civitatis, e.g. the Consuls Cn. Octavius and L. Merula; Q. Catulus, the conqueror (with Marius) in the Cimbric War; the orator M. Antonius; the brothers L. and C. Caesar. 11-13. The victims of the Sullanian proscriptions. Cf. Vell. Pat. ii. 28 'Primus ille (Sulla), et utinam ultimus, exemplum proscriptionis invenit.']

Parallel Passages. Horace, Epodes vii. and xvi. 1-14.

The Sullanian Proscriptions. Sulla was not like Marius swayed by feelings of revenge alone. His main object was the public good, which in his conviction was to be realised by a return to the older institutions of the republic. This he believed could be accomplished only by the utter annihilation of his opponents. The Proscriptions were not however intended to be an encouragement to indiscriminate murder, but rather a barrier against the rage of over-zealous partisans.

B8

Tribunate of M. Livius Drusus, 91 B.C.

Deinde interiectis paucis annis tribunatum iniit M. Livius Drusus, vir nobilissimus, eloquentissimus, sanetissimus, meliore in omnia ingenio animoque quam fortuna usus. Qui cum senatui priscum restituere cuperet decus et indicia ab equitibus ad {5} eum transferre ordinem ... in eis ipsis, quae pro senatu moliebatur, senatum habuit adversarium non intellegentem, si qua de plebis commodis ab eo agerentur, veluti illiciendae multitudinis causa fieri, ut minoribus perceptis maiora permitteret. Denique {10} ea fortuna Drusi fuit, ut malefacta collegarum quamvis optime ab ipso cogitatis senatus probaret magis.... Tum conversus Drusi animus, quando bene incepta male cedebant, ad dandam civitatem Italiae: quod cum moliens revertisset e foro, immensa {15} illa et incondita, quae eum semper comitabatur, cinctus multitudine in area domus suae cultello percussus, qui affixus lateri eius relictus est, intra paucas horas decessit. Sed cum ultimum redderet spiritum, intuens circumstantium macrentiumque {20} frequentiam, effudit vocem convenientissimam conscientiae suae: ecquandone, inquit, propinqui amicique, similem mei civem habebit res publica? Hunc finem clarissimus iuvenis vitae habuit.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS, ii. 13-14.

[Linenotes: 3-4. Drusus. 'Generous and free from all selfishness and meanness, but without political experience, adroitness and knowledge of men, he aspired to a task which surpassed his strength.' —Ihne. 4-6. By the Sempronian Laws of C. Gracchus 123 B.C. exclusive judicial rights had been given to the Equites, as a counterpoise to the power of the Senate. The corruption of the Equites (as Judices) was flagrant, and Drusus proposed to transfer the judicial functions to a mixed body of 300 Senators and 300 Knights, the selected Knights to be included in the now attenuated ranks of the Senate. 14. ad dandam civitatem Italiae. The claims of the Italians to the franchise were just and pressing, but the overbearing pride and self-sufficiency of the Roman citizens proved too strong.]

Parallel Passages. Cic. de Oratore iii. 1, and pro Cluent. 56, 153. Florus, iii.18.

Reference. Ihne, Hist. vol. v. pp. 176-189.

'Drusus was the Mirabeau of the social revolution of Rome, and had his measures been carried Rome might have been spared the most terrible of her civil wars.'

B9

THE SOCIAL OR MARSIC WAR, 91-88 B.C. (1)

A. Cause and Outbreak of the War at Asculum.

Cum ius civitatis, quam viribus auxerant, socii iustissime postularent, quam in spem eos cupidine dominationis Drusus erexerat, postquam ille domestico scelere oppressus est, eadem fax, quae illum cremavit, socios in arma et in expugnationem urbis {5} accendit.... Primum fuit belli consilium ut in Albano monte festo die Latinarum Iulius Caesar et Marcius Philippus consules inter sacra et aras immolarentur. Postquam id nefas proditione discussum est, Asculo furor omnis erupit, in ipsa quidem ludorum {10} frequentia trucidatis qui tum aderant ab urbe legatis. Hoc fuit impii belli sacramentum. Inde iam passim ab omni parte Italiae duce et auctore belli discursante Poppaedio diversa per populos et urbes signa cecinere. {15}

FLORUS, III. xviii. 3-10 (sel.).

[Linenotes: 2. iustissime. 'The final issue of the war confirmed the justice and the wisdom of the reforms planned by the Gracchi and by Livius Drusus.' —Ihne. 7. Latinarum, sc. Feriarum, the solemn festival conducted by the Consuls on the Alban Mount. 10. Asculo. Asculum (Ascoli), chief town of Picenum. The opening and closing scene of the war.]

B. Advice of the Sabellian father to his sons.

'Vivite contenti casulis et collibus istis, O pueri,' Marsus dicebat et Hernicus olim 180 Vestinusque senex, 'panem quaeramus aratro, Qui satis est mensis: laudant hoc numina ruris, Quorum ope et auxilio gratae post munus aristae Contingunt homini veteris fastidia quercus. Nil vetitum fecisse volet, quem non pudet alto 185 Per glaciem perone tegi, qui summovet Euros Pellibus inversis; peregrina ignotaque nobis Ad scelus atque nefas, quaecumque est, purpura ducit.'

JUVENAL, Sat. xiv. 179-188.

[Linenotes: 179. collibus istis, i.e. in the central mountain range of Italy. The Federals chose Corfinium (E.of Lake Fucinus) to be the Italian rallying-point, and the seat of a new State. 180-181. Marsus ... Hernicus ... Vestinus, Sabellian peoples noted for their bravery and simplicity; the backbone of Rome's army. 182. numina ruris, e.g. Ceres, Liber and Priapus. 185-196. alto perone = a high rustic boot of raw hide. 187. pellibus inversis = skins with the hair turned inwards. —Duff.]

B10

THE SOCIAL OR MARSIC WAR, 91-88 B.C. (2)

A. Defeat and Death of Rutilius.

Hanc tibi, 'Quo properas', memorant dixisse 'Rutili? Luce mea Marso consul ab hoste cades.' Exitus accessit verbis, flumenque Toleni Purpureum mixtis sanguine fluxit aquis. 566

OVID, Fasti, vi. 563-566. [Hallam VI. 487-490]

[Linenote: 563. Hanc, sc. Leucothea, goddess of the sea and of harbours. Rutili. Rutilius, consul 90 B.C., defeated and slain at the R. Tolenus (Turano) by the Marsian Vettius Scato.]

B. The Lex Plautia Papiria of 89 B.C.

Data est civitas Silvani lege et Carbonis: si qui {5} foederatis civitatibus ascripti fuissent, si tum, cum lex ferebatur, in Italia domicilium habuissent et si sexaginta diebus apud praetorem essent professi.

CICERO, pro Archia, 4, 7.

[Linenotes: 5. lege, i.e. the Lex Plautia Papiria of the tribines M. Plautius Silvanus and C. Papirius Carbo. The Lex Julia of L. Julius Caesar 90 B.C., granting the civitas to the Latins and to all the other Italian States not in rebellion, had weakened the resistance. The Lex Plautia Papiria 'scattered among the Italian ranks the seeds of discord and dissolution.']

C. Cicero's first and only Campaign.

Memini colloquia et cum acerrimis hostibus et cum gravissime dissidentibus civibus. Cn. Pompeius, {10} consul me praesente, cum essem tiro in eius exercitu, cum P. Vettio Scatone, duce Marsorum, inter bina castra collocutus est.... Quem cum Scato salutasset, 'quem te appellem?' inquit: 'voluntate hospitem, necessitate hostem.' Erat in colloquio aequitas: {15} nullus timor, nulla suberat suspicio; mediocre etiam odium. Non enim, ut eriperent nobis socii civitatem, sed ut in eam reciperentur petebant.

CICERO, Phil. xii. 11, 27.

D. The battle near Asculum, and capture of the city.

Strabo vero Pompeius omnia flammis ferroque populatus non prius finem caedium fecit quam Asculi {20} eversione manibus tot exercituum consulum direptarumque urbium dis litaretur.

FLORUS, III. xviii. 14.

[Linenote: 20. Asculi eversione. The siege was memorable for the desperate patriotism of the besieged under their leader Judacilius, cf. siege of Saguntum.]

Reference. Ihne, Hist. vol. v. pp. 190-220.

B11

L. CORNELIUS SULLA, 138-78 B.C.

His Character and Bearing.

Igitur Sulla gentis patriciae nobilis fuit, familia prope iam exstincta maiorum ignavia, litteris Graecis et Latinis iuxta atque doctissimi eruditus, animo ingenti, cupidus voluptatum sed gloriae cupidior: tamen ab negotiis numquam voluptas remorata; {5} facundus callidus et amicitia facilis, ad simulanda negotia altitudo ingeni incredibilis, multarum rerum ac maxumae pecuniae largitor. Atque illi, felicissumo omnium ante civilem victoriam, numquam super industriam fortuna fuit, multique dubitavere fortior {10} an felicior esset. Nam postea quae fecerit, incertum habeo pudeat an pigeat magis disserere. Igitur Sulla, uti supra dictum est, postquam in Africam atque in castra Mari cum equitatu venit, rudis antea et ignarus belli, solertissumus omnium in paucis {15} tempestatibus factus est. Ad hoc milites benigne appellare, multis rogantibus aliis per se ipse dare beneficia, invitus accipere, sed ea properantius quam aes mutuum reddere, ipse ab nullo repetere, magis id laborare ut illi quam plurimi deberent, ioca atque {20} seria cum humillumis agere, in operibus in agmine atque ad vigilias multus adesse neque interim, quod prava ambitio solet, consulis aut cuiusquam boni famam laedere, tantum modo neque consilio neque manu priorem alium pati, plerosque antevenire. {25}

SALLUST, Jug. 95, 96.

[Linenotes: 1. nobilis, i.e. of a patrician family which had held curule offices. 1-2. familia ... exstincta. The Cornelii were a distinguished gens in early times and included 7 patrician families (e.g. the Lentuli and Scipios). Of these the Sullae were the least known. 2-3. litteris Graecis ... eruditus. Contrast the proud boast of Marius:—'I have learnt no Greek: in the knowledge, however, which is far the most important for the State, Iam a master.' —Sall. Jug.85. 9. ante civilem victoriam, i.e. before 81 B.C. 10-11. fortior an felicior. Sulla assumed the name Felix on the death of the younger Marius 82 B.C. Cf. Plut. Sulla, cap.vi. 11-12. Nam postea ... disserere. Cf. Vell. Patere. II. xvii. 2: 'Sulla vir qui neque ad finem victoriae satis laudari neque post victoriam abunde vituperari potest.' 20. illi more strictly sibi—'a negligence not unfrequent.' —Merivale. 22. multus adesse = frequently visited, multus = saepe.]

For character of Sulla cf. Plut. Sulla, and Mommsen, iv. pp. 139-142: 'One of the most marvellous characters in history.'

B12

MITHRIDATES THE GREAT, 130-63 B.C.

A. His Youth and Early Training.

Huius futuram magnitudinem etiam caelestia ostenta praedixerant. Nam et eo, quo genitus est, anno, et eo, quo regnare primum coepit, stella cometes per utrumque tempus LXX diebus ita luxit, ut caelum omne conflagrare videretur. Puer tutorum insidias {5} passus est, qui eum fero equo impositum equitare iacularique cogebant: qui conatus cum eos fefellissent, supra aetatem regente equum Mithridate, veneno eum appetivere. Veritus deinde, ne inimici, quod veneno non potuerant, ferro peragerent, venandi {10} studium finxit, quo per septem annos neque urbano neque rustico tecto usus est, sed per silvas vagatus, diversis montium regionibus pernoctabat ignaris omnibus, quibus esset locis; adsuetus feras cursu aut fugere aut persequi, cum quibusdam etiam viribus {15} congredi. Quibus rebus et insidias vitavit, et corpus ad omnem virtutis patientiam duravit.

[Linenotes: 1. Huius. Mithridates (Mithras = Persian sun-god) 'second only to Hannibal in inextinguishable, life-long hostility to Rome, as also in military genius.' Ihne. 5. tutorum = (at the hands) of his guardians. Cf. tueor. 17. ad omnem virtutis patientiam = to all manly endurance.]

B. His Preparations for Conquest.

Ad regni deinde administrationem cum accessisset, statim non de regendo, sed de augendo regno cogitavit. Itaque Scythas invictos antea ingenti {20} felicitate perdomuit. Hieme deinde appetente, non in convivio, sed in campo, nec in avocationibus, nec inter sodales, sed inter aequales, aut equo aut cursu aut viribus contendebat. Exercitum quoque suum ad parem laboris patientiam cotidiana exercitatione {25} durabat, atque ita invictus ipse inexpugnabilem exercitum fecerat.

JUSTINUS, xxxvii. 2, 3, 4.

[Linenotes: 19. de augendo regno. He subdued all the coast districts of the Euxine, East, North and West, as far as the Hister (Danube). 22. avocationibus = in diversions (very rare). 24. exercitum. At the outbreak of the War with Rome, 88 B.C., he had collected a motley force of 250,000 foot and 40,000 horse.]

Mithridates. 'With one blow he overthrew the Roman dominion in Asia, carried the war into Europe, united almost the whole Eastern world in an attack on the Republic, and resisted for 25 years the first generals of his time,—a Sulla, aLucullus, and a Pompeius.' —Ihne.

Historic Parallels. Alexander, Hannibal, Peter the Great.

B13

FIRST MITHRIDATIC WAR, 88-84 B.C. (1)?]

The Battle of Chaeronea, 86 B.C. Brilliant Tactics of Sulla.

Archelaus adversus L. Sullam in fronte ad perturbandum hostem falcatas quadrigas locavit, in secunda acie phalangem Macedonicam, in tertia Romanorum more armatos auxiliares, mixtis fugitivis Italicae gentis, quorum pervicaciae plurimum fidebat; {5} levem armaturam in ultimo statuit; in utroque deinde latere equitatum, cuius amplum numerum habebat, circumeundi hostis causa posuit. Contra haec Sulla fossas amplae latitudinis utroque latere duxit et capitibus earum castella communiit: qua {10} ratione, ne circuiretur ab hoste et peditum numero et maxime equitatu superante, consecutus est. Triplicem deinde peditum aciem ordinavit relictis intervallis per quae levem armaturam et equitem, quem in novissimo conlocaverat, cum res exegisset, emitteret. {15} Tum postsignanis qui in secunda acie erant imperavit ut densos numerososque palos firme in terram defigerent, intraque eos appropinquantibus quadrigis antesignanorum aciem recepit: tum demum sublato universorum clamore velites et levem armaturam {20} ingerere tela iussit. Quibus factis quadrigae hostium aut implicitae palis aut exterritae clamore telisque in suos conversae sunt turbaveruntque Macedonum structuram: qua cedente, cum Sulla instaret et Archelaus equitem opposuisset, Romani equites {25} subito emissi averterunt eos consummaverantque victoriam.

FRONTINUS, Strategemata, ii. 3.17.

[Linenotes: 1. Archelaus (and his brother Neoptolemus) 'trained in the traditions and experience of Greek and Macedonian masters.' 2. falcatas quadrigras. Archelaus had 60 of these chariots armed with scythes projecting. Cf. Livy xxxvii.41. 5. pervicaciae = steadfastness (per + vic; cf. vinco). 11-12. qua ratione ... consecutus est. Sulla had about 30,000 men (15,000 Romans only) against 120,000. 23. turbaverunt. 'The war-chariots on this as on other occasions (e.g. at Magnesia) had not only proved a failure, but had actually led to a partial disaster.' —Ihne. Cf. use of war elephants, e.g. at Beneventum 275 B.C. and at Zama 202 B.C. 27. victoriam. It was a great victory, but the results were trifling, partly because Sulla had no fleet, and partly because his political enemies at Rome were bent on crippling him.]

Historic Parallel. The Battle of Magnesia 190 B.C.

B14

FIRST MITHRIDATIC WAR, 88-84 B.C. (2)

A. Capture of Athens and the Piraeus, 86 B.C.

Sulla interim cum Mithridatis praefectis circa Athenas ita dimicavit, ut et Athenas reciperet et plurimo circa multiplices Piraei portus munitiones labore expleto amplius CC milia hostium interficeret nec minus multa caperet.... Nam oppressi (Athenienses) {5} Mithridatis armis homines miserrimae condicionis cum ab inimicis tenerentur, oppugnabantur ab amicis et animos extra moenia, corpora necessitati servientes intra muros habebant.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS, ii. 23.

[Linenotes: 2. ut Athenas reciperet. Sulla reduced the city by starvation. 3. Piraei portus. This was strongly held by Archelaus, and was taken only after a most obstinate defence. 7. cum ... tenerentur. The contemptible adventurer Aristion, with his bodyguard of 2000 men and the bribe of Delos and its treasure, had made himself master of Athens.]

B. Battle of Orchomenus, 85 B.C. Sulla restores the Fight.

L. Sulla, cedentibus iam legionibus exercitui {10} Mithridatico ductu Archelai, stricto gladio in primam aciem procucurrit appellansque milites dixit, si quis quaesisset, ubi imperatorem reliquissent, responderent pugnantem in Boeotia: cuius rei pudore universi eum secuti sunt. {15}

FRONTINUS, Strategemata, ii. 8.12.

[Linenote: 10-15. = 'The great victory at Orchomenus was the turning-point in the War.' —Ihne.]

C. Peace of Dardanus. End of the First Mithridatic War, 84 B.C.

Transgressus deinde in Asiam Sulla parentem ad omnia supplicemque Mithridatem invenit, quem multatum pecunia ac parte navium, Asia omnibusque aliis provinciis, quas armis occupaverat, decedere coegit, captivos recepit, in perfugas noxiosque {20} animadvertit, paternis, id est Ponticis finibus contentum esse iussit.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS, ii. 23.

[Linenote: 16-22. The terms of peace were (i) Restoration of all conquests, (ii) Surrender of 80 ships and of all prisoners, (iii) Indemnity of 3000 talents. Florus says 'Non fregit ea res Ponticos, sed incendit.' Sulla was anxious to secure peace, because his presence was needed at Rome.]

Sulla's Conduct of the War. 'No previous general had shown so great a mastery of the art of war and such care and interest for the welfare of the State, as distinguished from the success of a party.' —Ihne.

B15

SECOND CIVIL WAR, 83-82 B.C. (1)

Battles of Sacriportus and the Colline Gate.

A.

Iam quot apud Sacri cecidere cadavera Portum Aut Collina tulit stratas quot porta catervas, 135 Tum cum, paene caput mundi rerumque potestas Mutavit translata locum, Romanaque Samnis Ultra Caudinas speravit volnera Furcas.

LUCAN, Pharsalia, ii. 134-138.

[Linenotes: 134. apud Sacriportum, near Praeneste, where Sulla totally defeated the Marians, under the younger Marius, 82 B.C. 135. Collina Porta, i.e. N.E. gate of Rome near the Collis Quirinalis. 136. paene, with mutavit, l.137.]

B. At Pontius Telesinus, dux Samnitium, vir animi bellique fortissimus penitusque Romano nomini infestissimus, contractis circiter XL milibus fortissimae pertinacissimaeque in retinendis armis iuventutis Kal. Novembribus ita ad portam Collinam cum Sulla {10} dimicavit, ut ad summum discrimen et eum et rempublicam perduceret, quae non maius periculum adiit Hannibalis intra tertium miliarium conspicata castra, quam eo die, quo circumvolans ordines exercitus sui Telesinus dictitansque adesse Romanis ultimum {15} diem vociferabatur eruendam delendamque urbem, adiciens numquam deluturos raptores Italicae libertatis lupos, nisi silva, in quam refugere solerent, esset excisa. Post primam demum horam noctis et Romana acies respiravit et hostium cessit. Telesinus {20} postera die semianimis repertus est, victoris magis quam morientis vultum praeferens, cuius abscisum caput ferro figi gestarique circa Praeneste Sulla iussit.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS, ii. 27.

[Linenotes: 6. Pontius Telesinus, 'a kinsman in name and temper of the hero of 321 B.C.' 12-14. quae ... castra. 'As Hannibal had tried to relieve the closely pressed Capua by a direct attack on Rome, Pontius Telesinus thought to draw off the besieging army from Praeneste by threatening the Capital.' —Ihne. 20. Romana acies respiravit. Sulla, with the left wing, was driven back by the Samnites to the walls of Rome, but Crassus with the right wing was completely victorious, and to him the final victory was due. 'The issue of the whole war, at least on Italian ground, was decided by the battle of the Colline Gate.' —Ihne.]

B16

SECOND CIVIL WAR, 83-82 B.C. (2)

A. Death of the Younger Marius. Sulla Felix.

Tum demum desperatis rebus suis C. Marius adulescens per cuniculos, qui miro opere fabricati in diversas agrorum partes fuerunt, conatus erumpere, cum foramine e terra emersisset, adispositis in id ipsum interemptus est.... De quo iuvene quid {5} existimaverit Sulla, in promptu est; occiso enim demum eo Felicis nomen adsumpsit, quod quidem usurpasset iustissime, si eundem et vincendi et vivendi finem habuisset.

VELL. PAT. ii. 27.

[Linenotes: 1. Tum, i.e. after Sulla's victory at the Colline Gate, 82 B.C. C. Marius. 'He possessed his father's martial spirit, courage and unyielding perseverance.' —Ihne. 2. per cuniculos = through subterranean passages.]

B. The Sullan Proscriptions.

'Sulla quoque immensis accessit cladibus ultor. 139 Ille quod exiguum restabat sanguinis urbi Hausit: dumque nimis iam putria membra recidit, Excessit medicina modum, nimiumque secuta est, Qua morbi duxere, manus. . . . 143 Tum data libertas odiis, resolutaque legum 145 Frenis ira ruit. Non uni cuncta dabantur, Sed fecit sibi quisque nefas: semel omnia victor Iusserat . . . Hisne Salus rerum, Felix his Sulla vocari, 221 His meruit tumulum medio sibi tollere Campo? Haec rursus patienda manent: hoc ordine belli Ibitur: hic stabit civilibus exitus armis.' . . . . Sic maesta senectus 232 Praeteritique memor flebat metuensque futuri. 233

LUCAN, Pharsalia, ii. 139-148, 221-224.

[Linenotes: 139. Sulla ... ultor = Sulla too in his vengeance came to crown these fearful disasters. —Haskins. 141-143. dumque ... manus. Sulla is compared to a surgeon who in too great haste to remove the mortified flesh cuts away the sound flesh also. 146. non uni ... = all crimes were not committed for one man's sake, i.e. to please Sulla. 223-224. hoc ordine belli ibitur = in this course of war events will move. —H. i.e. History will repeat itself. 232. sic maesta senectus. An old man, who had lived through the Marian and Sullan times, predicts similar horrors of the Civil War between Caesar and Pompey.]

The Proscriptions. 'They were the product not of passion or thirst of blood, but of a cool political calculation, and the conviction of its inevitable necessity.' —Ihne.

B17

A. Sulla appointed Dictator, 81 B.C.

Dictator creatus (cuius honoris usurpatio per annos centum et viginti intermissa; nam proximus post annum quam Hannibal Italia excesserat, uti appareat populum Romanum usum dictatoris haud metu desiderasse tali quo timuisset potestatem) imperio, {5} quo priores ad vindicandum maximis periculis patriam usi erant, eo in immodicae crudelitatis licentiam usus est.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS, ii. 28.

[Linenotes: 1-2. cuius honoris ... intermissa. The last real Dictator (M.Junius Pera) was appointed after Cannae 216 B.C. 5-8. imperio quo ... usus est. 'The Dictator of the first age of the Republic down to the Punic Wars had always a well-defined special duty to discharge in a given time. Sulla's task was of a general nature and all-comprehensive range, and he had the most essential of all monarchical attributes, which is the unlimited duration of office.' —Ihne.]

B. Sulla lays down his Dictatorship, 79 B.C.

Nec minoris impotentiae voces propalam edebat, ut Titus Ampius scribit, 'Nihil esse rempublicam, {10} appellationem modo sine corpore ac specie. Sullam nescisse litteras, qui dictaturam deposuerit.'

SUETONIUS, Divus Iulius,77.

[Linenotes: 9. impotentiae = arrogance (lack of self-restraint). 10. Ampius. Titus Ampius Balbus, aPompeian general. 11-12. Sullam nescisse litteras = (i) S. had not profited by the teachings of History, or (ii) S. was without a liberal education.]

C. Death of Sulla, 78 B.C.

Puteolis enim ardens indignatione, quod Granius, princeps eius coloniae pecuniam a decurionibus ad refectionem Capitolii promissam cunctantius daret, {15} animi concitatione nimia atque immoderato vocis impetu convulso pectore, spiritum cruore ac minis mixtum evomuit, nec senio iam prolapsus, utpote sexagesimum ingrediens annum, sed alita miseriis reipublicae inpotentia furens. Igitur in dubio est {20} Sullane prior an iracundia Sullae sit extincta.

VALERIUS MAXIMUS, ix. 3. 8.

[Linenote: 13. Granius, the chief magistrate of Puteoli, had kept back money destined for the building of the new temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. The old one was destroyed by fire 83 B.C. 'It was Sulla's great desire that his name should be recorded on the front of the new temple, for it was to be the symbol of the Republic, restored as he fondly hoped by him to its pristine purity.' —Ihne.]

B18

THE LEGES CORNELIAE, 81 B.C.

A. Limitation of the Tribune's Right of Veto.

In ista quidem re vehementer Sullam probo, qui tribunis plebis sua lege iniuriae faciendae potestatem ademerit, auxili ferendi reliquerit.

CICERO, de Legibus, iii. 9.22.

[Linenotes: 2. iniuriae faciendae, e.g. by their abuse of the right of veto. 3. auxili ferendi. 'Sulla limited the office of tribune to the original functions for which it was established, the legal protection of the people from the abuse of magisterial power.' —Ihne.]

B. Abolition of Corn Distributions.

Populus Romanus, paullo ante gentium moderator, exutus imperio gloria iure, agitandi inops despectusque ne servilia quidem alimenta relicua habet.

SALLUST, Hist., Orat. M. Lepidi.

[Linenotes: 5. agitandi inops (i.e. vitam sustentandi) = without means of livelihood. 6. servilia alimenta = a slave's allowance of food. Sulla abolished the largesses of corn.]

C. Restoration of Judicial Functions to the Senators.

Iudicandi munus quod C. Gracchus ereptum senatui ad Equites, Sulla ab illis ad Senatum transtulerat.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS, ii. 32.

[Linenote: 8-10. Sulla filled up the gaps in the Senate from the ranks of the Equites, and to the new Senate thus constituted he entrusted the administration of justice.]

D. A Sumptuary Law, Limiting the Expense of the Table.

L. Sulla dictator, cum plerique in patrimoniis amplis eluerentur et familiam pecuniamque suam prandiorum conviviorumque gurgitibus proluissent, legem ad populam tulit, qua cautum est, ut Kalendis, Idibus, Nonis diebusque ludorum et feriis quibusdam {15} sollemnibus sestertios trecenos in cenam insumere ius potestasque esset, ceteris autem diebus omnibus non amplius tricenos.

AULUS GELLIUS, ii. 24, 11.

[Linenote: 12. eluerentur = had squandered (lit. 'washed away').]

Leges Corneliae. 'Sulla's legislation was an attempt to revive what was dead and gone. The time had arrived when the old republican institutions could last no longer. The transformation of the state into a monarchy was inevitable.' —Ihne.

The Sultan Constitution. It had as little endurance as that of Cromwell, and was finally destroyed in 70 B.C. during the consulship of Pompeius and Crassus.

B19

Speech of Lepidus against Sulla, 78 B.C.

Nam praeter satellites commaculatos quis eadem volt? aut quis non omnia mutata praeter victorem? Scilicet milites, quorum sanguine Tarulae Scyrtoque, pessumis servorum, divitiae partae sunt! Itaque maxumam mihi fiduciam parit victor exercitus, cui {5} per tot volnera et labores nihil praeter tyrannum quaesitum est. Nisi forte tribuniciam potestatem evorsum profecti sunt, per arma conditam a maioribus suis, utique iura et iudicia sibimet extorquerent, egregia scilicet mercede, cum relegati in paludes et {10} silvam contumeliam atque invidiam suam, praemia penes paucos intellegerint. Quare igitur tanto agmine atque animis incedit? Quia secundae res mire sunt vitiis obtentui; quibus labefactis, quam formidatus est, tam contemnetur; nisi forte specie {15} concordiae et pacis, quae sceleri et parricidio suo nomina indidit; neque aliter rempublicam et belli finem ait, nisi maneat expulsa agris plebes, praeda civilis acerbissima, ius iudiciumque omnium rerum penes se, quod populi Romani fuit. Quae si vobis {20} pax et concordia intelleguntur, maxuma turbamenta reipublicae atque exitia probate, annuite legibus impositis, accipite otium cum servitio et tradite exemplum posteris ad populum Romanum suimet sanguinis mercede circumveniundum. {25}

SALLUST, Hist, Orat. M. Lepidi.

[Linenotes: 1. Nam, sc. 'His luck is not so great as he supposes, for...' 7-8. tribuniciam ... evorsum, i.e. by the Leges Corneliae 81 B.C. 9. iudicia. Sulla restored the judicial functions to the Senate (from the Equites). 10. relegati in paludes. Sulla established 120,000 soldiers in military colonies in different parts of Italy, but their roaming adventurous life had unfitted them for agricultural pursuits. 13-14. Quia ... obtentui = because prosperity serves in a marvellous manner to cover a man's faults of character. —Holden. For obtentui cf. draw a veil over. 16. parricidio = treason. 18. nisi ... agris, i.e. Sulla's confiscations of estates, especially of those Italians who had fought against him. 24-25. ad p. R. circumveniundum = for oppressing (enslaving) the people of Rome.]

M. Aemillus Lepidus, Consul 78 B.C., a disappointed Optimate, jealous of Sulla's power, but without Sulla's ability. He posed as leader of the democratic party, took up arms against the State, but was defeated by Q. Catulus at the Milvian Bridge, 77 B.C.

B20

WAR WITH SERTORIUS IN SPAIN, 78-72 B.C. (1)

Sertorius and his Fawn.

Huic Sertorio cerva alba eximiae pulchritudinis et vivacissimae celeritatis a Lusitano quodam dono data est. Hanc sibi oblatam divinitus, et instinctam Dianae numine colloqui secum, monereque, et docere, quae utilia factu essent, persuadere omnibus instituit: {5} ac, si quid durius videbatur, quod imperandum militibus foret, acerva sese monitum tum praedicabat. Id cum dixerat, universi, tamquam si deo, libentes parebant. Ea cerva quodam die, cum incursio esset hostium nuntiata, festinatione ac tumultu consternata {10} in fugam se proripuit, atque in palude proxima delituit; et postea requisita perisse credita est. Neque multis diebus post inventam esse cervam Sertorio nuntiatur. Tum, qui nuntiaverat, iussit tacere: ac, ne cui palam diceret, interminatus est: {15} praecepitque, ut eam postero die repente in eum locum, in quo ipse cum amicis esset, immitteret: admissis deinde amicis postridie, visum sibi esse ait in quiete cervam, quae perisset, ad se reverti, et, ut prius consueverat, quod opus esset facto praedicare. {20} Tum servo, quod imperaverat, significat. Cerva emissa in cubiculum Sertorii introrupit; clamor factus et orta admiratio est: eaque hominum barbarorum credulitas Sertorio in magnis rebus magno usui fuit. {25}

GELLIUS, Noctes Atticae, xv.22.

[Linenotes: 1. alba = a dull white as opp. to ater = dull black. Cf. candidus = shining white as opp. to niger = shining black. 3. instinctam = fired, animated. 15. interminatus = he forbade with threats. inter + minor, freq. in Plautus and Terence. 23-25. 'Sertorius did not disdain to turn to account the superstition of the ruder Spanish tribes, and to have his plans of war brought to him as commands of Diana by the white fawn of the goddess.' —M.]

Character of Sertorius. 'He was the only democratic (Marian) officer who knew how to prepare and to conduct war, and the only democratic statesman who opposed the furious doings of his party with statesmanlike energy. His Spanish soldiers called him the new Hannibal, and not merely because he had, like that hero, lost an eye in war. He in reality reminds us of the great Phoenician by his equally cunning and courageous strategy, and by the quickness of his ingenuity in turning to good account his victories and averting the consequences of his defeats.' —M.

B21

WAR WITH SERTORIUS IN SPAIN (2)

A. A New Hannibal.

Sertorius, exsul et profugus feralis illius tabulae, vir summae quidem sed calamitosae virtutis, malis suis maria terrasque permiscuit; et iam Africae, iam Balearibus insulis fortunam expertus usque in Oceanum Fortunatasque insulas penetravit consiliis, {5} tandem Hispaniam armavit. Viro cum viris facile convenit. Nec alias magis apparuit Hispani militis vigor quam Romano duce. Quamquam ille non contentus Hispania ad Mithridatem quoque Ponticosque respexit regemque classe iuvit. Et quid futurum {10} fuit satis tanto hosti, cui uno imperatore resistere res Romana non potuit? Additus Metello Gnaeus Pompeius. Hi copias attrivere viri prope tota Hispania persecuti. Diu et ancipiti semper acie pugnatum est; nec tamen prius bello quam suorum scelere {15} et insidiis extinctus est.

FLORUS, III. xxii. 2-6. A.

[Linenotes: 1.feralis illius tabulae = from that fatal list, i.e. Sulla's list of proscribed Marians 82 B.C. 9-10. ad Mithridatem ... iuvit. In 75 B.C. he concluded a formal treaty of alliance with Mithridates, and sent him the propraetor M. Marius to lead his troops. Cf. alliance between Hannibal and Philip. 14-15. Diu et ancipiti semper acie pugnatum est, e.g. the defeat of Pompey near Lauro. (For a graphic account of the strategy by which the battle was won see Frontinus, Strat. ii.5.)]

B. The Death of Sertorius.

M. Perpenna praetorius e proscriptis, gentis clarioris quam animi, Sertorium inter cenam Oscae interemit Romanisque certam victoriam, partibus suis excidium, sibi turpissimam mortem pessimo {20} auctoravit facinore. Metellus et Pompeius ex Hispaniis triumphaverunt.

VELL. PATERC. ii. 30.

[Linenotes: 17. M. Perpenna praetorius (= ex-praetor), with the remnant of the army of Lepidus (defeated by Pompey in 77 B.C.) joined Sertorius in Spain. After serving under Sertorius for some years, through jealousy, he brought about his leader's assassination. 21. auctoravit = he brought about. More usu. as auctorari = to hire oneself out for some service, e.g. of gladiators.]

The Death of Sertorius. 'So ended one of the greatest men that Rome had hitherto produced—a man who under more fortunate circumstances would perhaps have become the regenerator of his country.' —M.

B22

Character and Early Career of Lucullus.

Magnum ingenium L. Luculli, magnumque optimarum artium studium, tum omnis liberalis et digna homine nobili ab eo percepta doctrina, quibus temporibus florere in foro maxime potuit, caruit omnino rebus urbanis. Ut enim admodum adolescens, {5} cum fratre pari pietate et industria praedito, paternas inimicitias magna cum gloria est persecutus, in Asiam quaestor profectus, ibi permultos annos admirabili quadam laude provinciae praefuit: deinde absens factus aedilis, continuo praetor: licebat {10} enim celerius legis praemio: post in Africam: inde ad consulatum: quem ita gessit ut diligentiam admirarentur omnes, ingenium cognoscerent. Post ad Mithridaticum bellum missus a senatu non modo opinionem vicit omnium quae de virtute eius erat, sed {15} etiam gloriam superiorum. Idque eo fuit mirabilius, quod ab eo laus imperatoria non admodum exspectabatur, qui adolescentiam in forensi opera, quaesturae diuturnum tempus, Murena bellum in Ponto gerente, in Asiae pace consumpserat.... {20} In eodem tanta prudentia fuit in constituendis temperandisque civitatibus, tanta aequitas, ut hodie stet Asia Luculli institutis servandis et quasi vestigiis persequendis.

CICERO, Academica, ii. 1.

[Linenotes: 1-3. ingenium, studium, doctrina, subjects of caruit. 3-5. quibus temporibus ... urbanis = all this was divorced (caruit, lit. was cut off from) from the business of the capital, at the season when he might have had a specially brilliant career in the forum. —J.S. Reid. 6. paternas inimicitias = his father's quarrel. The first appearance of Lucullus in public life was as the accuser of the Augur Servilius who had procured the banishment of his father. 7-9. in Asiam ... praefuit, i.e. as Sulla's quaestor in the first Mithridatic War, 88-84 B.C. and then till 80 B.C. in charge of the province of Asia (= orig. Kingdom of Pergamus, N.W. part of Asia Minor). 11. legis praemio = owing to a privilege conveyed by statute. J.S.R. 13-14. ad Mithridaticum bellum, i.e. the 3rd M. War, which he carried on for eight years (74-66 B.C.) with great success, until superseded by Pompeius in 66 B.C. 19-20. Murena ... gerente. Lic. Murena, anxious for distinction, provoked the disastrous 2nd Mithridatic War, 83-81 B.C., when by the peremptory orders of Sulla the peace was renewed. 23. stet ... servandis = persists in maintaining (lit. stands by) the ordinances of L.—J.S.R.]

Reference. For Character of Lucullus, see Mommsen, vol. iv. pp. 337-8. Cf. also Vell. Paterc. ii.32.

B23

A. A Soldier of Lucullus.

Luculli miles collecta viatica multis Aerumnis, lassus dum noctu stertit, ad assem Perdiderat; post hoc vehemens lupus, et sibi et hosti Iratus pariter, ieiunis dentibus acer, Praesidium regale loco deiecit, ut aiunt, 30 Summe munito et multarum divite rerum. Clarus ob id factum donis ornatur honestis, Accipit et bis dena super sestertia nummum. Forte sub hoc tempus castellum evertere praetor Nescio quod cupiens hortari coepit eundem 35 Verbis, quae timido quoque possent addere mentem: 'I, bone, quo virtus tua te vocat, i pede fausto, Grandia laturus meritorum praemia. Quid stas?' Post haec ille catus, quantumvis rusticus, 'Ibit, Ibit eo quo vis qui zonam perdidit,' inquit. 40

HORACE, Ep. II. ii. 26-40.

[Linenotes: 26. viatica = savings (cf. prize-money). viaticum = originally travelling-money. 28. vehemens lupus = a very wolf in his fury. Cf. Vergil's simile for a forlorn hope 'lupi ceu Raptores.' Wickham. 32. donis honestis = gifts of honour i.e. the corona muralis, the mural crown, such as is worn by the goddess Cybele. 33. nummum (= nummorum) = in hard cash. 39. catus = shrewd, witty, a Sabine word, = acutus. 39-40. Ibit ... quo vis, the original of Juvenal's ad caelum, iusseris, ibit. 40. zonam = purse. The zona here was a broad belt made double or hollow to carry moneyin.]

B. The Wealth of Lucullus.

Chlamydes Lucullus, ut aiunt, 40 Si posset centum scaenae praebere rogatus, 'Qui possum tot?' ait; 'tamen et quaeram, et quot habebo Mittam': post paulo scribit sibi milia quinque Esse domi chlamydum; partem vel tolleret omnes. 44

HORACE, Ep. I. vi. 40-44.

Subject. Horace says 'Iam like Lucullus' soldier—when his pocket was empty he would volunteer for forlorn hopes; when it was full again he would do so no more. It was poverty that made me write verses.' —W.

[Linenotes: 40. Chlamydes. The Chlamys was the light short mantle of the Greeks, here wanted for a pageant on the stage. 44. tolleret. The subj. is the praetor or person giving the show. —W.]

Reference. For the magnificence of his Villas at Tusculum and near Neapolis, see Cicero De Fin. ii. 107, De Leg. iii. 30, Pliny, N. H. ix. 170.

B24

WAR WITH SPARTACUS, 73-71 B.C.

Spartacus and his Gladiators.

Spartacus, Crixus, Oenomaus effracto Lentuli ludo cum triginta aut amplius eiusdem fortunae viris erupere Capua; servisque ad vexillum vocatis cum statim decem amplius milia coissent, homines modo effugisse contenti iam et vindicari volebant. {5} Prima sedes velut rabidis beluis mons Vesuvius placuit. Ibi cum obsiderentur a Clodio Glabro, per fauces cavi montis vitineis delapsi vinculis ad imas eius descendere radices et exitu inviso nihil tale opinantis ducis subito impetu castra rapuerunt. Adfluentibus {10} in diem copiis cum iam esset iustus exercitus, eviminibus pecudumque tegumentis inconditos sibi clipeos et ferro ergastulorum recocto gladios ac tela fecerunt, Indo iam consulares quoque aggressus in Appennino Lentuli exercitum percecidit, apud {15} Mutinam Gai Cassi castra delevit. Tandem enim totis imperii viribus contra mirmillonem consurgunt, pudoremque Romanum Marcus Crassus asseruit: aquo pulsi fugatique hostes in extrema Italiae refugerunt. Ibi circa Bruttium angulum clusi cum {20} fugam in Siciliam pararent neque navigia suppeterent ratesque ex trabibus et dolia connexa virgultis rapidissimo freto frustra experirentur, tandem eruptione facta dignam viris obiere mortem, et quod sub gladiatore duce oportuit, sine missione {25} pugnatum est. Spartacus ipse in primo agmine fortissime dimicans quasi imperator occisus est.

FLORUS, III. xx. 3-14 (sel.).

[Linenotes: 1. Spartacus, by birth a Thracian, who had served among the Thracian auxiliaries in the Roman army, had deserted and become a chief of banditti. He was taken prisoner and sold to a trainer of gladiators. Crixus, Oenomaus, the slave-names of two Celts. 1-2. effracto ludo = broke out of the gladiators' school. 8. vitineis vinculis = by means of ropes made of vine-branches. 9. inviso = unknown, lit. unseen. 13. ergastulorum = from the slaves' work-houses. 17. mirmillonem. The Mirmillones were a class of gladiators usually matched with the Thraces or the retiarii (net-fighters). 18. Marcus Crassus, the Triumvir of 60 B.C. asseruit = maintained. Cf. our assert. 21. in Siciliam, where the slaves had risen in 133 and 104 B.C., and only waited an impulse to break out a third time. 25. sine missione = without quarter. Cf. missio = the discharge from service of soldiers and gladiators.]

B25

THE THIRD MITHRIDATIC WAR, 74-63 B.C. (1)

Lucullus Ponticus.

Quoniam de genere belli dixi, nunc de magnitudine pauca dicam. Atque ut omnes intellegant me L. Lucullo tantum impertire laudis, quantum forti viro et sapienti homini et magno imperatori debeatur, dico eius adventu maximas Mithridatis {5} copias omnibus rebus ornatas atque instructas fuisse urbemque Asiae clarissimam nobisque amicissimam, Cyzicenorum, obsessam esse ab ipso rege maxima multitudine et oppugnatam vehementissime, quam L. Lucullus virtute, assiduitate, consilio summis {10} obsidionis periculis liberavit: ab eodem imperatore classem magnam et ornatam, quae ducibus Sertorianis ad Italiam studio inflammata raperetur, superatam esse atque depressam; magnas hostium praeterea copias multis proeliis esse deletas patefactumque {15} nostris legionibus esse Pontum, qui antea populo Romano ex omni aditu clausus fuisset; Sinopen atque Amisum, quibus in oppidis erant domicilia regis, omnibus rebus ornatas atque refertas, ceterasque urbes Ponti et Cappadociae permultas uno {20} aditu adventuque esse captas; regem spoliatum regno patrio atque avito ad alios se reges atque ad alias gentes supplicem contulisse: atque haec omnia salvis populi Romani sociis atque integris vectigalibus esse gesta. {25}

CICERO, pro Lege Manilia, 20,21.

[Linenotes: 5-6. maximas ... fuisse. M. had 140,000 well-trained men, Roman officers sent by Sertorius, 16,000 cavalry, awar-fleet of 400 ships, and abundance of stores. 7-11. urbemque ... liberavit. The city of Cyzicus stood on the S. side of the island of the same name in the Propontis (Sea of Marmora), close to the shore of Mɏsia, to which it was joined by two bridges. 12-14. classem ... depressam, i.e. probably the Battle of Tenedos 73 B.C., in which Marcus Marius and the ablest of the Roman emigrants met their death, and the whole Aegean fleet of Mithridates was annihilated. 15. multis proeliis, e.g. of Cabira, 72 B.C.; Tigranocerta, 69 B.C. 18. Sinopen. Sinope, on the W. headland of the great bay of which the delta of the R. Halys forms the E. headland, was the birthplace and residence (domicilia) ofM. 22. ad alios reges, e.g. to his son-in-law, Tigranes of Armenia. 23-24. salvis ... vectigalibus, i.e. without ruining the provincial by forced contributions and requisitions.]

Reference. For Siege of Cyzicus, see Mommsen, vol. iv. pp. 326-328; Frontinus, Strat. ii. 13.6.

B26

CN. POMPEIUS MAGNUS, 106-48 B.C.

His Character, and Career to 66 B.C.

Iam vero virtuti Cn. Pompei quae potest oratio par inveniri? Quid est quod quisquam aut illo dignum, aut vobis novum aut cuiquam inauditum possit adferre? Neque enim illae sunt solae virtutes imperatoriae, quae vulgo esistimantur, labor in {5} negotiis, fortitudo in periculis, industria in agendo, celeritas in conficiendo, consilium in providendo, quae tanta sunt in hoc uno, quanta in omnibus reliquis imperatoribus, quos aut vidimus aut audivimus, non fuerunt. Testis est Italia, quam ille ipse {10} victor L. Sulla huius virtute et subsidio confessus est liberatam: testis est Sicilia, quam multis undique cinctam periculis non terrore belli, sed consilii celeritate explicavit: testis est Africa, quae magnis oppressa hostium copiis eorum ipsorum sanguine {15} redundavit: testis est Gallia, per quam legionibus nostris iter in Hispaniam Gallorum internecione patefactum est: testis est Hispania, quae saepissime plurimos hostes ab hoc superatos prostratosque conspexit: testis est iterum et saepius Italia, quae {20} cum servili bello taetro periculosoque premeretur, ab hoc auxilium absente expetivit, quod bellum exspectatione eius attenuatum atque imminutum est, adventu sublatum ac sepultum: testes nunc vero iam omnes orae atque omnes exterae gentes ac nationes. {25}

CICERO, pro Lege Manilia, 29-31.

[Linenotes: 10-12. Testis est Italia ... liberatam. In 83 B.C. Pompeius, aged twenty-four, raised three legions in Picenum, gained several advantages over the Marian generals, and was saluted by Sulla as Imperator. 12-14. testis est Sicilia ... explicavit. In 82 B.C. Pompeius, sent as propraetor to Sicily, quickly took possession of the island for Sulla. 14-16. testis est Africa ... redundavit. In 81 B.C. Pompeius defeated at Utica the Marian Ahenobarbus (allied with Hiarbas of Numidia), and was, though a simple Roman eques, granted a triumph by Sulla and saluted as Magnus. 16-18. testis est Gallia ... patefactum est. In 77 B.C., on his way to Spain as proconsul against Sertorius, he had to cut his way through the Transalpine Gauls, and laid out a new and shorter road over the Cottian Alps. 21. servili bello. On his return from Spain he cut to pieces the scattered remnants of the army of Spartacus. 21-23. ab hoc ... imminutum est. Cic. assumes that the enemy was crippled even by the mere notion of sending for Pompeius.]

References. Plutarch, Pompeius; Vell. Paterc. ii.29.

B27

GAIUS IULIUS CAESAR (1)

The Man Caesar.

Fuisse traditur excelsa statura, colore candido, teretibus membris, ore paulo pleniore, nigris vegetisque oculis, valetudine prospera; nisi quod tempore extremo repente animo linqui atque etiam per somnum exterreri solebat. Armorum et equitandi {5} peritissimus, laboris ultra fidem patiens erat. In agmine nonnunquam equo, saepius pedibus anteibat, capite detecto, seu sol seu imber esset; longissimas vias incredibili celeritate confecit. In obeundis expeditionibus dubium cautior an audentior, {10} exercitum neque per insidiosa itinera duxit umquam nisi perspeculatus locorum situs. ABrundisio Dyrrachium inter oppositas classes hieme transmisit cessantibusque copiis, quas subsequi iusserat, cum ad accersendas frustra saepe misisset, {15} novissime ipse clam noctu parvulum navigium solus obvoluto capite conscendit, neque aut quis esset ante detexit aut gubernatorem cedere adversae tempestati passus est, quam paene obrutus fluctibus. Ne religione quidem ulla a quoquam incepto absterritus {20} umquam vel retardatus est. Cum immolanti aufugisset hostia, profectionem adversus Scipionem et Iubam non distulit. Prolapsus etiam in egressu navis, verso ad melius omine Teneo te, inquit, Africa.

SUETONIUS, Divus Iulius, 45, 57-59 (sel.)

[Linenotes: 4. animo linqui = he was subject to fainting-fits. 8. capite detecto, so Cyrus the Younger and Hannibal. 9. incredibili celeritate, cf. Cic. Ep. ad Att. viii. 9hoc teras (= prodigy) horribili vigilantia, celeritate, diligentia est. Cf. also Napoleon the Great. 14. cessantibusque copiis = and when the troops delayed their coming. Caesar did not then know that Antonius had himself been attacked at Brundisium by a Pompeian fleet, and had shown great skill in baffling it, and forcing it to put to sea again. Once more Antonius set sail with 4 legions and 800 horsemen, and fortunately a strong S. wind carried him safely to the port of Lissus (N.of Dyrrachium). 18-19. gubernatorem ... passus est. 'Quid times? Caesarem vehis!' was Caesar's famous exhortation to the pilot. (Florus.) 21-22. Cum ... hostia: if the victim even tugged at the rope when being led to sacrifice, it was considered unfortunate, and hence a long slack rope was used. Cf. Juv. xii. 5Sed procul extensum petulans (butting) quatit hostia funem. 24. According to Frontinus his words were 'Teneo te, terra mater.']

The man Caesar. 'We may picture him as a man the dignity of whose bodily presence was in due proportion to the greatness of his mental powers.' —Warde Fowler.

B28

GAIUS IULIUS CAESAR (2)

Captured by Pirates. Studies Oratory at Rhodes, 76-75 B.C.

Composita seditione civili Cornelium Dolabellam consularem et triumphalem repetundarum postulavit; absolutoque Rhodum secedere statuit, et ad declinandam invidiam et ut per otium ac requiem Apollonio Moloni clarissimo tunc dicendi magistro {5} operam daret. Huc dum hibernis iam mensibus traicit, circa Pharmacussam insulam a praedonibus captus est, mansitque apud eos, non sine summa indignatione, prope quadraginta dies cum uno medico et cubicularis duobus. Nam comites servosque {10} ceteros initio statim ad expediendas pecunias, quibus redimeretur, dimiserat. Numeratis deinde quinquaginta talentis, expositus in litore non distulit quin e vestigio classe deducta persequeretur abeuntis, ac redactos in potestatem supplicio, quod saepe illis {15} minatus inter iocum fuerat, adficeret. Vastante regiones proximas Mithridate ne desidere in discrimine sociorum videretur, ab Rhodio quo pertenderat, transiit in Asiam, auxiliisque contractis et praefecto regis provincia expulso, nutantes ac dubias civitates {20} retinuit in fide.

SUETONIUS, Divus Iulius, 4.

[Linenotes: 1. Composita seditione civili, i.e. after the abortive attempt of Lepidus to make himself master of the state 77 B.C. C. Dolabellam, impeached for illegal extortion during his government of Macedonia. Repetundarum (sc. pecuniarum), post-Aug. for de repetundis (pecuniis), used i. of money extorted by an official and to be returned, ii. of money extorted as a bribe. Caesar lost his case, but succeeded in showing that Sulla's senatorial judges were corrupt. 4. Apollonio Moloni, the famous rhetorician, whose pupil Cicero was both at Rome and at Rhodes. Very possibly Caesar took this step by the advice of Cicero. 7. circa Pharmacussam insulam: S.W. of Miletus (= mod. Farmako). 8-9. non sine summa indignatione: Plutarch, Caes. gives a picturesque account of his adventures as their prisoner. 10. cubicularis (cubiculum) = lit. chamber-servants. 11. pecunias ... Velleius says that Caesar's ransom was paid out of public funds. 14. e vestigio (= statim) = immediately.]

Caesar at Rhodes. 'Caesar, from what we know of his taste and character, could hardly have found the same delight as Cicero in his studies at Rhodes. He nevertheless became one of the greatest orators of his day, and according to some accounts, second only to Cicero. It is characteristic of Caesar, but unfortunate for us, that he never took any pains to collect and preserve his speeches.' —Warde Fowler.

B29

CICERO PROSECUTES VERRES, 70 B.C.

A Roman Citizen maltreated.

Quid ego de P. Gavio, Consano municipe, dicam, indices? Aut qua vi vocis, qua gravitate verborum, quo dolore animi dicam? Quod crimen eius modi est ut, cum primum ad me delatum est, usurum me illo non putarem; tametsi enim verissimum esse {5} intellegebam, tamen credibile fore non arbitrabar. Quid nunc agam? Rem in medio ponam: quae tantum habet ipsa gravitatis ut neque mea, quae nulla est, neque cuiusquam ad inflammandos vestros animos eloquentia requiratur. {10}